Span Variations in Cold Forming

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This is the published version of a paper published in TECHNOLOGIES.
Citation for the original published paper (version of record):
Jarfors, A E., Castagne, S J., Danno, A., Zhang, X. (2017)

Tool wear and life span variations in cold forming operations and their implications in
microforming.
TECHNOLOGIES, 5(1): 3
https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5010003
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technologies
Review
Tool Wear and Life Span Variations in Cold Forming
Operations and Their Implications in Microforming
Anders E. W. Jarfors 1, *, Sylvie J. Castagne 2 , Atsushi Danno 3 and Xinping Zhang 4
1 School of Engineering, Jönköping University, Jönköping 55111, Sweden
2 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798,
Singapore; SCastagne@ntu.edu.sg
3 Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore 637772, Singapore;
danno@SIMTech.a-star.edu.sg
4 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094,
China; zxp_0517@163.com
* Correspondence: anders.jarfors@ju.se; Tel.: +46-036-101-651
Academic Editor: Manoj Gupta

Received: 4 November 2016; Accepted: 21 December 2016; Published: 27 December 2016
Abstract: The current paper aims to review tooling life span, failure modes and models in cold
microforming processes. As there is nearly no information available on tool-life for microforming
the starting point was conventional cold forming. In cold forming common failures are (1) over
stressing of the tool; (2) abrasive wear; (3) galling or adhesive wear, and (4) fatigue failure. The large
variation in tool life observed in production and how to predict this was reviewed as this is important
to the viability of microforming based on that the tooling cost takes a higher portion of the part cost.
Anisotropic properties of the tool materials affect tool life span and depend on both the as-received
and in-service conditions. It was concluded that preconditioning of the tool surface, and coating
are important to control wear and fatigue. Properly managed, the detrimental effects from surface
particles can be reduced. Under high stress low-cycle fatigue conditions, fatigue failure form internal
microstructures and inclusions are common. To improve abrasive wear resistance larger carbides are
commonly the solution which will have a negative impact on tooling life as these tend to be the root
cause of fatigue failures. This has significant impact on cold microforming.
Keywords: fatigue; wear; life-span; modeling; prediction; tool material; microforming
1. Introduction
In cold forging the common failures are (1) over stressing the tool; (2) abrasive wear failure
leading to flawed tolerances of the workpiece and poor surfaces; (3) galling leading to poor surface
of the workpiece and material buildup and wear of the tool, and (4) fatigue failure. Miniaturization
of components and the requirements for tighter tolerances lead to increasing contact pressures at the
tool-workpiece interfaces in cold forming operations. Consequently, fatigue and wear of forming tools
also increase.
Currently overstressing in tooling can be estimated and reasonably well predicted using
finite element modelling (FEM) including elastic defoemation with deviation of product shape [1],
but life-span prediction for fatigue and wear with high tool hardness, as required in microforming,
is a relatively new area needing further study [2–4].
The scope of current paper is not on the conditions that will result in product shape deviation but
of the wear and fatigue failure of tooling used for cold forming operations with particular focus on
microforming. The lack of work on tool life in microforming made it necessary to start with a review
of tooling lifespan and tooling failure in conventional cold forging processes, models that can account
Technologies 2017, 5, 3; doi:10.3390/technologies5010003 www.mdpi.com/journal/technologies

Technologies 2017, 5, 3 2 of 29
for the stochastic behavior of wear and fatigue phenomena will be discussed. An in-depth review of
the material properties of typical tool steels will then be presented in relation to their microstructures
and their effects on fatigue life and wear behavior. The paper will follow with a presentation of
the characteristics and fatigue behavior of coatings typically used on tooling before
account for the stochastic behavior of wear and fatigue phenomena will be discussed. An in-depth discussing the
implications
review ofofchanges to surfaces
the material in service.
properties of typicalFinally, thewill
tool steels implications of the tribological
then be presented in relation to and
theirfriction
size effects on the tooling
microstructures and surfaces at the
their effects microforming
on fatigue scalebehavior.
life and wear will be discussed.
The paper will follow with a
presentation of the characteristics and fatigue behavior of coatings typically used on tooling before
2. Tool-Life Variations
discussing and Methods
the implications to Predict
of changes Tool-Life
to surfaces in service. Finally, the implications of the tribological
and friction size effects on the tooling surfaces at the microforming scale will be discussed.
2.1. Observed Tooling Life Span Variation and Failure
2. Tool-Life Variations and Methods to Predict Tool-Life
Meidert and Hansel [5] studied the tool lifespan for typical net shape cold forging parts produced
2.1. Observed industry
for the automotive Tooling Life(see
SpanFigure
Variation
1a).andItFailure
should here be noted that the failure mode in this study
was primarily fatigue
Meidert and failure
Hanselor [5]
over load and
studied rarely
the tool wear for
lifespan failure. The
typical netlife spancold
shape observed
forging ranges
parts from
producedup
a few hundred fortothe automotive
90,000 industry
strokes. Some (see Figure
cases of 1a).
shortIt should here
tool life canbe most
noted that
likelythebefailure mode with
associated
in thisand
wrong setup study was primarily
common fatigue
factory type failure or overbut
mistakes, loadthis
andwould
rarely wear
stillfailure.
renderThe life span observed
a lifetime variation close
ranges from a few hundred up to 90,000 strokes. Some cases of short tool life can most likely be
to a factor eight to explain. This variation must be better understood in order to make microforming a
associated with wrong setup and common factory type mistakes, but this would still render a lifetime
viable process.
variation close to a factor eight to explain. This variation must be better understood in order to make
Tabe [6] illustrated
microforming qualitatively
a viable process. the causes of tool failure as a function of tool hardness as shown
in Figure 1b.TabeIt is[6]suggested based on this
illustrated qualitatively figureofthat
the causes maximum
tool failure tool life
as a function is not
of tool givenasby
hardness maximum
shown
in Figure 1b. It is suggested based on this figure that maximum tool
hardness but that there is an optimum hardness. It is, however, important to bear in mind that life is not given by maximum
as formedhardness
parts but
arethat there smaller
getting is an optimum
and morehardness. It is, however,
complicated, theimportant
necessary to bear
localinpressures
mind that asincrease
formed parts are getting smaller and more complicated, the necessary local pressures increase
necessitating harder tools. In this context, failure by fatigue will be increasingly important to manage.
necessitating harder tools. In this context, failure by fatigue will be increasingly important to manage.
Fatigue failure has a has
Fatigue failure strong stochastic
a strong stochasticnature
naturewhich willbebediscussed
which will discussedmore more in detail
in detail below. below.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Tool life, (a) data of life spans of individual tool inserts over time illustrating the large
Figure 1. Tool life, (a) data of life spans of individual tool inserts over time illustrating the large
variation observed under industrial practice conditions, after ref. [5]; (b) schematic relation between
variationtoll
observed
hardness under industrial
and reasons practice
for failure conditions,
in tooling after ref. [5]; (b) schematic relation between
after ref. [6].
toll hardness and reasons for failure in tooling after ref. [6].
Broeckmann [7,8] studied the microstructure of tool steel and its resulting properties.
Broeckmann [7] concluded that as the tool material was made harder the influence of the rolling or
Broeckmann [7,8] studied the microstructure of tool steel and its resulting properties. Broeckmann [7]
forging process was becoming greater showing up directional properties in the transverse and
concluded that as the
longitudinal tool material
directions, as shownwas made2.harder
in Figure This wasthe
dueinfluence of the rolling
to the elongation or forging process
of the microstructural
was becoming
features. As the tool material is being cut at the tool manufacturer the original orientation is directions,
greater showing up directional properties in the transverse and longitudinal not
as shown in Figure
always 2. This
kept under was due
full control to the
making thiselongation
an inherent of the microstructural
source for variation of thefeatures.
fatigue life.As
Thethe tool
materialsame type of
is being cutvariation between
at the tool transverse and
manufacturer longitudinal
the directions was
original orientation is observed
not alwaysfor toughness,
kept under full
which influences fatigue crack growth rate, for AISI 01, D2, D3 ASP 2023 and Vanadis10 [9]. Modeling
control making this an inherent source for variation of the fatigue life. The same type of variation
attempts to address the relation between phase arrangements and toughness have also been
between transverse and longitudinal directions was observed for toughness, which influences fatigue
crack growth rate, for AISI 01, D2, D3 ASP 2023 and Vanadis10 [9]. Modeling attempts to address the
relation between phase arrangements and toughness have also been presented [10]. It was suggested
that local variations in carbide concentration in tool steel should result in a layered structure causing
presented [10]. It was suggested that local variations in carbide concentration in tool steel should result
stress concentrations in the material between layer of high carbide concentration and low carbide
in a layered structure causing stress concentrations in the material between layer of high carbide
concentration and not and
concentration justlow
around the
carbide particles themselves
concentration [11]. This
and not just around stronglythemselves
the particles suggests[11].
thatThis
for hard tool,
the tool cavity orientation
strongly relative
suggests that for hardtotool,
rolling and
the tool forging
cavity direction
orientation becomes
relative to rollingimportant. In microforming
and forging direction
becomes
tool pressures areimportant.
high with In microforming
significant tool pressures
stress are high with
concentration at significant stress concentration
sharp features. The ability at to model
sharp features. The ability to model tool life thus becomes increasingly critical, as tool cost is a
tool life thus becomes increasingly critical, as tool cost is a decisive factor. A correct relation between
decisive factor. A correct relation between applied stress and material anisotropy is thus also
applied stress and more
becoming material anisotropy
and more important.is thus also becoming more and more important.
Figure 2. Material anisotropy effects in fatigue-life for tool steels after ref. [7].
Figure 2. Material anisotropy effects in fatigue-life for tool steels after ref. [7].
Lange and coworkers [3] studied cold forward extrusion and identified for this type of die that
the failure modes were predominantly of three different kinds, namely overloading, fatigue failure
Lange and coworkers [3] studied cold forward extrusion and identified for this type of die that
and wear, as illustrated in Figure 3. They concluded that reducing the stress level in cold-forging
the failure tooling
modesbywere predominantly
modifications of three
in the design has thedifferent kinds, namely
greatest influence overloading,
on tool life. Reducing thefatigue
influencefailure and
wear, as illustrated in Figure
of radial machining and3. They concluded
polishing marks through that reducing
jet-honing the stress level
and shot-peening insome
has also cold-forging
positive tooling
effect on in
by modifications diethe
life design
whereas has
increasing the overall
the greatest hardness on
influence of the insert
tool life.reduces the toughness
Reducing of the of radial
the influence
tool material and, thus, accelerates crack growth. However, increasing the hardness of the surface by
machining and polishing marks through jet-honing and shot-peening has also some positive effect on
CVD coating can have a positive effect on die-life.
die life whereas In increasing thetooverall
order to be able reduce hardness of the
stress at critical insert
points reduces
in the die andthe toughness
to ensure ofmaterial
that the the tool material
and, thus, response
accelerates crack growth.
is appropriate it is thusHowever,
necessary toincreasing the hardness
address the following of the surface by CVD coating
points [3]:
can have a• positive effect
Accurately on die-life.
analyze and measure the tool material properties
In order to
•
be able to reduce stress at critical points in the die and to ensure that the material
This involves understanding of the influence of the carbides and inclusions and their type,
response is appropriate
size and size distribution as welltoasaddress
it is thus necessary clusteringthe following
effects points
to evaluate [3]: on:
their effects
• Fatigue crack initiation and growth
• • analyze
Accurately and measure the tool material properties
Wear rates
• Accurately understand the influence of the surface conditions in the tooling
• This involves understanding of the influence of the carbides and inclusions and their type,
• Influence of the residual and overlay stresses in the tool surface
size •andInfluence
size distribution as well as clustering effects to evaluate their effects on:
of surface finishing
• •
Fatigue crack initiation
Influence and
of the type growth
of coating and coating properties
• Wear
• rates
Understand how to characterize properties
• • understand
Accurately Capability to the
characterize
influencethe of
base material
the surfaceto be able to describe
conditions in thethetooling
nature and origin of
the tool material property variation
• Capability to characterize the surface coating properties
• Influence of the residual and overlay stresses in the tool surface
• Influence of surface finishing
• Influence of the type of coating and coating properties
• Understand how to characterize properties
• Capability to characterize the base material to be able to describe the nature and origin of the
tool material property variation
• Capability to characterize the surface coating properties
Figure3.3.Typical
Figure Typicallocations
locations of
offailures
failuresand
andtheir location
their in ain
location diea after ref. [3].
die after ref. [3].
2.2. Principal Schemes for Simulation and Prediction of Tool Life

2.2. Principal Schemes for Simulation and Prediction of Tool Life
Figure
One of the major 3. Typicalthat
damages locations of failures
limit the die lifeand their location
in cold forging in
is alow-cycle
die after ref. [3]. The various
fatigue.
One of the
methods major damages
for material that limitand
testing, modeling thefinite
die life in cold
element (FE)forging is low-cycle
simulations to analysefatigue. Theof
the effects various
2.2.
methods Principal
for Schemes
material for
testing,Simulation
modeling and Prediction
and finiteof Tool Life
element (FE) simulations to analyse
different modifications in the process and tool design on die life optimization through FE simulation the effects of
different modifications
were summarized indamages
the process
by GroenBaek
One of the major and
and limit
that Henseltool design
the[4].
die life inon dieforging
cold life optimization through
is low-cycle fatigue. FEvarious
The simulation
were methods
summarized by GroenBaek
for material and Hensel
testing, modeling and [4].
finite element (FE) simulations to analyse the effects of
2.2.1. Fatigue
different Life Modeling
modifications in the process and tool design on die life optimization through FE simulation
2.2.1.were
Fatigue Life Modeling
Strategies developed to tackle and
summarized by GroenBaek Hensel
tool-life [4]. depend on the nature of failure in the tools. For
naturally
high volume developed
Strategies cold forged parts with tool-life
to tackle net shaped complex depend
naturally surfaces, on
fatigue
the cracking
nature ofof failure
the active
intool
the tools.
2.2.1. Fatigue
elements is the Life Modeling
leading cause of failure. The most efficient route to do this analysis is to use FEM to active
For high volume cold forged parts with net shaped complex surfaces, fatigue cracking of the
assess Strategies
[2]: developed to tackle tool-life naturally depend on the nature of failure in the tools. For
tool elements is the leading cause of failure. The most efficient route to do this analysis is to use FEM
• high
to assess
volume cold forged parts with net shaped complex surfaces, fatigue cracking of the active tool
Tool
[2]: load (contact stress distribution at the die-workpiece interface).
• elements
FE basedis the leading cause
elastic-plastic of failure.analysis
stress-strain The most efficient route
(stress-strain to do
curve this analysis is to use FEM to
required).
• assess
• Tool [2]: (contact
Aload
minimum stress
of two distribution
loading cycles to at the die-workpiece
determine interface).
the cyclic response of the tooling at the highest
• loaded
• based
FE zone.
elastic-plastic
Tool load stress-strain
(contact stress analysis
distribution (stress-straininterface).
at the die-workpiece curve required).
• • minimum
A FE based
Knoerr elastic-plastic
of
et al. two
[2] loading
developedstress-strain
cycles to analysis
determine
the analysis (stress-strain
flow chart the cyclic
shown curve
in required).
response
Figure of theused
4. They tooling at strain
a local the highest
• A minimum
loaded zone.
approach of two loading cycles to determine the cyclic response of the tooling at the
for damage analysis (strain life data for active tool component required) and coupled this highest
to dataloaded zone.
for strain amplitude and cycles to crack initiation (see Figure 5).
Knoerr et al. [2] developed the analysis flow chart shown in Figure 4. They used a local strain
Knoerr et al. [2] developed the analysis flow chart shown in Figure 4. They used a local strain
approach for damage analysis (strain life data for active tool component required) and coupled this to
approach for damage analysis (strain life data for active tool component required) and coupled this
data for strain
to data for amplitude and cycles
strain amplitude to crack
and cycles initiation
to crack (see
initiation Figure
(see Figure5).
5).
Figure 4. A suggested flow chart for the assessment of fatigue life of tools after ref. [1].
In Figure
In Figure 55 it
it is
is clear
clear that
that aa reasonable
reasonable first
first estimate
estimate of
of the
the tool
tool life
life is
is possible
possible by
by the
the local
local strain
strain
approach using the total strain amplitude approach. The analysis does however not
approach using the total strain amplitude approach. The analysis does however not reproduce nor reproduce nor
predicts the
predicts the experimental
experimentalvariations.
variations.Alternative
Alternativeapproaches
approachesare
arethus necessary
thus necessarytoto
reach quantification
reach of
quantification
the variations in die life.
of the variations in die life.
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Illustration
Illustration of
of the
the outcome
outcome of
of aa local
local strain
strain approach for damage
approach for damage analysis
analysis ref.
ref. [2].
[2].
The nature of the data required depends greatly on the damage considered. Falk et al. [12] assessed
The nature of the data required depends greatly on the damage considered. Falk et al. [12]
the applicability of different damage models to the case of closed die forging with the critical,
assessed the applicability of different damage models to the case of closed die forging with the critical,
process-dependent load is quantified and localized by using a FEM.
process-dependent load is quantified and localized by using a FEM.
The simplest approach is the Wöhler approach or usage of the SN curve where the tooling life
The simplest approach is the Wöhler approach or usage of the SN curve where the tooling life
span, N , is
span, N f ,f is
k
σa k
N f = ND  σ a  (1)
N f = N D  D 
σ (1)
where σa is the stress amplitude. This model can be applied
σ
D  when the values for fatigue limit σ , its
D
corresponding lifetime N
where σa is the stress amplitude.
D and the k
This model can be applied when the values for fatigue limit σD,are
constant are known. The drawback is that the required values its
only available for specific relations between the maximum and minimum stress
corresponding lifetime ND and the constant k are known. The drawback is that the required values[12].
are only The available
next approach is the local
for specific strain
relations approach
between thewith the total
maximum strain
and ε a,tot asstress
minimum measure
[12].and ε a,el , ε a,pl
as theThe elastic and plastic strain components, respectively. The influence of the mean stress
next approach is the local strain approach with the total strain ε a,tot as measureσand m is taken
ε a ,el ,
into consideration by the modification of the elastic component as in Equation (3)
ε a , pl as the elastic and plastic strain components, respectively. The influence of the mean stress σm is
ε a,totof=the
taken into consideration by the modification + ε a,plcomponent as in Equation (3)
ε a,elelastic (2)
σε0fa− =ε a ,el +b ε a , pl0 c

,totσm (2)
ε a,tot = 2N f + ε f 2N f (3)
E
σ ′f − σ m
where σ0f is the fatigue strengthε and
a ,tot =m
σ is the mean f ( +Eε is
2 Nstress, ) b
′f the (
2 N Young’s
f )
c
modulus, ε0f is the strain
(3)
E
level in the fatigue cycle and b and c are constants. The effect of multi-axial stress conditions can
be
where σ ′f iswith
correlated uni-axial
the fatigue fatigue
strength and σ under
data
m is the mean stress, E is the Young’s modulus, ε ′f is the
the assumption that all stress components oscillate
synchronous with proportional mean values amplitudes. This results in a more flexible approach
strain level in the fatigue cycle and b and c are constants. The effect of multi-axial stress conditions
which was also chosen by e Knoerr et al. [2].
can be correlated with uni-axial fatigue data under the assumption that all stress components oscillate
A more generic approach is the local energy approach [12]. The local energy approach can take
synchronous with proportional mean values amplitudes. This results in a more flexible approach
the work performed at the surface and ∆W e++ multi-axial stress conditions into account. The total
which was also chosen by e Knoerr et al. [2].
work, can be expressed as
A more generic approach is the local 1energy

∆σ approach ∆ε
[12]. The local energy approach can take
∆W e++ = e + + + ∆σm + εm (4)
the work performed at the surface and ΔW 2 2 multi-axial2stress conditions into account. The total
work, can be expressed as
where ∆σm , ε m is the mean stress and strain respectively and ∆σ, ∆ε is the stress and strain amplitudes,
respectively. The effective work of damage, ∆W e f f , is then expressed as
∆W e f f = ∆W e++ − ∆W h (5)
The hydrostatic component ∆W h can be expressed as
3
∆W h = ∆σ ∆ε (6)
8 h h
The life span of the tool can in this context be expressed as
!1/2b
1 2E∆W e f f
Nf = (7)
2 σ0f2
Falk et al. [12] concluded that the local energy approach in the study yielded the most satisfactory
results as a prediction tool even though other techniques have lately successfully been used for
engineering solutions of die life extension [13–15].
2.2.2. Wear Life Modeling

Lee et al. [16] studied a bolt forming operation and included strain hardening in their model. Tool
wear and fatigue is not uniquely determined by the tool and the process set-up but there is a strong
component of the workpiece properties in the balance between the wear failure and the fatigue failure.
As fatigue model they chose the simplest model, the Wöhler type of model, and included workpiece
strain hardening expressed as
!1/b
2.5K + Kn − 1482.8
N f = 0.5 0 (8)
σ f + 499.3 − 2.3K − 0.9Kn
Here N f is the fatigue life of the tool, K is the strength coefficient of the work piece, n is the
strain hardening coefficient of the work piece, σ0f is the fatigue strength coefficient for the tool material
(33,415 MPa) and b is the fatigue strength exponent (−0.289) for the tool material [16]. The work-piece
properties are collated in Table 1.
Table 1. Tool life calculated from integrated model for fatigue life, Nf , wear life NW , using strength
coefficient, K and strain hardening exponent n [16].
Materials K (MPa) n DA (nm) DB (nm) N W (103 ) N f (103 ) Tool Life (103 )

AISI4135 900 0.084 0.754 0.957 418 133 133
AISI1045 896 0.109 1.060 0.749 377 102 102
AISI51B20 813 0.129 1.470 0.625 272 321 272
AISI10B22 779 0.104 0.799 0.666 500 557 500
To model the wear they chose the commonly used Archard’s model where the incremental volume
worn off, dV is expressed as
dPdL
dV = k (9)
H
Here k is an experimental wear coefficient influenced by variation in wear conditions (temperature,
environment, i.e., presence of chlorine amount of debris and so forth), P is pressure and H is hardness
of the worn part. For the current planar sliding geometry, it is possible to rewrite this as
dV = dZdA (10)
(temperature, environment, i.e., presence of chlorine amount of debris and so forth), P is pressure and H
is hardness of the worn part. For the current planar sliding geometry, it is possible to rewrite this as
dV = dZdA (10)
Technologies 2017, 5, 3 dP = σ n dA 7(11)
of 29
dL = udt (12)
dP = σn dA (11)
where Z is height, A is area, σn is normal pressure at the surface, u is sliding speed and t is time,
dL = udt (12)
resulting in that
where Z is height, A is area, σn is normal pressure at the surface, u is sliding speed and t is time,
σ udt
resulting in that dZ = k n (13)
dZ = k
H
σn udt
(13)
H
The height change resulting from wear, Z, of the bolt forming tool then becomes
The height change resulting from wear, Z, of the bolt forming tool then becomes
t
k
k  n
Z (r , t ) = Zt σ ( r , t )u ( r , t ) dt (14)
Z (r, t) = H 0 σn (r, t)u(r, t)dt (14)
H
0
The outcome from the simulations was subjected to regression analysis of the total wear depth
D, for two
The criticalfrom
outcome areas, A simulations
the and B located
wasatsubjected
the bottom and top ofanalysis
to regression the die.ofFor
thethese
total two
wearlocations,
depth D,
wear
for depth
two canareas,
critical be expressed
A and B as function
located of the
at the workand
bottom piece
topproperties
of the die.as
For these two locations, wear
(
depth can be expressed as function
-5 of the work
−4 piece properties
2 as
D A = K 1.30 × 10 − 4.14 × 10 n + 0.00478n − 0.0232n 3 + 0.04034

) (15)
and DA = K 1.30 × 10−5 − 4.14 × 10−4 n + 0.00478n2 − 0.0232n3 + 0.04034 (15)
and   n   n  
D B = K 50.35exp − n  + 3.49 ×10−−77 exp − n  + 6.73 ×10−−88 (16)
DB = K 50.35 exp − 0.0040 + 3.49 × 10 exp − 0.17 + 6.73 × 10 
0.0040 
(16)
0.17
These
These depths
depths are
are being
being worn
worn for
for each
each blow and it was assumed that the wear rate did
did not
not change.
change.
The
The wear
weartolerance
tolerancewas
wasset
settoto0.4
0.4mm.
mm. The correlation
The between
correlation work-piece
between properties
work-piece andand
properties tooltool
life are
life
shown in Figure 6a,b.
are shown in Figure 6a,b.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.
Figure 6. (a)
(a) Simulated
Simulated fatigue
fatigue and
and wear
wear life
life versus
versus strength
strength coefficient
coefficient after
after ref.
ref. [16];
[16]; (b)
(b) Simulated
Simulated
fatigue life for four different strengths coefficients versus the strain hardening coefficient after ref. after
fatigue life for four different strengths coefficients versus the strain hardening coefficient [16].
ref. [16].line
Dashed Dashed line =limit,
= fatigue fatigue limit,
solid linesolid linelimit.
= wear = wear limit.
Lee et al. [16] concluded that for the same strength coefficient of the material the high-cycle fatigue
tool life decreased as the strain hardening coefficient increased. However, the total amount of wear
had local maximum and minimum values depending on the strain hardening exponent.
Lee et al. [16] concluded that for the same strength coefficient of the material the high-cycle
fatigue tool life decreased as the strain hardening coefficient increased. However, the total amount of
wear had local maximum and minimum values depending on the strain hardening exponent.
Technologies In the5,coupling
2017, 3 between the wear depth and the fatigue life, surface conditions are important as8 of 29
surface roughness influences the fatigue crack initiation. Wan et al. [17] developed and implemented
a model for wear depth and surface roughness change in abrasive media finishing which has
In the coupling between the wear depth and the fatigue life, surface conditions are important as
relevance to cold forming and abrasive tool wear. The basic assumption is that the wear has two
surface roughnesson
components, influences the fatigue
that is steady wear crack initiation.toWan
corresponding the etArchard
al. [17] wear
developed and aimplemented
type and transient a
model for wear depth
component. Wan and
et al.surface roughness
[17] derived change in abrasive
a phenomenological modelmedia finishingthe
describing which
localhas relevance
change in to
cold forming and abrasive tool wear. The basic assumption is thatRthe wear has two components, on that
dimension, h, as well as the local change in surface roughness, a , as
is steady wear corresponding to the Archard wear type and a transient component. Wan et al. [17]
Wear depth h
derived a phenomenological model describing the local change in dimension, h, as well as the local
change in surface roughness, R a , as   k p vt   k p vt
h = a (R 0 − R ∞ ) 1 − exp  − T a   + S a (17)
Wear depth h   H   H
k p a vt k p a vt
h = a( R0 − R∞ ) 1 − exp − T + S (17)
Surface roughness Ra H H
Surface roughness R a
 kkTTppaavtvt
R = ( R − R
a ( R0 0− R ∞
Ra = )
∞ ) exp −−
exp  + R∞ (18)
 HH  + R∞ (18)
where k T , k S k
are material constants, H is material hardness, p contact pressure, v sliding/surrounding
where T , kS are material constants, H is materiala hardness, pa contact pressure, v
media speed (here the analogy would be work piece sliding speed, t duration of sliding action), R0 is
sliding/surrounding media speed (here the analogy would be work piece sliding speed, t duration
initial surface roughness and R∞ is final attainable roughness.
of sliding action), R0 is initial surface roughness and R∞ is final attainable roughness.
3. Material Properties and Implications for Tool-Life
3. Material Properties and Implications for Tool-Life
It is clear from the above examples of modeling that there are several important areas to cover in
It is clear from
order to understand thethe above examples
uncertainties of modeling
of tool life. that there are several important areas to cover
in orderrelations
Simple to understand the uncertainties
as stress strain curvesofaretool life.
the starting point for mechanical behavior. Stress strain
Simple
relationships forrelations
commonastool stress strain
steels arecurves
shown areinthe starting
Figure 7a point fordifferent
[2]. For mechanical behavior.
materials Stress
there is also
strain relationships for common tool steels are shown in Figure 7a [2]. For different materials there is
a unique relation between tensile strength and hardness which is illustrated for common cold-work
also a unique relation between tensile strength and hardness which is illustrated for common cold-
steels in Figure 7b. For fatigue there also exists a generic relationship for the material itself, for different
work steels in Figure 7b. For fatigue there also exists a generic relationship for the material itself, for
load cases as illustrated in Figure 7c and for wear, Figure 7d [18].
different load cases as illustrated in Figure 7c and for wear, Figure 7d [18].
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Cont.
(c) (d)
Figure 7. (a) Stress strain curves for M2 and D2 tool steels after ref. [2]; (b) Relation between hardness
Figure 7. (a) Stress strain curves for M2 and D2 tool steels after ref. [2]; (b) Relation between
and tensile strength for SKD11 (D2-type) and QCM8 (low Cr version of SKD11) after ref. [18];
hardness and tensile strength for SKD11 (D2-type) and QCM8 (low Cr version of SKD11) after ref. [18];
(c) Relation between stress amplitude and fatigue life for tension-compression fatigue for SKD11
(c) Relation between stress amplitude and fatigue life for tension-compression fatigue for SKD11
(D2-type) and QCM8 (low Cr version of SKD11) after ref. [18]; (d) Relation between sliding speed and
(D2-type) and QCM8
wear rate for (low
SKD11 Cr version
(D2-type) of SKD11)
and QCM8 (low after ref. [18];
Cr version (d) Relation
of SKD11) between
after ref. [18]. sliding speed and
wear rate for SKD11 (D2-type) and QCM8 (low Cr version of SKD11) after ref. [18].
These tests are made under constant and well controlled conditions. In the real tool these conditions
are not as well
These tests defined
are made andconstant
under are changing during
and well use. There
controlled also exists
conditions. In the a spread
real toolinthese
properties
conditions
depending on where the material fails that is both batch and supplier dependent. In an effort to
are not as well defined and are changing during use. There also exists a spread in properties depending
capture the probabilistic nature of the tool life Engel [19] concluded that the task to predict tool life
on where the material fails that is both batch and supplier dependent. In an effort to capture the
depends on 2 steps
probabilistic nature of the tool life Engel [19] concluded that the task to predict tool life depends
•
on 2 stepsthe determination of load and
• the determination of strength
• the determination
The key reasonsoffor
load
the and
scatter on the other hand is due to
• the determination of strength
• the deviations from perfect geometry;
• uncertainties
The key in the
reasons for thestate of pre-stressing
scatter on the other ofhand
the die;
is due to
• uncertainties in the strength of the material; and
• • deviations
the deviations from
fromideal surface
perfect conditions.
geometry;
• uncertainties
Engel [19]in the statethat
concluded of pre-stressing
if the tool life isofconsidered
the die; as the decisive criterion for tool layout and
• for improving in
uncertainties thethe
toolstrength
performance,
of thethe stochastic
material; characteristics of this parameter have to be taken
and
• into account. Due to the tool life being
deviations from ideal surface conditions. influenced by deterministic as well as stochastic factors, the
most promising way to solve the problem is the combination of mechanical/numerical and statistical
analysis.
Engel Theconcluded
[19] approach capable
that iftothe
derive
toola life
tool-life with a well-defined
is considered level of confidence
as the decisive criterionisfor
comprised
tool layout
of the following steps:
and for improving the tool performance, the stochastic characteristics of this parameter have to
•
be taken into account.
quantifying Due to the
the stochastic tool life being
characteristics influenced
of primary by deterministic
parameters as well
of influence, such as for as stochastic
example
factors, thethemost
surface topography;
promising way to solve the problem is the combination of mechanical/numerical and
•
statistical establishing
analysis. The theapproach
distribution functions
capable of loadaand
to derive strength;
tool-life withand
a well-defined level of confidence is
• determining the failure
comprised of the following steps: probability and its evolution.
• 3.1. Material Fatigue

quantifying Resistance
the stochastic characteristics of primary parameters of influence, such as for example
the surface topography;
The material fatigue resistance is clearly influenced by the type and nature of the particles inside
• the material and
establishing the as well as particle
distribution near the
functions of surface
load and of strength;
the specimen
andand by the surface roughness.
• The individual influence and the origin of failure
determining the failure probability and its evolution. strongly depend on the stress level and number of
cycles to failure as different crack initiation mechanisms are active. Sohar et al. [20] clearly illustrated
3.1. Material Fatigue Resistance
The material fatigue resistance is clearly influenced by the type and nature of the particles inside
the material and as well as particle near the surface of the specimen and by the surface roughness.
The individual influence and the origin of failure strongly depend on the stress level and number
of cycles to failure as different crack initiation mechanisms are active. Sohar et al. [20] clearly
illustrated this experimentally for a high chromium alloyed tool steel in giga-cycle fatigue, Figure 8a,b.
The influence of carbides and the effect of surface residual stresses, resulting from heat treatment
or from the grinding/polishing
Technologies 2016, 5, 3 process, on the fatigue behavior in the giga-cycle regime 10 of 29 of ingot
metallurgy produced D2 type tool steel were examined. Residual stresses were found to be responsible
this experimentally for a high chromium alloyed tool steel in giga-cycle fatigue, Figure 8a,b. The
for the occurrence of two failure
this experimentally modes:
for a high chromium alloyed tool steel in giga-cycle fatigue, Figure 8a,b. The
influence of carbides and the effect of surface residual stresses, resulting from heat treatment or from
influence of carbides and
the grinding/polishing the effect
process, of surface
on the fatigueresidual
behaviorstresses, resulting from
in the giga-cycle regimeheat
of treatment or from
ingot metallurgy
• Internal
produced D2 type tool steel were examined. Residual stresses were found to be responsible forcycle
the cracks initiating
grinding/polishing at large
process, on primary
the fatigue carbides
behavior (clusters)
in the were
giga-cycle observed
regime of in
ingot the the number
metallurgy
rangeproduced
of 10 5 –10
D2 6type tool
cycles, steel were examined. Residual stresses were found to be responsible for the
occurrence of two failure modes:
occurrence of two failure modes:
• In the• giga-cycle regime
Internal cracks near-surface
initiating crackscarbides
at large primary originating at primary
(clusters) were observedcarbides caused
in the cycle failure, which
number
was •related
Internal cracks
105–10initiating
toofdegradation
range 6 cycles, at large primary carbides (clusters) were observed in the cycle number
of the RS by cyclic loading.
• range
In theofgiga-cycle
105–106 cycles,regime near-surface cracks originating at primary carbides caused failure,
• In the giga-cycle
which was relatedregime near-surface
to degradation of the cracks originating
RS by cyclic loading.at primary carbides caused failure,
In the absence of considerable residual stresses predominantly near-surface crack initiation was
which was related to degradation of the RS by cyclic loading.
obtained. It should here beofnoted
In the absence that with
considerable a high
residual compressive
stresses predominantly residual stress
near-surface internal
crack carbides
initiation was are the
In the It
obtained. absence
should of considerable
here be noted thatresidual
with stresses predominantly
a high compressive near-surface
residual stress crack initiation
internal carbides was
are
main cause for fatigue crack initiation. Understanding the particle size distribution of carbides and
obtained.
the main Itcause
should for here
fatiguebe crack
notedinitiation.
that with Understanding
a high compressive residual
the particle stress
size internal of
distribution carbides
carbidesare
inclusionstheare thus clearly important.
andmain cause are
inclusions for thus
fatigue crack
clearly initiation. Understanding the particle size distribution of carbides
important.
and inclusions are thus clearly important.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Fatigue(a) (b) K110L-I with high
data of ultrasonic high cycle fatigue tests for AISI D2 steel
(a) Fatigue
Figure 8. surface data
residual stressofafter
ultrasonic high
ref. [20]; (b) cycle
Fatigue datafatigue testshigh
of ultrasonic forcycle
AISI D2 steel
fatigue K110L-I
tests for AISI D2 with high
Figure 8. (a) Fatigue data of ultrasonic high cycle fatigue tests for AISI D2 steel K110L-I with high
surface residual stress
steel K110L-I after
with lowref. [20];
surface (b) Fatigue
residual data
stress after ref.of ultrasonic high cycle fatigue tests for AISI D2
[20].
surface residual stress after ref. [20]; (b) Fatigue data of ultrasonic high cycle fatigue tests for AISI D2
steel K110L-I with low
steel K110L-I withsurface residual
low surface residual stress
stressafter
after ref. [20].
ref. [20].
Elvira et al. [21] showed a similar relation for ultra clean high strength steel where inclusions
and microstructural features are the dominant reasons for crack initiation at lower number of cycles,
Elvira et al. [21] showed a similar relation for ultra clean high strength steel where inclusions
ElviraFigure
et al.9.[21] showed a similar relation for ultra clean high strength steel where inclusions and
and microstructural features are the dominant reasons for crack initiation at lower number of cycles,
microstructural
Figure 9.features are the dominant reasons for crack initiation at lower number of cycles, Figure 9.
Figure 9. Reasons for fatigue failures in 100Cr6 high strength steel (martensitic bearing steel) after ref. [21].
The importance of surface inclusions was further emphasized by Meurling et al. [22]. They
clearly illustrate in Figure 10 the importance of microstructual features such as carbides and carbide
clusters at the higher strength. The relation between the carbides and inclusions are consistent with
the findings of Haglund
The importance [23] that
of surface concluded
inclusions wasthat:
further emphasized by Meurling et al. [22]. They clearly
illustrate in Figure 10 the importance of microstructual features such as carbides and carbide clusters at
• The highest stress concentrations are found in the transversal direction of MnS inclusions while
the higher strength. The relation between the carbides and inclusions are consistent with the findings
in the parallel direction the stress concentration is very small.
of Haglund [23] that concluded that:
• The second highest stress concentration is found around Ti(C,N) particles due to the square
• geometry.
The highest stress concentrations are found in the transversal direction of MnS inclusions while in
• Al2O
the 3 particles generated the smallest stress concentrations due to the rounded geometry.
parallel direction the stress concentration is very small.
• The
Fromsecond
this ithighest stress concentration
is understood is found
that in addition to around Ti(C,N) particles
understanding due to
the particle thedistribution,
size square geometry.
it is
also
• important to understand the probability of finding particles in the surface of
Al2 O3 particles generated the smallest stress concentrations due to the rounded geometry. the part or
specimen.
Figure 10.
Figure Failure reasons
10. Failure reasons at
at various
various experimental
experimental strengths
strengths after
after ref.
ref. [23].
[23].
Sohar this
From et al.it[20] used a simple
is understood thatapproach
in addition to assess the number the
to understanding of surface
particlecarbides in a materials
size distribution, it is
based
also on the total
important number of carbides,
to understand N Car ,Vof, in
the probability the test
finding specimen
particles aresurface of the part or specimen.
in the
Sohar et al. [20] used a simple approach to assess the number of surface carbides in a materials
N ,V = n Car V test (19)
based on the total number of carbides, NCar,VCar, in the test specimen are
nCar , as particle density and,NCar,V π d l as specimen volume (cylindrical shape of

2
With, V test == nCar V,test (19)
4
diameter d and length l) 2
With, nCar , as particle density and, Vtest = πd4 l , as specimen volume (cylindrical shape of diameter
d andThe l). of carbides in a thin surface volume, Vsl , can be expressed as
number
length
The number of carbides in a thin surface volume, Vsl , can be expressed as
N Car , sl = n Car V sl (20)
with NCar,sl = nCar Vsl (20)
with Vsl = πdldsl (21)

Vsl = πdldsl (21)
where dsl is the thickness of the surface layer.
where dsl is the thickness of the surface layer.
For the carbides it is reasonable to assume that
For the carbides it is reasonable to assume that
dsl = dCar (22)
dsl = dCar (22)
The ratio between the bulk and surface carbides can thus be expressed as
The ratio between the bulk and surface carbides can thus be expressed as
NCar,sl d
= 4 Car (23)
NCar,V d
N Car , sl d
= 4 Car (23)
N Car ,V d
The probabilistic nature of the fatigue failure is intimately connected to the variation in life-span
as illustrated in Figures
The probabilistic 8–10.ofMeurling
nature the fatigueetfailure
al. [22,24] developed
is intimately a modeltobased
connected on the particle
the variation size
in life-span
distribution,
as illustrated divided
in Figuresinto inclusions
8–10. Meurlingandetcarbides,
al. [22,24]indeveloped
the material to estimate
a model basedthe
on life
the span of tool
particle size
materials. The
distribution, starting
divided intopoint is the and
inclusions size carbides,
distributions
in theof material
carbidestoand inclusion
estimate the as
lifeillustrated
span of tool in
Figure 11a,b.
materials. The starting point is the size distributions of carbides and inclusion as illustrated in Figure 11a,b.
(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a)
Figure 11. Carbide size
(a) Carbide size distribution
distribution for
for various
various tool
tool steels
steels [22]; (b) Inclusion
[22]; (b) Inclusion size
size distribution
distribution for
for
various tool steels
various tool steels [22].
[22].
In fatigue the stress amplitude, Δ σ , is important and the interior particles of a diameter, D,
In fatigue the stress amplitude, ∆σ, is important and the interior particles of a diameter, D, acts as
acts as stress intensifiers as
stress intensifiers as r
D
∆K = 2∆σ D (24)
ΔK II = 2Δσ 2π (24)
2π
The stress intensity factors, ∆K I , found for inclusions and carbides are shown in Figure 12a,b.
√
The stress intensity factors, ΔKI , found for inclusions and carbides are shown in Figure 12a,b.
Clearly the intensity factors mainly lie in a band above 4 MPa m, which is the common threshold
stress intensity for crack propagation, ∆Kth , in the steels studied excluding the M2 high-speed steel.
Clearly the intensity
To account factors
for the mainly
stochastic lie inofa fatigue
nature band above 4 MPa√m,
analysis, which
Meurling et al.is[22]
the developed
common threshold
a model
based intensity
stress on the following propagation, ΔK th , in the steels studied excluding the M2 high-speed steel.
for crackassumptions:
To account for the stochastic nature of fatigue analysis, Meurling et al. [22] developed a model
• Around all particles such as carbides and inclusions, cracks exist of equal size as the
based on the following assumptions:
initiating particles.
•• Around all particles
An existing crack willsuch
not as carbides
grow unlessand
theinclusions, cracksatexist
stress intensity ofexceeds
its tip equal size
theas the initiating
stress intensity
particles.
threshold for crack propagation.
•• An existing
If there crack
exists willone
at least notcrack
growfor
unless thethe
which stress intensity
stress at its
intensity tip exceeds
exceeds the stress
the threshold intensity
value, then
threshold for crack propagation.
this crack will eventually propagate to cause failure of the specimen.
• If there exists at least one crack for which the stress intensity exceeds the threshold value, then
this crack will eventually propagate to cause failure of the specimen.
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Stress intensity factors (a) found in three types of tool steels based on carbides after ref. [22];
Figure 12. Stress intensity factors (a) found in three types of tool steels based on carbides after ref. [22];
(b) found in four different tool steels at different conditions, based on inclusions after ref. [22].
(b) found in four different tool steels at different conditions, based on inclusions after ref. [22].
Based on the different inclusion and carbide populations, a defect is defined as critical if its stress
Based on the
intensity different
exceeds inclusion
the threshold forand
propagation, ΔKth , calculated
carbide populations, a defect is defined
through Equationas critical
(25), if its
coupled stress
with
intensity exceeds the threshold for propagation, ∆Kth , calculated through Equation (25), coupled with
data asdata as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 12a,b.
12a,b. TheThe critical
critical size
size ofof particle,DD,c as
a aparticle, , asshown
shown is
is therefore
therefore
c
 ΔK th2 2
D
Dc (∆σ(Δ ) = 2 ∆K
c ) = 2π π  th
σ  (25)
2 Δσ 
2∆σ (25)
Meurling et al. [22] then used Poisson statistics to derive an expression for the number of critical
Meurling et al. [22] then used Poisson statistics to derive an expression for the number of critical
defects,defects, λc ,material
λc , in the in the material
as as
r 2Zk 3Z∞ ∞ − 1
π V DD
 D− 12 e2 −e kD dDdV
λ c = f2k3 − kD
dDdV (26)
λc = f (26)
π c
V Dc
Here f and k are constants defining the particle distribution. Knowing this expected number, the
probability
Here f and kof finding
are a certain
constants number
defining theofparticle
critical defects, n, in a volume
distribution. of material
Knowing can be expressed
this expected number, the
using Poisson’s statistics
probability of finding a certain number of critical defects, n, in a volume of material can be expressed
using Poisson’s statistics λn
p (n )λ=n e − λ , n = 1, 2 ,3,... (27)
p(n) = n
−!λ
e , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (27)
n!
According to assumptions above one can then say that the specimen will fracture if n equals any
According to assumptions above one can then say that the specimen will fracture if n equals any
number except zero, i.e., at least one critical defect exists. Therefore the fracture probability equals
numberone
except
minuszero, i.e., at leastthat
the probability onethere
critical defect
exists no (nexists. Therefore
= 0) critical defects:the fracture probability equals one
minus the probability that there exists no (n = 0) critical defects:
Pf = 1 − e −λc (28)
Pf = 1 − e−λc (28)
For the total failure probability due to the combination of all considered defects the following
expression is used:
For the total failure probability due to the combination of all considered defects the following
expression is used: −  λc ,i
tot
Pf = 1 −−e∑ λi c ,i (29)
Pftot = 1 − e i (29)
where i is the sum over all types of considered defects which for Meurling et al. [22] case would be
where i is the sum over all types of considered defects which for Meurling tot et al. [22] case would be
pcarbides and inclusions. The critical criterion for fracture was then set to Pf tot= 0.5 . Meurling et al. [22]
pcarbides and inclusions. The critical criterion for fracture was then set to Pf = 0.5. Meurling et al. [22]
did not change the carbide distributions for surface carbides but rather only increased the fatigue life
limit with the measured residual stress to obtain the measurement for surface particle induced failure.
The work by Meurling et al. [22] concluded that fatigue crack initiation occurred at inclusions situated
did not change

Technologies
the
2017, 5,the
carbide distributions for surface carbides but rather only increased the fatigue
3 carbide distributions for surface carbides but rather only increased the fatigue
life
14 of 29
did not change life
inside the specimens in most cases. Carbides Carbides also
also caused
caused failures
failures in
in the
the M2
M2 grade
grade and
and in the carbide
inside the specimens in most cases. Carbides also caused failures in the M2 grade and in the carbide
rich grade VANADIS10.
VANADIS10. For longitudinally ground PM23, specimens also fractured from carbides in
rich grade VANADIS10. For longitudinally ground PM23, specimens also fractured from carbides in
the surface.
the surface. ForFor shot
shot peened
peened PM23,
PM23, specimens
specimens also
also fractured
fractured from deformed turning-grooves
turning-grooves from
the surface. For shot peened PM23, specimens also fractured from deformed turning-grooves from
the hard turning. The
the The threshold
threshold for for propagation
propagation of of cracks
cracks at inclusions
inclusions and carbides
carbides controlled
controlled the
the hard turning. The threshold for propagation of cracks at inclusions and carbides controlled the
fatigue strength.
fatigue strength.
Important to the fatigue
fatigue life
life is
is not
notonly
onlythe
theinclusions
inclusionsand andcarbides
carbidesbut butalso
alsothe
theway
waythe thesurface
surface is
Important to the fatigue life is not only the inclusions and carbides but also the way the surface
prepared.
is prepared. Fredriksson
Fredriksson et al.
et [25] investigated
al. [25] the effect
investigated on EDM
the effect conditions
on EDM on the on
conditions formation of surface
the formation of
is prepared. Fredriksson et al. [25] investigated the effect on EDM conditions on the formation of
defects and
surface defectsfatigue
and life of the
fatigue lifecold
of thework steel
cold CALMAX
work (CLX) and
steel CALMAX the high
(CLX) speed
and the steel
high ASP2023
speed steel
surface defects and fatigue life of the cold work steel CALMAX (CLX) and the high speed steel
(A23). The(A23).
ASP2023 fatigueThetested conditions
fatigue were EDM3
tested conditions (Rough
were EDM3 EDM (1.3 J)EDM
(Rough and fine EDM
(1.3 J) and(0.09 J)), and
fine EDM EDM6
(0.09 J)),
ASP2023 (A23). The fatigue tested conditions were EDM3 (Rough EDM (1.3 J) and fine EDM (0.09 J)),
(Rough EDM (0.24 J) medium EDM (0.09 J) and fine EDM (0.022 J)). The
and EDM6 (Rough EDM (0.24 J) medium EDM (0.09 J) and fine EDM (0.022 J)). The resulting crack resulting crack depths and
and EDM6 (Rough EDM (0.24 J) medium EDM (0.09 J) and fine EDM (0.022 J)). The resulting crack
pore diameters
depths and poreare found inare
diameters Figure
found 13a,b. The corresponding
in Figure fatigue life isfatigue
13a,b. The corresponding shownlife in Figure
is shown 14a,b.
in
depths and pore diameters are found in Figure 13a,b. The corresponding fatigue life is shown in
Fredriksson
Figure 14a,b.et al. [25] concluded
Fredriksson et al. [25]that the conditions
concluded that theinconditions
EDM6 resultedin EDM6 in smaller
resultedcrack depthcrack
in smaller than
Figure 14a,b. Fredriksson et al. [25] concluded that the conditions in EDM6 resulted in smaller crack
EDM3than
depth significantly improving improving
EDM3 significantly the fatigue thelifefatigue
of the specimen. From Figure
life of the specimen. From14a,b it is also
Figure 14a,bclear that
it is also
depth than EDM3 significantly improving the fatigue life of the specimen. From Figure 14a,b it is also
as thethat
clear fatigue
as thelife was improved
fatigue the scatter
life was improved theofscatter
the data increased.
of the The factThe
data increased. thatfact
the that
scatter
the is greater
scatter is
clear that as the fatigue life was improved the scatter of the data increased. The fact that the scatter is
for ASP2023
greater than forthan
for ASP2023 CALMAX
for CALMAX is due toisadue
moreto complex interaction
a more complex betweenbetween
interaction the carbides and the
the carbides
greater for ASP2023 than for CALMAX is due to a more complex interaction between the carbides
crackthe
and propagation.
crack propagation.
and the crack propagation.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Defect
Defect distribution
distribution under
under different
different conditions
conditions for
for CALMAX(CLX)
CALMAX(CLX) and
and ASP2023(A23),
ASP2023(A23),
Figure 13. Defect distribution under different conditions for CALMAX(CLX) and ASP2023(A23),
(a)
(a) cracks,
cracks, after
after ref.
ref. [25]
[25] (b)
(b) pores
pores after
after ref.
ref. [25].
[25].
(a) cracks, after ref. [25] (b) pores after ref. [25].
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Fatigue life under different conditions (a) CALMAX(CLX) (b)ASP2023(A23) [25].
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Fatigue
Fatigue life
life under
under different
different conditions
conditions (a)
(a) CALMAX(CLX)
CALMAX(CLX) (b)ASP2023(A23)
(b)ASP2023(A23) [25].
[25].
Methods like laser shot peening have been applied success fully to change the failure mode from
crack propagation to flaking, commonly viewed as a less aggressive form of failure. One reason was
the generation of very deep compressive stress [26]. Similarly, surface texturing using lasers have been
tested with life extensions up to 170% though improved lubricant retention [27,28].
3.2. Material Wear

In the models discussed above it is clearly understood that the wear behavior of the material is as
important as the fatigue behavior. Wear is a subject well studied and the current work will focus on
particular issues related to tool materials. In the modeling attempts above the key factor reducing the
wear is hardness. The material dependent proportionality constants used in the modeling are strongly
influenced by the nature of the contact which in turn is more or less dictated by the microstructure and
how it wears. It is important to understand the type and nature of the microstructural constituents
as these determine the hardness. Bergman et al. [29] studied the tribological properties of powder
metallurgy (PM) based high speed steels (see Table 2). In these tool steels primary carbides are even
harder than the matrix (1500–2800 Hv)
Table 2. Nominal chemical composition of the investigated materials (wt. %) and Microstructural
constituents as vol % and average size of primary carbides (µm), and bulk hardness for the high speed
steels (HSS’s) after ref. [29].
Material C Si Mn Cr Mo W V Nb
ASP2014 0.75 0.3 0.4 4.1 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0
E M200 0.87 0.3 0.4 4.2 5.0 6.4 2.0 -
M2 PM 0.87 0.3 0.4 4.2 5.0 6.4 2.0 -
ASP 23 CC 1.28 0.3 0.4 4.2 5.0 6.4 3.0 -
ASP 2023 1.28 0.3 0.4 4.2 5.0 6.4 3.0 -
ASP 2053 2.50 0.3 0.4 4.2 3.0 4.0 8.0 -
Material vol % Primary Carbide Primary Carbide Diameter Bulk Hardness
M6 C MC M6 C + MC MC M6 C + MC (HVm)
ASP2014 a 2.9 ± 0.4 2.9 ± 0.4 0.5 1.7 83O ± 10
a
E M2 8.1 ± 3.2 8.1 ± 3.2 3.2 b 10.5 b 930 ± 20
M2 PM 10.0 ± 1.5 a 10.0 ± 1.5 2.5 5.4 900 ± 20
ASP 23 CC 6.3 ± 0.7 6.2 ± 0.8 12.5 ± 1.5 3.1 4.2 900 ± 10
ASP 2023 8.1 ± O.6 5.4 ± 0.9 13.5 ± 1.5 1.2 2.2 930 ± 20
ASP 2053 - 16.2 ± 1.4 16.2 ± 1.4 2.4 2.7 920 ± 20
Conventionally produced a Only small amounts (<1%), not possible to separate MC from M6 carbides with
reasonable accuracy. b The primary carbides form streaks. c Different process parameters for ASP 23 CC give a
different carbide size compared to ASP 2023, despite identical chemical compositions.
The main conclusions were that abrasives significantly harder than primary carbides of the HSS,
hardness and ductility of the matrix controlled the wear rates. A consequence is then that two and
three body abrasion rates showed only small variations with volume fraction, size and type of primary
carbides. Abrasive or erosive particles are commonly softer than the primary carbides of the HSS.
A positive effect on both abrasive and erosive wear resistance with an increased volume fraction of
primary carbides will thus also be obtained [29]. For direct contact between the tool and work piece a
high two-body abrasion resistance is associated with large and hard primary carbides in combination
with comparably soft abrasives [29,30].
In general it is not so common to use uncoated dies. As the work piece size is reduced the contact
pressure goes up and the risk of galling and other effects increase, in particular under microforming
conditions. The influence of surface coatings and coating properties are equally important to the tool
performance and are reviewed in the next section.
4. Surface Coatings
4. Surface Coatings
Dohda et al. [31] investigated the application of hard coatings to die in dry ironing process by
Dohda
strip-ironing et tribo-simulator.
type al. [31] investigated the found
They application
that of hard coatings
DLC-Si coatingtohas
diethe
in dry ironing
lowest process
friction by
coefficient
strip-ironing type tribo-simulator. They found that DLC-Si coating has the lowest
and is characterized by the absence of galling when compared to CrN coating (see Figure 15a,b). friction coefficient
and is characterized
Takaishi by the absence
et al. [32] investigated of effect
the gallingofwhen compared
surface to CrN
coatings coating (see
of blanking Figure
die in a bid15a,b).
to reduce the
Takaishi et al. [32] investigated the effect of surface coatings of blanking die in a bid to reduce
use of lubrication. Their study adopted the use of diamond-like coatings, electric discharge coatings,
the use of lubrication. Their study adopted the use of diamond-like coatings, electric discharge
the cryogenic process heat treatment and a combination of surface coatings and the cryogenic process.
coatings, the cryogenic process heat treatment and a combination of surface coatings and the
They cryogenic
could show (TableThey
process. 3) that surface
could show coatings
(Table 3) and
that heat treatment
surface coatings of
andblanking die were
heat treatment effective and
of blanking
efficient for extension of blanking die life under no lubrication condition.
die were effective and efficient for extension of blanking die life under no lubrication condition.
(a) (b)
Figure 15. Variation of friction coefficient during ironing with a 20% reduction (a) SPFC590, after
Figure 15. Variation of friction coefficient during ironing with a 20% reduction (a) SPFC590,
ref. [31]; (b) C2801-1/4H after ref. [31].
after ref. [31]; (b) C2801-1/4H after ref. [31].
Table 3. Experimental results from ref. [32].
Table 3. Experimental results from ref. [32].
Die Surface Thickness of Number Extension Damage of Die
Heat Treatment
Material Coating Coating (mm) of Blankings Ratio Material
Die Surface Thickness of Heat Number of Extension Damage of Die
SKD11
Material None
Coating -
Coating (mm) Normal
Treatment 7000
Blankings 1.00 Ratio None: worn out
Material
SKD11 None - Normal+CP 3 14500 2.07 None: worn out
SKD11
SKD11 PVDNone Me-DLC 0.002- Normal
Normal 23519 7000 3.36 1.00 Small chipping
None: worn out
SKD11 None - Normal+CP 3 14500 2.07 None: worn out
SKD11 PVD DLC 0.002 Normal 18413 2.63 None: worn out
SKD11 PVD Me-DLC 0.002 Normal 23519 3.36 Small chipping
SKD11 PVD DLC 0.002 Normal 13000 1.86 Peeling
SKD11 PVD DLC 0.002 Normal 18413 2.63 None: worn out
SKD11
SKD11 PVD DLC
PVD DLC 0.005
0.002 Normal
Normal 12000 13000 1.71 1.86 PeelingPeeling
SKD11
SKD11 ED-coat
PVD DLC 0.01
0.005 Normal
Normal 27500 12000 3.93 1.71 None: wornPeeling
out
SKD11
SKD11 ED-coat 0.010.01 Normal+CP 3
Normal 20100 27500 2.87 3.93 Chipping
None: worn out
SKD11
SKD11 ED-coat 0.010.01 Normal+CP 3
Normal+CP 3 21900 20100 3.13 2.87 Chipping
Chipping
SKD11
SKD11 ED-coat 0.010.01 Normal+CP
Normal+CP 3 3 62000 21900 8.86 3.13 None: worn Chipping
out
SKD11
HSS 1 ED-coat
None - 0.01 Normal+CP 3 24000 62000
Normal 3.43 8.86 None: None: worn out
worn out
1 None
HSSHSS 1 ED-coat 0.01 - Normal
Normal 8300 24000 1.19 3.43 None: worn out
Chipping
1 2 ED-coat 0.01 Normal
HSS VS ED-coat 0.01 Normal 15667 8300 2.24 1.19 Chipping
Chipping
2
VS 1 ED-coat 0.01 Normal 15667 2 2.24 Chipping
HSS: High Speed Steel made through powder metallurgical processing. VS: Chromium-Vanadium-
1 HSS: High Speed Steel made through powder metallurgical 2 VS: Chromium-Vanadium-
Molybdenum powder metallurgical processed tool steel. 3 CP:processing.
Cryogenic Processing.
3
Molybdenum powder metallurgical processed tool steel. CP: Cryogenic Processing.
Tsuchiya et al. [33] conducted metal forming type tribological tests to evaluate the adhesion
performance of DLC-Si coating. It was found that the coating had the lowest friction coefficient under
Tsuchiya et al. [33] conducted metal forming type tribological tests to evaluate the adhesion
a wide range sliding velocities, good anti-galling properties in backward extrusion test and good
performance of DLC-Si
anti-flaking coating.
properties It was foundand
with preprocessing thatasthe coating
a coating onhad
hardthe lowest
based friction coefficient under
metal.
a wide range sliding velocities, good anti-galling properties in backward extrusion test andtogood
Takatsuji et al. [34] investigated the validity of using high-strength/low friction die coatings
anti-flaking
improveproperties with preprocessing
the tribological characteristics and as a coating
observed on hard
in micro basedItmetal.
extrusion. was shown that the
Takatsuji et al. [34] produces
DLC-Spatter-coating investigated thefriction
the least validityandofhas
using high-strength/low
the lowest extrusion force. friction die coatings
to improve the tribological characteristics observed in micro extrusion. It was shown that the
DLC-Spatter-coating produces the least friction and has the lowest extrusion force.
4.1. Characterization of General Coatings

Thin, hard coatings deposited by physical vapour deposition (PVD), chemical vapour deposition
(CVD) or plasma-assisted
plasma-assisted chemical
chemicalvapour
vapourdeposition
deposition(PACVD)
(PACVD)ontoontotools ofof
tools complex
complex geometry
geometryto
improve
to improvethethetribological performance
tribological for for
performance engineering applications
engineering are increasingly
applications widespread.
are increasingly The
widespread.
performance
The performance of the coatings
of the usually
coatings depends
usually dependsonon
the
thefundamental
fundamentalproperties
propertiesofofthe
the coating
coating and
substrate used. Characteristics of the coatings mechanical properties such as hardness are usually the
developed. The characterization of the intrinsic mechanical
focus when new tribological coatings are developed.
coatings and
properties of coatings and composite
composite isis also
also important.
important. Figure 16 illustrates
illustrates the general
general correlation
correlation
between coating deposition parameters and the tribological response response of
of the
the generated
generated coating.
coating. Some
techniques frequently
techniques frequently used
used for the characterization
characterization of a few fundamental coating properties are listed
Table 44 [35,36].
in Table [35,36].
Figure 16. General

Figure 16. General relation between coating
relation between coating deposition
deposition and
and tribological
tribological response
response [36].
[36].
Table 4. Important
Table 4. Important coating
coating properties
properties and
and methods
methods used
used to
to obtain
obtain them
them [35,36].
[35,36].
Coating property Characterization method(s)

Coating Property Characterization
Energy dispersive Method(s)
X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
Chemical composition Energy dispersive
Auger electron X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
spectroscopy
Chemical composition Auger
Glow electron spectroscopy
discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES)
Glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Microstructure and morphology Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Microstructure and morphology Light optical microscopy
Light optical microscopy
X-ray
X-raydiffraction
diffraction
X-ray
X-raydiffraction
diffraction
Residual
Residual stress state
stress state
Substrate
Substratedeflection
deflection
Ball grinding
Ball grinding
Thickness
Thickness Cross-sectionmicroscopy
Cross-section microscopy
X-ray
X-ray fluorescence
fluorescence
Extrapolation
Extrapolation
Hardness
Hardness Theoreticalmodels
Theoretical models
Adhesion to
Adhesion to substrate
substrate Scratch
Scratch adhesiontesting
adhesion testing
Indentation
Indentation
Microscopyobservation
Microscopy observation of
of crack
crackpatterns
patterns
Fracture toughness
Fracture toughness Acoustic emission
Acoustic emission
Bend test in Scanning electron microscope
Bend test in Scanning electron microscope
Vibrating reed
Vibrating
Membrane reed
Membrane
Bulge
Young’s modulus Beam bending
Bulge
Young’s modulus Indentation
Beam bending
Uniaxial tensile
Indentation
Tensile
Uniaxial tensile
Tensile
The use of low temperature TiN coating (deposited at 200 ◦ C) gives a significant increase in
hardness and residual compressive stress as compared to standard temperature coating (deposited at
400 ◦ C) according to a study done by Gahlin et al. [37]. They found that this increase is attributed to
a sharp decrease in grain size and an increased micro strain for the low temperature coating due to
poor quality of the low temperature TiN coating in combination with the high residual compressive
stress. They found that for low temperature CrN coatings, the mechanical and tribological properties
were comparable to that of coatings deposited at the standard temperature although a change in
microstructure from a two phase structure to a single phase structure in the low temperature coating
was observed.
4.1.1. Young’s Modulus

PVD coatings often have a Young’s modulus that surpasses that of the substrate and the coefficient
of thermal expansion is usually lower, which affects the stress state in both the coating and the interface
when a change in surface temperature occurs. The degree of the compressive residual stress will be
reduced with a raise in the temperature which may lead to crack formation and coating delamination.
A test method proposed by Hollman et al., which makes use of tensile testing, can be used to determine
the Young’s modulus of most PVD coatings in favor of the more traditional techniques such as the
bulge test, the vibrating reed and membrane test [36,38].
Coatings Young’s modulus can be obtained from:
k − Es ts w − k g
Ec = (30)
tc w
where,
k = slope of the tensile curve

k g = slope of force vs. strain for the two strain gauges (determined separately)
Es = Young’s modulus of the substrate material (known)
w = width of the coated sample
tc = thickness of the coating
ts = thickness of the substrate
Example of values for TiN can be seen in Table 5.
Table 5. Example of Young’s modulus data for TiN [38].
Coating Material Substrate Thickness (µm) Young’s Modulus (Coating) (GPa)

TiN 75 425 ± 80
48 400 ± 60
23 380 ± 30
NbN 75 350 ± 50
4.1.2. Residual Stress

Coatings are often used to improve mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and sometimes
magnetic properties of surfaces. Interfacial delamination is usually the predominant failure mechanism
due to the weak interface between the coating and the base material. High residual stresses present
in the coatings will amplify the occurrence of interfacial delamination. Residual stresses are created
in a good number of coatings as an effect of the manufacturing process whereby either a disparity in
thermal expansion between the coating and substrate material generates considerable stresses which
intensifies during cooling from a high deposition temperature or as a result of growth mechanisms
or both [39].
The residual stresses experienced by PVD coatings on steel are usually compressive stresses that
contributes to the occurrence of plastic deformation and micro-cracking which in turn affects the
tribological response of the coated part [36].
The most common technique to determine residual stress is by using X-ray diffraction. Another
approach is to use the curvature of a plate measured before and after deposition of the coating to
calculate the residual stress σrs using the Stoney equation [35,36,40]:
Es t2s

1 1
σrs = − (31)
6(1 − v s ) t c Ra Rb
where,
Es
(1− v s )
= biaxial modulus of the substrate
ts = substrate thickness
tc = coating thickness
R a = radius of curvature after coating deposition
Rb = radius of curvature before coating deposition
Bromark et al. [41] found that multilayered Ti/TiN coatings show promise for combined wear and
corrosion protection and that they also offer a means to modify the properties of tribological coatings
which then can be used to control the coating’s residual stress state. The wear characteristics of PVD
Ti/TiN multilayer coating, which were put through two-body abrasion and particle erosion, have
been studied using diamond slurry and silicon carbide particles as abrasive medium and erodant,
respectively. Abrasive wear rate of the Ti/TiN multilayer coatings was found to decrease with an
increase in the relative amount of metallic Ti in the coatings. Their research also found that there is
the likelihood that TiN in Ti/TiN coatings contain fewer impurities than conventional, homogeneous
TiN coatings.
4.1.3. Hardness
In general, when the abrasive surface is harder than the wearing surface, the wear resistance in
abrasive wear is closely related to hardness. However, if the wearing surface is much harder than
the counter-surface, abrasion is no longer the wearing mechanism. In this case, ductility, chemical
stability, fatigue resistance, or other properties affect the wear resistance more than the hardness.
The extrapolation method is usually used by measuring the hardness of the coated specimen using
different loads and extrapolating towards infinitely low loads [36]. The hardness can also be measured
using a conventional Vicker’s microhardness indenter and a load of 50 to 100 gf [37,40], although some
researchers believe that the measured hardness is not a good representation of the true hardness of the
coating as it is usually influenced by the substrate material [35].
4.1.4. Layer Adhesion

A method for estimation of adhesion strength under similar situation of forging by combination
of FEM and experiments was proposed by Hayakawa et al. [42] where a hard film coated spherical
indenter made of tool material was indented into a flat workpiece material in the experiment while
different values of critical interfacial normal and shear stress were used to perform the finite element
analysis to obtain calibration curves by comparison of the the delamination length and indentation
(Figure 17a–d).
Wang et al. [43] described a method to obtain stress-plastic strain curve by estimating the
compression behavior of cemented carbides for cold forging dies using the Rockwell hardness test via
the equations below (e.g., (32) and (33)). The correlation between the coefficient A or C and Rockwell
hardness can be approximated by using a quadratic equation, Figure 18a,b.
A = 1.87 × 102 HRA2 − 3.04 × 104 HRA + 1.25 × 106 (32)

Technologies 5, 3 5, 3
2017,2016,
Technologies 2020
ofof
2929
A = 1 . 87 × 10 22HRA 22 − 3 .04 × 10 44HRA + 1 . 25 × 10 66 (32)

A = 1 . 87 ×
C = 5.68 × 10 HRA 103 HRA 2 − 3 . 04 × 10 6 HRA + 1 . 25 × 107
− 9.44 × 10 HRA + 3.93 × 10 (32)
(33)
C = 5 .68 × 10 33HRA 22 − 9 . 44 × 10 66HRA + 3 .93 × 10 77 (33)
C = 5 .68 × 10 HRA − 9 . 44 × 10 HRA + 3 .93 × 10 (33)
TheThedamage
damagebehavior
behaviorofofDLC-SiDLC-Si coating
coating underunder high contact pressure
high contact pressurewas wasinvestigated
investigatedbyby
Kubota
KubotaThe
et et damage
al. [44][44]
al. by bybehavior
conducting
conducting ofa DLC-Si
series
a seriesofcoating
experiments
of under using
experiments high contact
usingthe pressure
theVicker’s
Vicker’s was test.
hardness
hardness investigated
test.The
Theeffect byof
effect
Kubota
coating et al.
thickness
of coating [44] by conducting
on coating
thickness damage
on coating a series of
was observed
damage experiments
was observed from theusing
from the
coating Vicker’s hardness
and cross-section
the coating test. The
surfaces.
and cross-section effect
During
surfaces.
of coating
unloading
During thickness
materials
unloading ontocoating
flow
materialsthe
flow damage
cents
to in the
the was
cents in observed
upper upperfrom
theregions withthe
regionsthe coating and of
possibility
with cross-section
shear
the possibility surfaces.
cracking
of shear in the
cracking
During
coating. unloading
Tensile stress
in the coating. materials
Tensilewill also
stress flow
will to
develop the cents in the upper regions
at theatsubstrate/coating
also develop the substrate/coating with the
interface, possibility
interface,(see of
(seeFigure shear
Figure 19). cracking
in the coating. Tensile stress will also develop at the substrate/coating interface, (see Figure 19).
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 17. Illustration of layer adhesion testing, (a) Testing model; (b) stresses in the interface, after
Figure 17. Illustration of layer adhesion testing, (a) Testing model; (b) stresses in the interface, after
Figure
ref. [42] 17.
(c). Illustration
Illustration of
of layer adhesion testing,
layer adhesion testing, Relation
(a) Testing model;initial
between (b) stresses in the interface,
delamination after
and assumed
ref. ref.
[42][42]
(c). (c).
Illustration of oflayer adhesion testing, Relation between initial delamination
delaminationandandassumed
assumed
critical shearIllustration layer between
stress; (d) relation adhesionlength
testing,
ofRelation between
delamination andinitial
indentation after ref. [42].
critical shear
critical shearstress; (d)(d)
stress; relation between
relation betweenlength
lengthofofdelamination
delaminationand
and indentation after ref.
indentation after ref.[42].
[42].
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 18. (a) Relationships between the hardness and the evaluated coefficient A and Rockwell
Figure 18.after
Figure 18. (a)(a)
hardness, Relationships
ref.
Relationships between thebetween
[43]; (b) Relationships
between hardness
the hardness theand
and the evaluated
hardness
the coefficientcoefficient
coefficient AA and
and the evaluated
evaluated andRockwell
C and
Rockwell
hardness,
Rockwell after
hardnessref. [43];
after (b) Relationships between the hardness and the evaluated coefficient C and
hardness, after ref. [43]; (b)ref. [43].
Relationships between the hardness and the evaluated coefficient C and
Rockwell hardness after ref. [43].
Rockwell hardness after ref. [43].
Figure 19. Model for coating fracture mechanism during indentation [44].
Figure 19. Model for coating fracture mechanism during indentation [44].
4.1.5. Fracture Strength

4.1.5. Fracture Strength
The coating’s fracture toughness is an important parameter when choosing a coating, as the
The coating’s fracture toughness is an important parameter when choosing a coating, as the
presence of crack initiation and propagation usually signals the start of coating failure. Fracture
presence of crack initiation and propagation usually signals the start of coating failure. Fracture
toughness of coatings can be obtained by introducing high loads of Vickers’ indentations of at least
toughness of coatings can be obtained by introducing high loads of Vickers’ indentations of at least
10 kg and determine the length of the cracks that appear in the corners of the indentation. The presence
10 kg and determine the length of the cracks that appear in the corners of the indentation. The
of extended cracks signifies a low fracture toughness and vice versa [35].
presence of extended cracks signifies a low fracture toughness and vice versa [35].
4.2. Lubrication and Tribological Influence of Surface Condition and Coatings on Tool Life
4.2. Lubrication and Tribological Influence of Surface Condition and Coatings on Tool Life
Large surface expansion and normal pressure in the tool/workpiece interface in combination with
Large surface
elevated tool expansion
temperatures andextremely
have normal pressure in theontool/workpiece
severe effects the tribologicalinterface
conditions in in
combination
cold forging.
with elevated tool temperatures have extremely severe effects on the tribological conditions
The use of a conversion coating acting as a lubricant carrier in order to reduce friction is essential in coldin
forging. The use of a conversion coating acting as a lubricant carrier in order to reduce
such a case as conventional lubricants are inadequate under these conditions. The physical or chemical friction is
essential
reaction in such
of the a case to
lubricant asthe
conventional
surface of the lubricants
workpieceare inadequate
results in betterunder these
adhesion. conditions.
Some recommended The
physical or chemical reaction of the lubricant to the surface of the workpiece
lubricants in cold forging of steel are shown in Table 6. However, the use of surplus amount of results in better
adhesion.
lubricantsSome
might recommended lubricants
cause entrapment in cold in
of lubricants forging of steel
the corners ofare
theshown
tool and inin
Table 6. However,
the workpiece the
surface
use of surplus
resulting amount
in severe of lubricants
intolerance might roughness
and surface cause entrapment of lubricants
on the tool and workpiecein the corners
surface. of the
Table tool
7 shows
and in the workpiece surface resulting in severe intolerance
some advantages and disadvantages of the various lubricant systems [45]. and surface roughness on the tool and
workpiece surface. Table 7 shows some advantages and disadvantages of the various lubricant
systems [45].6. Recommended lubricant in cold forging of steel and approximate values of the friction
Table
coefficient [45].
Table 6. Recommended lubricant in cold forging of steel and approximate values of the friction
coefficientProcess
[45]. Deformation Lubrication Friction Coefficient µ *
Upsetting
Process Light
Deformation None
Lubrication 0.2
Friction Coefficient μ*
Upsetting Light Mi +
None EP+ FA 0.2 0.1
Severe Mi + PhEP++FA SP 0.1 0.1
Light Ph + Mi + EP + FA 0.1
Ironing and open die extrusion Severe Ph + SP 0.1
Severe Ph + SP 0.05
Light Ph + Mi + EP + FA 0.1
Extrusion
Ironing and open die extrusion Light Ph + Mi + EP + FA 0.1
Severe
Severe PhPh+ SP
+ SP 0.05 0.05
Extrusion Light Ph + Mi Ph++EP + FA
MoS 2
0.1 0.1
Severe PhPh+ +MoS
SP 2 + SP 0.05 0.05
Mi-mineral oil; EP-extreme pressure additive; FA-fatty additives; Ph + SP-soap; 0.1 * Note:
MoS2 Ph-phosphate coating.
Phwhich
The values for the coefficient of friction are directional values, + MoS 2 +suited
are SP only for comparison
0.05 between
different lubricants
Mi-mineral and processes.
oil; EP-extreme pressure additive; FA-fatty additives; SP-soap; Ph-phosphate coating.
* Note: The values for the coefficient of friction are directional values, which are suited only for
comparison between different lubricants and processes.
Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of different lubrication systems for cold forging of aluminium [45].
Lubricant System Lubricant Performance Advantages Disadvantages

Oil Moderate lubricity Easy to handle
Grease Moderate lubricity Easy to handle
Zinc stearate Good lubricity Easy to handle Dust problems
Very difficult bath control
Low treatment temperature
Phosphate coating + lubricant Very good lubricity Difficult disposal
Applicable to all aluminium alloys
Limited life time of bath
Easy disposal Difficult bath control
Aluminate coating + lubricant Excellent lubricity Low treatment temperature Agitation of the bath required
Applicable to all aluminium alloys Limited life time of the bath
Hazardous working
Short treatment time environment
Aluminium fluoride
Excellent lubricity Easy bath control High treatment temperature
coating + lubricant
Applicable to all aluminium alloys Difficult disposal
Short life time of bath
Hanson et al. [46] investigated the adhesion and metal transfer of austenitic stainless steel against
TiN under non-lubricated sliding contact. The interface between the TiN and the adhered stainless
steel was investigated by TEM and the oxide layer emanating from the stainless steel surface was
observed between the tool surface and the adhered stainless steel. They showed that samples oxidized
at higher temperatures were less inclined to adhere than those oxidized at lower temperatures due to
their higher thickness or a higher content of Cr at the surface.
The frictional properties and tendencies of counter material pickup were compared between a
physical vapour deposited (PVD) TiB2 coatings and commercially available PVD TiN, TiAlN and
TiCN. Berger et al. [47] investigated the possibility of the superior behaviour of the TiB2 coating
experienced in severe sliding applications against aluminium alloys being extended to other materials
with similarly poor tribological characteristics. The paper proved it possible to approximate the friction
force from the width of the sliding tracks, Vickers hardness of the opposing material and simple
plastic considerations. This estimation also confirmed the surprisingly low friction of all coatings
against Ti alloys. TiB2 coating outperformed the commercially available coatings regarding friction,
resistance against pick-up of counter material and smoothness in the contact area of both coating
and counter material. This trend is attributed to the exceptionally high chemical resistance of TiB2
against aluminium.
Surface Finish/Roughness
The effects of substrate material on the erosion resistance of three dissimilar TiN coated tool
steels were studied. Results showed that the carbide volume fraction and the impact toughness of
the substrate material controlled the erosion rate of both the coatings and the substrates. Properties
such as hardness and impact toughness of the substrate are imperative for the general tribological
performance of a coating—substrate composite [48].
The critical nominal force during scratch testing on four different TiN coated tool steels was
obtained to study the effect of pre-coating substrate surface topography. For the TiN coated high speed
steels, the critical nominal force decreased with increasing surface roughness although no effect could
be seen for the coated hot and cold worked steels. It thus can be assumed that the critical normal
forces that are commonly cited as measures of the adhesion between good adhering coatings and their
substrates are instead measures of the ability of the coatings to resist deformation [49].
Tribological evaluation on the influence of surface roughness and coating type on the galling
properties of coated forming tool steel was investigated by Podgornik et al. [50] They found that
the friction intensity and the aptitude of a material to prevent the pick-up of counter material were
largely influenced by surface roughness. The study showed that with increasing smoothness of the
substrate, the coated surface can withstand a higher critical load and thus polishing of a surface prior
to deposition of a coating will increase the critical load for material transfer by reducing friction.
The effect of different surface modification techniques on galling properties was investigated.
The
The research found thatthe
group considered with appropriate
application of polishing of the tool
different grades surface, the
of polishing, inclination
plasma for galling
nitriding and DLC to
occur
coatingreduced
on coldsignificantly.
work tool steelThey andalso found thatevaluation
tribological the application
work wasof a carbon-based multilayer test
done in a load-scanning WC/C rig.
coating can sustain
The research foundlowthatfriction and greatlypolishing
with appropriate increase the galling
of the tool resistance
surface, the even when there
inclination is a fairly
for galling to
high
occursurface
reduced roughness. Hard
significantly. TiNalso
They coating
founddisplayed
that the high frictionof
application and low galling resistance
a carbon-based multilayer when
WC/C in
contact
coating with austenitic
can sustain stainless
low friction and steel while
greatly plasma
increase thenitride
gallingtreatment
resistance on even thewhentoolthere
surface after
is a fairly
polishing
high surface enhanced galling
roughness. Hardproperties
TiN coating by up to 40%. It
displayed wasfriction
high suggested by Podgornik
and low et al. [51]
galling resistance that in
when a
hard,
contactlowwithfriction coating
austenitic can besteel
stainless deposited by plasma
while plasma nitridenitriding
treatmentbeingonapplied
the tool to the tool
surface aftermaterial
polishing to
improve
enhanced thegalling
load carrying capacity
properties by upoftoforming
40%. Ittool
wassteel followed
suggested byby post polishing
Podgornik et al.of thethat
[51] contact surface
a hard, low
to remove
friction any surface
coating can beasperities.
depositedThe influence
by plasma of an excimer
nitriding laser treatment
being applied of TiN-coated
to the tool material totool surfaces
improve the
on
loadtheir tribological
carrying capacitybehaviour
of forming in tool
the steel
field followed
of cold forging
by postwas investigated
polishing by Popp
of the contact et al. to
surface [52]. The
remove
results showasperities.
any surface that triological behaviorof
The influence ofantheexcimer
tool surface can be improved
laser treatment if the textures
of TiN-coated are designed
tool surfaces on their
with proper behaviour
tribological geometry andin thesize according
field to the process
of cold forging parameters,
was investigated byand
Popp this
et will leadThe
al. [52]. to an increased
results show
tool
thatlife.
triological behavior of the tool surface can be improved if the textures are designed with proper
geometry and size according to the process parameters, and this will lead to an increased tool life.
4.3. Influence of Coatings on Fatigue Life
4.3. Influence of Coatings on Fatigue Life
The effect of low cycle fatigue on TiN coated high-speed steel and high chromium (12.6%) high
carbon Thecoldeffect
workof tool
low cycle fatigue
steel were on TiN
studied bycoated
Kocandahigh-speed
et al. [53]steel and high equations
Constitutive chromiumwhich (12.6%) canhigh
be
carbon cold work tool steel were studied by Kocanda et al. [53]
applied in numerical modelling of TiN coated tool behavior were derived from results from Constitutive equations which can
be applied inworks
experimental numerical
wheremodelling
cyclic loading of TiN
was coated tool behavior
strain controlled were derived
and stress-strain from results
hysteresis from
loops were
experimental
recorded works
for both where cyclic
workpieces. loadingtensile
Maximum was strain
stresscontrolled
amplitudes and stress-strain
were obtained hysteresis
from stabilized loopsloops
were
recorded for both workpieces. Maximum tensile stress amplitudes
and the corresponding strain amplitudes where cyclic stress-strain curves were plotted were obtained from stabilized loops
and the20a,b).
(Figure corresponding strain amplitudes where cyclic stress-strain curves were plotted (Figure 20a,b).
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 20.
20. Material
Materialfatigue
fatigueresponse
response(a)(a)Hysteresis
Hysteresisloop
loopfor
for non-coated
non-coatedM2 M2 tool
tool steel
steel at
at aa strain
strain
amplitude of 0.0135, after ref. [53]; (b) Material fatigue response, cyclic strain amplitude—strain
amplitude of 0.0135, after ref. [53]; (b) Material fatigue response, cyclic strain amplitude—strain curves
curves after
after ref. ref. [53].
[53].
The fatigue crack growth behavior of cemented carbide dies was investigated under the service
The fatigue crack growth behavior of cemented carbide dies was investigated under the service
load in the cold heading process of steel wire by Wang et al. [54]. The failure mode was identified as
load in the cold heading process of steel wire by Wang et al. [54]. The failure mode was identified as
fatigue cracks and smaller chipping pits appearing at the very early stage when the die was under
fatigue cracks and smaller chipping pits appearing at the very early stage when the die was under the
the chipping process stage.
chipping process stage.
In general the introduction of an additional interface should reduce fatigue life of a well-
controlled specimen. Baragetti [55] studied the effect of extremely thin films and their effect on
fatigue. The benefits of thin coatings can be summarized as
• High hardness and wear resistance without affecting the dimensional tolerances of coated
components,
In general the introduction of an additional interface should reduce fatigue life of a well-controlled
specimen. Baragetti [55] studied the effect of extremely thin films and their effect on fatigue. The benefits
of thin coatings can be summarized as
• High hardness and wear resistance without affecting the dimensional tolerances of coated
components,
• Suitability for coating small components,
• Good wear protection of specific geometries (e.g., sharp edges),
• Process capability to coat complex shaped components.
This is naturally under the provision that compressive residual stresses are introduced on the
surface layer from the PVD deposition process that helps to increase the fatigue limit of coated
structural components. Baragetti [55] concluded that:
• Fatigue test showed that the PECVD/SiO2 coating did not significantly affect the fatigue behavior
of the base material with no change in initiation and propagation between the coated and
uncoated specimen
• Fatigue crack propagation mechanisms in coated specimens are similar to uncoated specimen.
• Fatigue limit decrease by 10% with respect to uncoated material
5. Surface Characteristics Change in Service and Influence on Wear Resistance

Gåård et al. [56] assessed the galling resistance of various tool steels against dual phase
high-strength carbon steel using a slide-on-flat-surface (SOFS) tribometer. The tools’ chemical
composition, microstructure and heat treatment were found to have a significant influence on the tools’
behaviour during the entire wear process. Three frictional regimes were identified and characterized
during sliding: Regime 1, with relative stable frictional conditions; Regime 2, with an increase in
friction due to macroscopic abrasive scratching of the sheet surface; and Regime 3, with high and
unstable frictional conditions due to adhesive wear of the sheet of the entire contact area.
Different lab test methods with respect to their ability to guide in the selection of material
resistance to gouging abrasive wear were investigated by Bryggman et al. [57] The pin-on-disc test
was carried out to study the resistance of the test material to low stress abrasion; multiple pass
single tip grooving was used to evaluate the material response to cyclic abrasion under low stress,
where the fatigue and adhesion properties of the affected surface layers governs the wear rate under
these conditions. Single pass grooving was carried out to evaluate the energy consumption during
abrasion and structure studies utilized light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and
micro-hardness measurements carried out on prepared metallographic sections parallel to the grooving
direction and normal to the worn surfaces, to study the affected material underneath the worn surfaces
and groove bottoms. It was found that the single pass pendulum grooving mimicked the wear of
bucket teeth during the loading of wet blast stone most closely.
Jacobson et al. [58] presented briefly a selected number of surface modifications tribosystem to
illustrate the prediction of friction and wear properties of a material in a given tribological situation
based on the four main categories of surface modifications shown in Figure 21. Their study based
on the four surface modification categories highlighted the importance of surface modifications
and tribofilms analyses being included in the analyses of tribological components or tribological
tests as their importance is often overly underestimated which can lead to drastic consequences.
The understanding of surface modifications tribosystem will enable design of materials, coatings,
lubricant additives and surface topographies with the possibility to meet the sharply increasing
requirements of performance in combination with a sustainable society.
the fatigue and adhesion properties of the affected surface layers governs the wear rate under these
conditions. Single pass grooving was carried out to evaluate the energy consumption during abrasion
and structure studies utilized light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and micro-
hardness measurements carried out on prepared metallographic sections parallel to the grooving
direction and normal to the worn surfaces, to study the affected material underneath the25worn
Technologies 2017, 5, 3 of 29
surfaces and groove bottoms. It was found that the single pass pendulum grooving mimicked the
wear of bucket teeth during the loading of wet blast stone most closely.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure21.
Figure 21.The
Thefour
fourbasic
basiccategories
categoriesofoftribological
tribologicalsurface
surfacemodification:
modification:(a)
(a)modification
modificationwithout
withoutany
any
materialtransfer;
material transfer;(b)
(b)modification
modificationinvolving
involvingmaterial
materialtransfer;
transfer;(c)
(c)formation
formationofoftribofilm
tribofilmor
orcoating;
coating;
and (d) wear (loss of particles or atoms from the surface)
and (d) wear (loss of particles or atoms from the surface) [58].[58].
6. Critical Issues Particular to Microforming

Due to the predominance of surface effects as compared to bulk behavior when dimensions are
scaled down, friction and die wear have a considerable impact in microforming, which refers to metal
forming processes where at least two dimensions are in the sub-millimeter range [59]. In particular,
friction size effects have been studied for microforming and it has been shown in various studies that
friction increases when the part size decreases [60–63].
Lubricants are usually used in conventional metal forming processes to avoid excessive friction,
which can increase process load, lead to die wear and generate poor product surface finish. However,
the use of lubricant in microforming is not economically effective as the surface to volume ratio
increases significantly and cleaning becomes an issue when lubricant is trapped in the small features
of the die. By evaluating various liquid and solid lubricants Taureza et al. [64] showed that lubricant
effectiveness is limited in microforming and can even be reduced for liquid lubricants as explained
by the lubricant pocket model [65]. Baek et al. [66] explained that the lubricant ineffectiveness can
be related to the fact that the feature size in components produced by microforming is close to the
lubricant film thickness, suggesting that the lubricant effectiveness can be retained if the natural
lubricant thickness is reduced.
DLC coating was proven to be an efficient way to reduce friction in microforming as shown by
the work of Hu et al. [67] using micro deep drawing experiment and Wang et al. [68] in the case of
strip drawing. Surface texturing of the die was proposed by Brinksmeier et al. [69] as another mean to
control friction in sheet microforming applications and therefore prolong die life. Using a strip drawing
test experiment, Brinksmeier et al. [69] have shown that there is an optimum finish for which friction
is the lowest and that a smoother surface finish does not necessarily correlate with less friction. Similar
applications in the case of bulk forming have been reported by Geiger et al. [70] and Wagner et al. [28]
where it was shown that proper surface texturing could increase die life.
In microforming, it was also observed that die life can be affected by galling as shown in
experiments by Taureza et al. [64] for aluminum workpiece material where high friction values
were explained by the presence of galling marks on the die and workpiece. A similar galling effect was
observed by Ghasemali et al. [71] during extrusion of copper micro-pins. Hu et al. [72] studied the
wear behavior in micro deep drawing tools. They observed that wear was dominated by adhesive
wear on the drawn radius in micro deep drawing of a stainless-steel blank. Increase in friction force
due to die wear and non-uniform distribution of the wear areas on the drawn radius were highlighted
as the mechanism responsible for bottom fracture and cup wall damage, respectively.
7. Concluding Remarks
Modeling of tool life has come far, but further work is necessary to fully understand and predict
tool life. This is especially true for an increased understanding of the nature of the large variations in
tool life found in industry. Tool-life span will be a make or break factor for microforming.
Material properties of tool materials are anisotropic and tool life sensitivity to the anisotropy
is depending on both the as-received and in-service conditions. The importance of anisotropy is
seemingly increased with increasing tool hardness being a requirement in microforming due to
extreme contact pressures.
For fatigue limited tool life, under high stress and low-cycle fatigue conditions, failure due to
internal microstructures and inclusions are common. In microforming the requirements on abrasive
wear resistance are increased. To improve abrasive wear resistance larger carbides are improve
wear resistance but cause negative impact on tooling life as are a common cause of fatigue failures.
Furthermore, carbide size influences the attainable surface roughness.
To create the correct combination of base material and coating combined with preconditioning
of the tool surface with a residual stress of appropriate level can be used to eliminate the effects
from surface particles. The proper preconditioning and choice of optimum coating type and coating
thickness for the service conditions of the tooling to manage wear with a minimum impact on fatigue
life is a critical skill. For the case of microforming friction management in a non-lubricated condition
will also be critical.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to acknowledge the Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology for
funding the work under project U09-F-012SU Simulation Tool Failure in Net Shape (Micro) Forming.
Author Contributions: The work was initiated by Anders E. W. Jarfors during his employment with Singapore
institute of Manufacturing Technology with support from Atsushi Danno as team member and mentor in a
collaborative project with Sylvie J. Castagne and Xinping Zhang. All authors contributed to the writing of the
paper but the main bulk of work and finalizing the work was made by Anders E. W. Jarfors and Sylvie J. Castagne.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. In addition, have conducted an independent
study on tool relate issues relevant for microforming. The founding body had no role in the design of the study;
nor in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to
publish the results.
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© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Span Variations in Cold Forming

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This is the published version of a paper published in TECHNOLOGIES.

Citation for the original published paper (version of record):

Jarfors, A E., Castagne, S J., Danno, A., Zhang, X. (2017)

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Academic Editor: Manoj Gupta

Keywords: fatigue; wear; life-span; modeling; prediction; tool material; microforming

Technologies 2017, 5, 3; doi:10.3390/technologies5010003 www.mdpi.com/journal/technologies

• Understand how to characterize properties

2.2. Principal Schemes for Simulation and Prediction of Tool Life

σε0fa− =ε a ,el +b ε a , pl0  c

The hydrostatic component ∆W h can be expressed as

2.2.2. Wear Life Modeling

Materials K (MPa) n DA (nm) DB (nm) N W (103 ) N f (103 ) Tool Life (103 )

and DA = K 1.30 × 10−5 − 4.14 × 10−4 n + 0.00478n2 − 0.0232n3 + 0.04034 (15)

• 3.1. Material Fatigue

nCar , as particle density and,NCar,V π d l as specimen volume (cylindrical shape of

with Vsl = πdldsl (21)

did not change

3.2. Material Wear

4.1. Characterization of General Coatings

Figure 16. General

Coating property Characterization method(s)

4.1.1. Young’s Modulus

k = slope of the tensile curve

Example of values for TiN can be seen in Table 5.

Table 5. Example of Young’s modulus data for TiN [38].

Coating Material Substrate Thickness (µm) Young’s Modulus (Coating) (GPa)

4.1.2. Residual Stress

4.1.4. Layer Adhesion

A = 1.87 × 102 HRA2 − 3.04 × 104 HRA + 1.25 × 106 (32)

A = 1 . 87 × 10 22HRA 22 − 3 .04 × 10 44HRA + 1 . 25 × 10 66 (32)

4.1.5. Fracture Strength

Lubricant System Lubricant Performance Advantages Disadvantages

5. Surface Characteristics Change in Service and Influence on Wear Resistance

6. Critical Issues Particular to Microforming

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σε0fa− =ε a ,el +b ε a , pl0 c