— 1300 —

L ECTURE 1

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
INTRO.

Discuss the OUTLINE, Important dates!

The idea of the 1300 course: use basic calculus to address basic questions and applications from
economy! The first example one has in mind is:
EXAMPLE: (Elasticity of Demand!) Say you produce and sell cells for mafia bosses for a certain
amount of dollars (the price). Your goal is to MAXimize the Revenue. How can you achive that?
Scenario 1. Increase the PRICE, but it makes sense that you are going to sell less cells.
Scenario 2. Decrease the Price, but in this case you will sell more cells.
We will look at the link between change in PRICE, and change in DEMAND.
The greek letter to denote change is DELTA: ∆.
In Fact: Differential Calculus studies relations between changes of certain quantities (Think of
FUNCTIONS!)
Few non-economic examples: Imagine a moving particle for which you know the postion at all
times. Then
change in position
Velocity =
change in time
change in velocity
Acceleration =
change in time
When is the demand Inelastic? When large changes in price, imply (cause) small changes in
demand.
When is the demand Elastic? When small changes in price, imply (cause) large changes in de-
mand.
WHAT we Have In MIND: THE DERIVATIVE!!!!
Appendix A. The symbol ∈ means BELONGS. The symbol R = (−∞, +∞) denotes the set
of all real numbers. We use ∪ for UNION of sets, and ∩ for intersection of sets.
INEQUALITIES:
−x
Exc 1. Solve: −1 < <3
4
Solution: If one multiplies by 4, one gets:
−4 < −x < 12. Now multiply by (−1) and note the switch of the direction:
4 > x > −12. So x ∈ (−12, 4).
Exc 2. Solve: 2x2 + 3 < 9x − 1.
Solution: Move all terms in one side, so you can compare with 0.
2x2 − 9x + 4 < 0, or (by factoring) (x − 4)(2x − 1) < 0. Think about sign rules, and NOTE:
case 1. x − 4 > 0 AND 2x − 1 < 0
case 2. x − 4 < 0 AND 2x − 1 > 0
FOR case 1.
x > 4 AND 2x < 1; or
2
 1
x > 4 AND x < ;
2
HENCE NO SOLUTION. A number can NOT be in same time bigger than 4, and smaller than 0.5.
FOR case 2.
x < 4 AND 2x > 1; or
1
x < 4 AND x > ;
2
HENCE x ∈ (0.5, 4).
FINAL answer: Look at both cases and take their union:
x ∈ (0.5, 4).
ABSOLUTE VALUE!
One of the most important things in Algebra:
(
a if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0

Examples: |43| = 43 because 43 ≥ 0;

|0| = 0 because 0 ≥ 0,
| − 3.98| = −(−3.98) = 3.98 because −3.98 < 0.
NOTE That: |a| ≥ 0 FOR ANY real number a.
Exc. 3 Solve 13 > |x − 2|.
Solution: The inequality in the statement can be wrtitten as: 13 > x − 2 > −13, or:
13 + 2 > x > −13 + 2, or:
15 > x > −11. Hence x ∈ (−11, 15).
x
Exc. 4 Solve |3 − | ≤ 5.
4
x
Solution: The inequality in the statement can be written as: −5 ≤ 3 − ≤ 5, or:
4
x
−8 = −5 − 3 ≤ − ≤ 5 − 3 = 2, or:
4
32 = (−4) × (−8) ≥ x ≥ 2 × (−4) = −8. Hence x ∈ [−8, 32].
RECALL the notation and definition:
[a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}, the closed interval,
(a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b}, the open interval,
(a, b] = {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b}, and [a, b) = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b}, the half closed intervals. MORE:
(−∞, a] = {x ∈ R|x ≤ a}, (−∞, a) = {x ∈ R|x < a}, [b, ∞) = {x ∈ R|b ≤ x}, etc
Exc. 5 Solve |2 − x| > 3.
Solution: EITHER 2 − x > 3, OR 2 − x < −3, so:
EITHER 2 − 3 > x, OR 2 + 3 < x, hence:
EITHER −1 > x, OR 5 < x, therefore: x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (5, ∞).
3
Exc. 6 Solve: |x2 + 666| > 0.
Solution: x ∈ R because the expression is always positive:
|x2 + 666| = x2 + 666 > 0. Recall that a square is always positive!
EXPONENT LAWS: (pay attention at restrictions!)
xa 1 1 √
xa xb = xa+b , b
= xa−b , x−n = n , (xa )b = xab , x n = n x, x1 = x,
x x
a
x x
(xy)a = xa y a , a = ( )a .
y y
6x3 y 7 x−2 z 4 y −2
Exc. 7 Simplify: .
9x2 y 4
2 × 3 xy 5 z 4 2 21 4
Solution: One has 2 4
= x−1 yz 4 = yz .
3×3 x y 3 3x
POLYNOMIALS:
Think of ax + b, or the quadratics ax2 + bx + c, or the cubics: ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, etc...
The real numbers a, b, c, d, are called the COEFFICIENTS.
Exc. 8 Factor a) x2 − 4x + 4,
b) x2 − 5x + 6.
Solution: a) x2 − 4x + 4 = (x − 2)(x − 2) = (x − 2)2 ,
b) x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 2)(x − 3).
Factoring is good when you need to solve equations (where the right side is 0).
Quadratic Formula:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
The solutions of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are x = , when a 6= 0.
2a
IF b2 − 4ac < 0 no real roots.
If a > 0, the parabola opens up.
Exc. 9 Solve 2x2 − 5x + 1 = 0.
√
5 ± 25 − 8
Solution: x = . SO
4
√ √
5 − 17 5 + 17
x1 = , and x2 = .
4 4
DIFFERENCE of SQUARES, and RATIONALIZING
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b).
√
3−1
Exc. 10 Rationalize the denominator in: √ .
5+1
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
3−1 3−1 5−1 15 − 3 − 5 + 1 15 − 3 − 5 + 1
Solution: √ =√ ×√ = = .
5+1 5+1 5−1 5−1 4
OTHER:
a) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
b) (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 .
4
WHat we have in mind for the next lectures? The central objects will be THE FUNCTIONS, and
we shall analyze them.
DEFINITION: A function f is a RULE that assigns to Each number x in a set D, a UNIQUE real
number, denoted f (x).
The DOMAIN of f is the set D, the collection of all INPUTS (all x). The RANGE is the collection
of all possible outputs: f (x).
Example: a) f (x) = 2x + 6. Here there are no restriction on the input: x, so D = R = (−∞, +∞),
while the range is the same: R.
1
b) g(x) = has domain D = {x ∈ R|x 6= −3} = (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞), while the range is:
2x + 6
(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
c) If h(x) = 2x − 3, then h(1) = 2 × 1 − 3 = −1, h(0) = −3, h(s) = 2s − 3. VERY IMPORTANT:
h(x + a) = 2(x + a) − 3 = 2x + 2a − 3.
THE GRAPH of a function: Given a function f (x) with domain D, its graph is:
G = {(x, f (x))|x ∈ D}.
Example:

THE red ONE is x2 + 2 (a quadratic, so parabola), the BLUE one is 3x + 1 (linear), and the GREEN
one is x3 (a cubic)!
√
EXC: What is the range of T (x) = −x − 4 + 4?
√
ANSWER: NOTE that T (x) = −x − 4 + 4 ≥ 0 + 4 = 4, so the range is [4, ∞). BTW, the domain
is found by solving: −x − 4 ≥ 0, OR −4 ≥ x, so D = (−∞, −4].
5
 666
EXC (HOME) Can you find the domain of H(x) = √ ?
−x − 4
HINT: Think of −x − 4 > 0. In other words: −4 > x, or x ∈ (−∞, −4). CAN YOU FIND THE
RANGE? THINK OF THE SIGNS OF TOP AND BOTTOM: (0, ∞).
PRACTICE HOME:
Solve: a) |x2 − 2| < 2.
HINT: The above is equivalent to: −2 < x2 − 2 < 2, or: 0 < x2 < 4. There are 2 parts NOW:
0 < x2 which gives: x ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞),
and
x2 < 4, or x2 − 4 < 0, or (x − 2)(x + 2) < 0, that gives x ∈ (−2, 2).
NOW Intersect the above and we are done!
b) −x + |x − 1| < 3.
HINT: Case 1. If x ≥ 1, THEN: −x + x − 1 < 3, that gives −1 < 3 which is always true. SO: [1, ∞).
Case 2. If x < 1, THEN −x − x + 1 < 3, that gives 1 − 3 < 2x, or −1 < x. SO: (−1, 1).
PUT together now the 2 cases!
c) |666 − 3x| ≥ 66,
HINT: use cases!
EITHER: 666 − 3x ≥ 66 OR 666 − 3x ≤ −66. SOLVE them both and put them together (UNION!).
d) x3 − 1 = 0,
Hint: MOVE -1 to the right, use exponent Laws!
e) 65x − 12 = 14 − 5x,
Hint: PUT all terms containing x in one side! Collect Alike terms!
3−x
f) <1
1+x
HINT: move 1 to the left, go to same denominator, and compare (use cases, or a table) the resulting
fraction to 0. Express the final answer using intervals! NOTE that x 6= −1. In other words:
3−x 3−x 1
− 1 < 0, or − < 0, cross multiply to get one fraction!! You must solve now:
1+x 1+x 1
2 − 2x
< 0.
1+x
x −∞ -1 1 ∞
2 − 2x + + 0 --
1+x - 0 + +
2 − 2x
? UND ? ?
1+x
(−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞).
1 − x2
g) ≥ 0.
x−5
HINT: Note that x 6= 5. Factor the NUMERATOR (use difference of squares)! Use a table! NOTE:
1 − x2 = (1 − x)(1 + x).

6
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 2

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Graphing, Basic Functions.

Today only basic ideas. Recall last lecture: functions, domain, range!
Example 1. DEFINE the absolute value function:
(
x if x ≥ 0
y = |x| =
−x if x < 0

Its Range is [0, ∞) (because |x| ≥ 0), and domain is (−∞, ∞). Its graph is below:

Using translations (vertical or horizontal) one can create other functions and their graphs:
Example 2. Consider f (x) = |x| − 3.
Its Range is [−3, ∞) (because |x| − 3 ≥ 0 − 3 = −3), and domain is (−∞, ∞). Its graph is below:

Vertical Shift!

2
Example 3. Consider f (x) = |x| + 2.
Its Range is [2, ∞) (because |x| + 2 ≥ 0 + 2 = 2), and domain is (−∞, ∞). Its graph is below:

Vertical translation!
Example 4. Consider f (x) = |x − 4|.
Its Range is [0, ∞) (because |x − 4| ≥ 0), and domain is (−∞, ∞). Its graph is below:

Horizontal translation!

3
Example 5. Consider f (x) = |x + 1|.
Its Range is [0, ∞) (because |x + 1| ≥ 0), and domain is (−∞, ∞). Its graph is below:

Horizontal translation!
IMPORTANT POINTS on Graphs:
Given a function y = f (x), we define the
x - intercepts as the roots of y = f (x) = 0;
y -intercept to be f (0) IF 0 ∈ domain of f .
Example: The graph of a quadratic y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is called a Parabola. Here a 6= 0. If
a > 0, it opens up (the graph is called Concave UP), and if a < 0 it opens down (the graph is called
Concave down).
On can see the vertex associated to a parabola below:

In one case the vertex is the minimum (see the red graph), and in the other case is the maximum
(see the blue one).
The coordinates of the vertex are below: (obtained from completing the square!!)
4
 −b −b
V( , f ( ))
2a 2a
Exc. Find the x, y -intercepts, domain, range of f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6.
Sol: First let us talk about the domain: Any quadratic has domain (−∞, +∞) since no restrictions
on the input x. For range we need the vertex, and the sign of a.
The y intercept: Compute f (0) = 02 − 5 × 0 + 6 = 6, so (0, 6).
To get the x -intercepts (if any) solve f (x) = 0 as follows:
x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 implies that (x − 2)(x − 3) = 0, so x1 = 2, x2 = 3. SO: (2, 0) and (3, 0). (One may
use the quadratic formula to get the roots...)
−b −(−5)
Here a = 1, b = −5, c = 6. So = = 2.5, and f (−2.5) = −0.25. HENCE the vertex is:
2a 2
V (2.5, −0.25).
Since a > 0, it opens up (graph is concave up) so range is [−0.25, ∞). The graph is below:

One app:
Exercise ( Break Even analysis)
Let us say I started a new profitable bussiness: I am selling cells to mafia bosses in Gotham. Using
some of my funds (from Batman) I invest in my new bussiness 6000 dollars. The cost of producing
a cell is 6.50 dollars. I sell one cell for 13.90 dollars. If we let x denote (represent) the number of
units I am producing in my cave, we can CREATE 2 functions:
The COST: C(x) = 6000 + 6.50x (note the initial cost in the formula!)
The REVENUE: R(x) = 13.90x
What makes sense is THIS: x ≥ 0. The domain of these 2 functions: [0, ∞).
MORE: BREAK EVEN happens only when C(x) = R(x). To solve 6000 + 6.50x = 13.90x, put all
terms containing x in one side, and then collect the alike terms, then isolate x:
6000 = −6.50x + 13.90x
6000 = 7.4x
6000
=x
7.4
5
THis can be seen from graphs too:

We are led thus from this example to recall another basic function:
The linear FUNCTION, y = f (x) = mx + n. Its Domain is (−∞, ∞). If m 6= 0, then Range is
(−∞, ∞).
Its Graph is a LINE! The number m is called the SLOPE, while n is called the y intercept (recall
∆y
that f (0) = n). In fact m = . One may use the words RISE, RUN too to define slope.
∆x
Exercise. Find the equation of the line passing through the points A(−2, −5) and B(−3, 6).
6 − (−5)
Solution: Say the equation is y = mx + n. Find slope as follows: m = = 11/ − 1 = −11
−3 − (−2)
So the eq is now: y = −11x + n, so to find n plug one of the points (that is clearly on the line):
−5 = −11 × (−2) + n so n = −5 − 22 = −27.
SO that equation is y = −11x − 27. Its graph is below.

Note: a point P (a, b) is on the line: y = mx + n if and only if b = ma + n.

COMPOSITION of FUNCTIONS:
6
OPERATIONS with FUNCTIONS: Aside from +, −, ∗, / we have an operation that requires more
attention: COMPOSITION of functions.
Assume that f : A → B, and g : B → C are 2 functions. Note that the range of f is the domain of
g!
We define g ◦ f : A → C as follows: g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)) for any x ∈ A. SO, if one takes an element
a ∈ A, the idea is:
concatenate!
3 √
Exercise: If f (x) = and g(x) = x + 1, find f ◦ g, g ◦ f , and g ◦ g.
1−x
√ 3
SOLUTION: One has that f ◦ g(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( x + 1) = √ .
1− x+1
r
3 3
By the definition of the composition, one obtains that g◦f (x) = g(f (x)) = g( )= +1=
r 1−x 1−x
4−x
.
1−x
√ p√
Also: g ◦ g(x) = g(g(x)) = g( x + 1) = x + 1 + 1.
DID you Notice that f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f ?
Exercise: If f (x) = x4 − x3 + 6 and g(x) = 1 + x, find f ◦ g(0), g ◦ f (1).
Solution: One has that f ◦ g(0) = f (g(0)) = f (1 + 0) = f (1) = 14 − 13 + 6 = 6.
We have that g ◦ f (1) = g(f (1)) = g(14 − 13 + 6) = g(6) = 1 + 6 = 7.
1 1
TAKING THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION: think about 5 × = 1 = × 5.
5 5
Given a function f , we say that f is invertible if there is a function g such that:
f ◦ g(x) = x for all x in ddomain of g, and g ◦ f (t) = t for all t in domain of f .
We denote the function g (when it exists) by f −1 , and we call it the inverse of f .
HOW TO FIND an inverse function?
1. SET up f (x) = y.
2. Isolate (solve for) x.
3. Interchange x and y in that formula, and that is f −1 (x).
3 − 2x
Exercise: If f (x) = , find its inverse f −1 .
4x + 7
3 − 2x
Solution: Set up: y = , hence 3 − 2x = y(4x + 7), expand (foil) and get 3 − 2x = 4xy + 7y.
4x + 7
7y − 3
Now we have: −2x − 4xy = 7y − 3, so x(−2 − 4y) = 7y − 3, isolate x = .
−2 − 4y
7x − 3
We obtain that f −1 (x) = .
−2 − 4x
Governing Idea: Assume f is invertible. THEN f (x) = y IF and ONLY if x = f −1 (y).
For example, if f is invertible and f −1 (6) = 9, then 6 = f (9).
TRY HOME Practice:
1. Find the inverse of f (x) = x3 − 6.
7
HINT: Set y = f (x), or y = x3 − 6, then: y + 6 = x3 , then (y + 6)1/3 = x, thus f −1 (x) = (x + 6)1/3 ,
Yahoo....
2. Assume 2 invertible functions satisfy:
f (1) = 3, f (2) = 1, f (3) = 5, f (4) = 2, f (5) = 4 and
g(1) = 5, g(2) = 1, g(3) = 3, g(4) = 4, g(5) = 2.
FIND: a) f ◦ g(5)
b) g ◦ f (2)
c) f −1 (5)
d) g −1 (4)
e) f ◦ g −1 (2)
HINTS: e) LOOK at g(5) = 2. You get 5 = g −1 (2), so:
f ◦ g −1 (2) = f (g −1 (2)) = f (5) = 4.

8
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 3

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
GEOMETRIC series:
If I give you 45 numbers and ask about the sum of that numbers, one just adds all, and because
the amount of additions is finite, one finds an outcome.
WHAT IF I GIVE YOU INFINITELY MANY NUMBERS TO ADD?
DEFINITION: A sequence is a list of real numbers, we may denoted a0 , a1 , a2 , ....., an , ....., or:
{an }n≥0 .
2
EXAMPLE: an = , with n ≥ 0. List the first terms.
n+3
2 2
SOL: a0 = = ;
0+3 3
2 2
a1 = = = 2/4 = 1/2 = 0.5
1+3 4
2 2
a2 = =
2+3 5
2 2
a3 = = = 1/3, and so on.
3+3 6
√
EXAMPLE: If an = n + 7 + n + 6, find a8 .
√ √
SOL: a8 = 8 + 7 + 8 + 6 = 15 + 14.
DEFINITION: Given a sequence {an }, we define its associated series to be:
∞
P
an = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an + . . .
n=0

How is done?
WE create another sequence, the sequence of partial sums:
s 0 = a0
s 1 = a0 + a1
s 2 = a0 + a1 + a2
and so on:
s n = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an
sn+1 = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an + an+1
.
.
.
IF THE VALUES {sn } are getting closer and closer and closer to a limiting value s, called the SUM,
we declare the series convergent, and
∞
P
s= an = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an + . . .
n=0

OTHERWISE WE SAY THE SERIES IS DIVERGENT.

MOST IMPORTANT EXAMPLE: GEOMETRIC SERIES:
2
 ∞
arn is called the geometric series with
P
Let a be a real number, and r a real number. The series:
n=0
first term a, and common ratio r. WHY?
∞
arn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + arn + . . .
P
The series can be written as:
n=0

The general term is an = arn .

a
RULE: If |r| < 1, then the series is CONVERGENT. ITS sum is s = .
1−r
∞
P −1 n
EXC 1. Find 2( ) .
n=0 4
−1 −1 1
SOL: a = 2 and r = . NOTE that |r| = | | = < 1, so the series is convergent. Its sum is
4 4 4
a 2 2 2 2×4 8
s= = = = 5 = = .
1−r 1 − ( −1
4
) 1 + ( 14 ) (4) 5 5
∞
P −9 n
EXC 2. Is the series −3( ) divergent?
n=0 4
−9 −9 9
SOL: Here a = −3, and r = , so |r| = | | = > 1, so yes, divergent.
4 4 4
P∞ −3(5)n + 2n
EXC 3: Find .
n=0 8n+1
P∞ −3(5)n + 2n P∞ −3(5)n + 2n P∞ −3(5)n 2n
SOL: LOOK at the splitting: = = + =
n=0 8n+1 n=0 8n × 8 n
n=0 8 × 8 8n × 8
∞ −3 5 ∞ 1 2
( )n + ( )n . SO There are 2 GEOMETRIC series:
P P
=
n=0 8 8 n=0 8 8
−3
The first one: a = , and r = 5/8, and NOTE |r| = 5/8 < 1, and the second one:
8
1
a = , and r = 2/8, and NOTE |r| = 2/8 < 1.
8
−3 1
8 8 −3 8 1 8 1 −5
HENCE our series becomes: + = × + × = −1 + = .
5 2 8 3 8 6 6 6
1− 1−
8 8
REMARK: One can have a formula when one sums up a finite amount of numbers in the GEO-
METRIC series:
1 − rn+1
a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn = a valid for ANY a, and all r 6= 1.
1−r
13 1
−2( )n .
P
EXC 4 ( a FINITE sum) FIND
n=0 2
1 13 1 1 − ( 12 )14
−2( )n = (−2)
P
SOL: BY above formula (using that a = −2, and r = ) one has: =
2 n=0 2 1 − 12
1 − ( 21 )14 1 1
(−2) 1 = (−4){1 − ( 12 )14 } = −4 + 22 14 = −4 + 12 .
2
2 2

Limits.
3
Definition: Let f be a function, let a be a number. We write lim f (x) = L and say the limit of f (x),
x→a
when x approaches a, is L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L, by taking x
sufficiently close to a, but not a.
NOTE: f MAY not be defined in a.
Example: Find/guess lim 2x. Here f (x) = 2x, and a = 0.
x→0

Consider x = 0.1, so f (0.1) = 0.2,

Consider x = 0.01, so f (0.01) = 0.02,
Consider x = 0.001, so f (0.001) = 0.002,
Consider x = −0.1, so f (−0.1) = −0.2,
Consider x = −0.05, so f (−0.05) = −0.1
You may try more inputs, to get the corresponding outputs, BUT WE CAN GUESS FROM THIS 5
computtaions that
lim 2x = 0.
x→0

1 − cos(x) 1 − cos(x)
Another one: Find/ guess lim ; Here f (x) = , and a = 0.
x→0 x x
Consider x = 0.1, so f (0.1) = 0.049958,
Consider x = 0.01, so f (0.01) = 0.00499958,
Consider x = 0.001, so f (0.001) = 0.00049999996,
Consider x = −0.1, so f (−0.1) = −0.049958,
Consider x = −0.05, so f (−0.05) = −0.024994792
You may try more inputs, to get the corresponding outputs, BUT WE CAN GUESS FROM THIS 5
computations that
1 − cos(x)
lim =0
x→0 x
Exercise: Look at the graph below:

4
To find the limit: lim f (x) look at the behaviour of the function to the left and right of 1, and get
x→1
lim f (x) = DN E , or DOES NOT EXIST,
x→1

WHILE to find the limit lim f (x) look at the behaviour of the function to the left and right of 2,
x→2
and get lim f (x) = 4.
x→2

9 − x2
Example: FIND lim .
x→3 x − 3

9 − x2
SOL: Note that f (x) = IS NOT defined in 3. BUT can still compute the LIMIT:
x−3
9 − x2 (3 − x)(3 + x)
lim = lim = lim −(3 + x) = −(3 + 3) = −6. NOTE how we keep the symbol
x→3 x − 3 x→3 x−3 x→3
lim with till the end when we really compute the limit.
Some functions are defined ONLY on one side of a point!
EXAMPLE: f (x) = ln(x), f : (0, ∞) 7→ R
Question: HOW can we compute the limit in this case? The limit in 0?
DEFINITION: We write lim− f (x) = L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarly close to L, by
x→a
taking x sufficiently close to a with x < a. We call it the LEFT LIMIT!
We write lim+ f (x) = L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarly close to L, by taking x suffi-
x→a
ciently close to a with x > a. We call it the RIGHT LIMIT!
Theorem: One has that lim− f (x) = L = lim+ f (x) IF AND ONLY IF lim f (x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

x
EXAMPLE: FIND lim .
x→0 |x|

x x
SOLUTION: Left limit is lim− = lim− = lim− −1 = −1.
x→0 |x| x→0 −x x→0

x x
Right limit is lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1.
x→0 |x| x→0 x x→0

x
SINCE 1 6= −1, our limit (lim ) Does NOT EXist!
x→0 |x|

RULES: lim c = c; lim x = a;

x→a x→a

lim {f (x) + g(x)} = lim f (x) + lim g(x);

x→a x→a x→a

lim {f (x) − g(x)} = lim f (x) − lim g(x);

x→a x→a x→a

lim {f (x)g(x)} = {lim f (x)}{lim g(x)}

x→a x→a x→a

lim cf (x) = c{lim f (x)}

x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

x→a
lim = if lim g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

Memorize them!
1 − x4
Example: FIND lim .
x→1 x − 1
5
 1 − x4 (1 − x2 )(1 + x2 )
SOL: If you plug in 1, you get 0/0, BAD! So Let us factor first: lim = lim =
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1
(1 − x)(1 + x)(1 + x2 )
lim = lim −(1 + x)(1 + x2 ) = −(1 + 1)(1 + 12 ) = −4.
x→1 x−1 x→1

EXAMPLE: Find lim x3 − 2x + 666.

x→−1

Solution: Note that lim x3 − 2x + 666 = lim x3 − lim 2x + lim 666 = ( lim x)3 − 2 lim x + 666 =
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
3 3
(−1) − 2(−1) + 666 = 667. HERE WE USED THAT x = xxx, and we applied the above rules.
DEFINITION: A function is continuous at a if lim f (x) = f (a). Otherwise we say f is discontinu-
x→a
ous at a.
NOTE: a IS IN THE domain of f .
DEFINITION: A function is called continuous if it is continuous at every point in its domain.
IDEA: You may draw it without lifting the pencil!!!
√ √
POLYNOMIALS are continuous, x is continuous on [0, ∞), while 3 x is continuous on (−∞, ∞).
Combinations The sum, difference, product, of 2 continuous functions is continuous; the quotient
is continuous as long as the denominator is not zero! Composition of continuous functions gives
a continuous function.
(
x + 5, if x ≥ 3
Exercise: Cosider the following function f (x) =
x3 − 19, if x < 3

Find lim− f (x), lim+ f (x), lim f (x). Is f continuous on 3?

x→3 x→3 x→3

Solution: first note that 3 is in the domain of f , here the domain is (−∞, ∞).
a) We compute lim+ f (x) = lim+ x + 5 = 3 + 5 = 8,
x→3 x→3

b) and we compute lim− f (x) = lim− x3 − 19 = 33 − 19 = 8.

x→3 x→3

c) So lim f (x) = 8.
x→3

d) Now NOTE that 8 = f (3), so f is continuous in 3.

MORE about this exercise: to left of 3 or to the right of 3, our function is a polynomial, so contin-
uous. A conclusion is this: f is continuous on its domain.
Exercise: Cosider the following function g(x) = |x2 + x − 666|. Find lim g(x).
x→−1

Solution: Recall the graph of the absolute function, so recall that the absolute function is continu-
ous.
Hence: lim g(x) = lim |x2 + x − 666| = | lim x2 + x − 666| = |(−1)2 + (−1) − 666| = 666.
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1

 x − 1 , if x 6= 1, −1


Exercise: Cosider the following function f (x) = 1 − x2

a, if x = 1

that depends on a real number a.

Find a such that f is continuous in 1.
6
 x−1 x−1 −1
Solution: Note the idea below: lim f (x) = lim 2
= lim = lim =
x→1 x→1 1 − x x→1 (1 − x)(1 + x) x→1 (1 + x)
−1 −1
= .
1+1 2
Here I used lim x = 1, And the RULES from today’s lesson.
x→1

NOW: a = f (1) = lim f (x) = −1/2. Done

x→1

BIG question: is f continuous in −1? ANSWER: NO, note that −1 is NOT in the domain of f .
PRACTICE HOME:
√
x−3
1.FIND lim
x→9 18 − 2x

Hint: Try your luck, and plug: it is 0/0, BAD!

RATIONALIZE!
√ √ √
x−3 x−3 x+3
lim = lim √ =
x→9 18 − 2x x→9 18 − 2x x+3
x−9 1 −1 1
= lim √ = lim √ =
x→9 2(9 − x) x + 3 x→9 2 x + 3
TRY your luck: plug in again..
−1 1
= = −1/12.
2 6
2. can you compute:
2x − 2
lim+ √ ?
x→1 1− x
HINT: did you notice it is bad? 0/0 in fact! did you rationalize the denominator? In the previous
exercise you rationalized the numerator... same idea... difference of squares is your friend...

7
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 4

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Limits, LOGS, compounding.

Last lecture we talked about limits, side limits, continuity. As an example: polynomials of any
degree are continouos on (−∞, ∞). One more:

EXAMPLE: Rational Functions

P (x)
Consider f (x) = where both P, Q are polynomials. IT is continuous on D = {x ∈ R|Q(x) 6=
Q(x)
0}.

Another one that we already encountered: y = f (x) = |x|. CONTINOUOS on R. Memorize the
graph!

Tricky question: Which one of the following limits needs the computation of the side limits?

4−x
a) lim
x→4 |x − 4|

3−x
b) lim
x→2 |x − 3|

Can you guess?

4−x
Hint: a) do we change a formula at 4? YES! Think of lim− =?
x→4 |x − 4|

THINK OF: x < 4 ⇒ x − 4 < 0 ⇒ |x − 4| = −(x − 4), Hence: OUR Left limit is:

4−x
= lim− = lim 1 = 1.
x→4 −(x − 4) x→4−

4−x
Can You get now the RIGHT LIMIT: lim+ ?
x→4 |x − 4|

Answer: DNE

b) we do NOT need side limits here, JUST plug in 2! RECALL last LEC rules (e.g., the ratio rule!!!)

EXP and LOGS

The Exponential Function: Consider a > 0 such that a 6= 1. Construct f (x) = ax for any x ∈ R. It
is called the exponential function of base a. Domain is D = (−∞, ∞) and Range is (0, ∞). NOTE
the y intercept: (0, 1). Its graph when a > 1 is (increasing):
2
and its graph when 0 < a < 1 is (decreasing):

DEFINITION: The number e is the unique positive real number such that the tangent line to the
graph of the exponential function (with that base) has slope exactly 1.

One has e ≈ 2.71828182846. LOOK at the graph:

3
Particular Case of TAKING THE INVERSE
If we consider f (x) = ax , the exponential function, its inverse is denoted by: loga . Its domain is
(0, ∞), and its range is (−∞, ∞). It is called the logarithm of base a. The graph is below for a > 1:

When a = e, the name is NATURAL LOGARITHM, its notation: ln(x) = loge (x).
Another useful logarithm is log(x) = log10 (x).
THE GOVERNING IDEA IS: ax = y if and only if loga (y) = x. IT is USED in equations!
Log Laws:
Let a, b, and c be positive real numbers. Let d be any real number.
(1) loga (1) = 0 WHY? Because a0 = 1
(2) loga (a) = 1 WHY? Because a1 = a
(3) aloga (b) = b
(4) loga (ad ) = d Why? Because ad = ad
(5) loga (bd ) = d loga (b)
(6) loga (bc) = loga (b) + loga (c)
4
 b
(7) loga ( ) = loga (b) − loga (c)
c
logb (c)
(8) loga (c) = this is good when you want to change the base!
logb (a)
Exercise: Solve 2x+3 = 162x−1 .
Solution: apply log to both sides: log2 (2x+3 ) = log2 (162x−1 ), and this leads to:
x + 3 = (2x − 1) log2 (16), so x + 3 = (2x − 1)4.
We get that x + 3 = 8x − 4, or 7 = 7x, so x = 1.
Exercise: Solve log10 (3x−1 ) = 4.
4
Solution: Use the LOG laws, and get (x − 1) log10 (3) = 4, so x − 1 = , which gives us that
log10 (3)
4
x=1+ .
log10 (3)
For what are these functions useful? To Model Compounding!
Let us say I invest 1 dollar in a bank called ” Welcome to Corruption”. Assume they pay r% in-
terest. Compounding means taking money out of the famous bank, and immediately reinvesting,
thus I can collect interest on the interest! Based on the number of compoundings (and on the
initial investement) one get the amount of money in the account. BUT, the more I compound, the
more money I make. Of course the amount of increase gets less and less...
Anyway, if r = 100%, and n = number of compounding times, the sequence for t = 1 is: 2(n = 1),
2.25(n = 2), ... , 2.7(n = 100), 2.71(n = 10000), and all these numbers approach e ....
IN GENERAL:
P = initial investment (deposit)
r = interest rate (must a number between 0 and 1)
n = number of times compounded per year
t = number of years
r
A(t) = P (1 + )nt amount in account after t years.
n
Example: Assume P = 2500, rate is 5%, t = 20 years.
0.05 20
When n = 1, one gets A(20) = 2500(1 + ) ≈ 6633.24
1
0.05 40
When n = 2, one gets A(20) = 2500(1 + ) ≈ 6712.66
2
0.05 80
When n = 4, one gets A(20) = 2500(1 + ) ≈ 6753.71
4
You can see that the amount increases.
NOW, what is CONTINUOUS compounding? It is the limiting process when n → ∞.
And one gets: A(t) = P ert .
For the example above: A(20) = 2500e0.05×20 ≈ 6795.71.
Practice:
1. Solve ln(x − 1) = e + 1.
5
Sol: One has eln(x−1) = ee+1 , or x − 1 = ee+1 , so x = 1 + ee+1 .
2. What is the domain of f (x) = − ln(3 − x)?
SOL: One must impose the condition: 3 − x > 0, hence 3 > x, so D = (−∞, 3).
√
x−7
3. What is the domain of g(x) = e ?
SOL: Impose the condition: x ≥ 0, hence D = [0, ∞).
√
4. What is the domain and what is the range of h(x) = −x − 4?
SOL: For domain: impose −x ≥ 0, or x ≤ 0, hence D = (−∞, 0].
√
For range note that h(x) = −x − 4 ≥ 0 − 4 = −4, hence range is [−4, ∞).
−1
5. WHY log4 ( 21 ) = 2
?
−1 1 1
SOL: Because 4 2 = = √ = 1/2.
1
4 2 4
6. Why log5 (25) = 2?
Sol: Because: 52 = 25.
7. Solve 3(8x−1 ) = 6(91−x ).
Sol: Apply LN to both sides: ln{3(8x−1 )} = ln{6(91−x )}, then use the LOG laws:
ln(3) + ln(8x−1 ) = ln(6) + ln(91−x ), hence:
ln(3) + (x − 1) ln(8) = ln(6) + (1 − x) ln(9), thus
ln(3) + x ln(8) − ln(8) = ln(6) + ln(9) − x ln(9), And NOW collect the alike terms:
x{ln(8) + ln(9)} = ln(6) + ln(9) + ln(8) − ln(3),
6×9×8
x ln(72) = ln( ),
3
ln(144)
x=
ln(72)
Yahooooo
TRY HOME: Can you match the functions: ln(x), ln(x) + 2, ln(−x), and ln(x + 1) withe the below
graphs?

6
TRY HOME: Can you match the functions: ex , ex + 2, e−x , and ex+1 withe the below graphs?

7
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 5

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
LOGS, SLOPES, Derivatives.

Last lecture we presented the logs, and their laws. The graph of ln(x) is below (recall its Domain
= (0, ∞), and its range = (−∞, ∞)):

In particular note that there is NO y intercept, and that the x intercept is (1, 0).
Exercise 1. Simplify: e4 ln(3) .
4
Sol: One has by the LOG laws that e4 ln(3) = eln(3 ) = 34 = 81.
Exc 2. Solve: log5 (9x + 23) = 2.
Sol: use an exponential to cancel the LOG: 5log5 (9x+23) = 52 . Hence
2 2
9x + 23 = 25, or 9x = 25 − 23, and it follows that x = . NOTE that when we replace x = in our
9 9
expression: 9x + 23, one obtains a POSITIVE number, so we are OK.
PLAN: Isolate ONE logarithm on one side of the equation, then raise both sides of the equation
as exponents of the same appropriate base and solve for the required variable.
Exc 3. Solve log6 (y + 1) = 4 + log6 (2y + 3).
Sol: One has that log6 (y + 1) − log6 (2y + 3) = 4, or
y+1
log6 ( ) = 4, so
2y + 3
y+1
6log6 ( 2y+3 ) = 64 , hence
y+1
= 1294, or in fact y + 1 = 1296(2y + 3) = 1296 × 2y + 1296 × 3. Isolate y = 3887/ − 2591, BUT
2y + 3
It is NOT a solution. WHY? The expressison y + 1 becomes negative if this value y = 3887/ − 2591
is replaced. SO NO SOLUTIONS!
EXC 4. Solve log10 (x − 6) = 1 − log10 (x − 3).
Sol: NOTE that x − 6 > 0, and x − 3 > 0 in order for the LOGs to exist!!!
PUT all logs in one side: log10 (x − 6) + log10 (x − 3) = 1. Hence by log laws:
log10 {(x − 6)(x − 3)} = 1, so: 10log10 {(x−6)(x−3)} = 101 , and we get:
2
x2 − 3x − 6x + 18 = 10. The quadratic becomes: x2 − 9x + 8 = 0, thus (x − 1)(x − 8) = 0 which
gives x1 = 1 and x2 = 8. NOTE that 1 is NOT a solution, because x − 3 becomes negative for that
value! So only one solution: x = 8.
Exc 5. The Punisher wishes to invest a sum of 12,000 dollars in a corrupted bank in Gotham City
now, that he wants to be worth 14,000 dollars to help pay for her comic books. She found a savings
account that will pay 3% per year, compounded monthly. How long will she have to wait until
the value of the investment reaches the desired amount?
SOL: Let us set up the formula from last lecture as follows:
0.03 12t
14000 = 12000(1 + ) . Then one has that:
12
14000 0.03 12t 7
= (1 + ) , so = (1.0025)12t .
12000 12 6
7 7
NOW: Use LN as follows: ln( ) = ln((1.0025)12t ), thus ln( ) = 12t ln(1.0025),
6 6
7
ln( )
hence t = 6 . (FYI: 5.1448)
12 ln(1.0025)
EXC 6. Do same problem but under the conditon: interest is compounded continuously!
Sol: We solve 14000 = 12000e0.03t as follows:
7 7
= e0.03t , so ln( ) = ln(e0.03t ). This gives us that:
6 6
7
7 ln( )
ln( ) = 0.03t, hence: t = 6 . (FYI: 5.138, so Faster!)
6 0.03
TANGENTS and their slopes:
The main motivation for the introduction of derivative is the tanget problem. Consider a function
f , and a point (a, f (a)) on the graph. How can we find the equation of the tangent line to the
graph of f at a? To get that equation one needs its slope.

The idea is the following: consider another point Q(a + h, f (a + h)) on the graph, connect Q and
P and create a secant line. The closer h gets to 0, the closer the secant line gets to the tangent line.
So we are led to the following:
Definition: The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a is:
f (a + h) − f (a)
m = lim , which in fact is what weare going to call the derivative of f in a: f 0 (a).
h→0 h
√
Exercise 7 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x + 3 + 1 at the point:
(1, 3).
3
 f (1 + h) − f (1)
Solution: If the equation we are looking for is: y = mx + n, then m = lim =
√ √ √ √ √ √ h→0 h
1+h+3+1− 1+3−1 h+4− 4 h+4+ 4 h+4−4
lim = lim × √ √ = lim √ √ =
h→0 h h→0 h h+4+ 4 h→0 h( h + 4 + 4)
1 1
lim √ √ = .
h→0 h+4+ 4 4
Hence the equation becomes y = 14 x + n. If we plug the point (1, 3) in this equation we can isolate
n:
1 11
3= 4
+ n, hence n = 4
. Therefore y = 14 x + 11
4
.
√
The graph of f (x) = x + 3 + 1 and its tangent line at (1, 3) are offered below:

Exercise 8 Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) = 4x − x2 at the point: (x, y).
f (x + h) − f (x) 4h − 2xh − h2
Solution: One has that m = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
lim 4 − 2x − h = 4 − 2x. In this way we obtained the slope for any point on the graph!
h→0

The graph of f (x) = 4x − x2 and its tangent line at (1, 3) are below:

DERIVATIVE as a FUNCTION:
4
 f (x + h) − f (x)
Replacing a by a variable x in the definition of a derivative, one gets f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
if the limit exists. It is a new function, denoted f 0 , called the derivative of f .

Exercise 9 Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = −x + x3 .

Solution: By the first principles one has

f (x + h) − f (x) −(x + h) + (x + h)3 + x − x3

f 0 (x) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h

−x − h + x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 + x − x3
lim =
h→0 h

3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − h
lim = lim 3x2 + 3xh + h2 − 1 = 3x2 − 1 by the rules in the previous lectures.
h→0 h h→0

When x = 1 here is a diagram of the function and the tangent line:

NOTE: One may call f 0 (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of f at a.

√
Exercise 10 Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = x.

Solution: By the first principles one has

√ √
0 f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
f (x) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
lim ×√ √ =
h→0 h x+h+ x

x+h−x 1 1
lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √ by the rules estabilished in the previous sections.
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x + h + x 2 x

When x = 1 the function and the tangent line are offered below in a graph:
5
 2
Exercise 11 Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = .
x
Solution: By the first principles one has
2 2
0 f (x + h) − f (x) x+h
− x 2x − 2x − 2h
f (x) = lim = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h(x + h)x

−2 2
lim = − 2.
h→0 (x + h)x x
When x = 1.1 the function and the tangent line are offered below in a graph:

Definition: We say that f is differentiable in a if f 0 (a) exists (it is a real number). We say that f is
differentiable in an open interval if it is differentiable in each number in that interval.

Apps from ECONOMICS:

Marginal Cost (you may think of marginal profit etc). What is it? Assume I produce some prod-
ucts, and say the cost is C(x) = 2x − (0.1)x2 . Here x is number of units I produce. The marginal
cost is the cost that results from making (creating) one additional UNIT.

EXC: Find the cost to produce the 5th unit.

6
 C(5) − C(4)
SOL: We need C(5) − C(4). Look at the estimate: C(5) − C(4) = ≈ C 0 (4). So we need:
5−4
C(4 + h) − C(4) 2(4 + h) − (0.1)(4 + h)2 − {2 × 4 − (0.1) × 42 }
C 0 (4) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
8 + 2h − (0.1)(16 + 8h + h2 ) − 8 + (0.1) × 42
= lim =
h→0 h
2h − (0.1) × 16 − (0.1) × 8h − (0.1)h2 + (0.1) × 42
= lim =
h→0 h
2h − (0.1) × 8h − (0.1)h2
= lim = SIMPLIFY NOW
h→0 h
= lim 2 − (0.1) × 8 − (0.1)h = 2 − 0.8 − 0 = 1.2. That is the marginal cost. You may compute
h→0
C(5) − C(4) to see how close it is to our estimate.

7
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 6

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Rules, CR, Demand Revenue.

Last lecture we presented the derivative, it definition, its meaning!

1
Exercise 1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = at x = 1.
x

Sol: NOTE first that f (1) = 1. Now, say that th equation we need is: y = mx + b.

1 1 1×1−1×(1+h)
f (1 + h) − f (1) 1+h
− 1 1(1+h) 1−1−h
Here m = lim = lim = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h(1 + h)

−h −1 −1
= lim = lim = = −1. NOTICE how we carried on the LIM till the end!
h→0 h(1 + h) h→0 1 + h 1+0

So y = −x + b. To find b, look at the first info in solution and plug in:

1 = −1 + b, so b = 2, so y = −x + 2. Graph is below:

Remarks: a) Computing with the definition/first principles the derivative (as a LIM) can be hard!

b) Note every function is differentiable everywhere!

i) IF f is NOT continuous in x, then f is NOT differentiable in x.

ii) Think of f (x) = |x|. IT is continuous everywhere, but NOT differentiable at x = 0. LOOK at te
graph!
2
iii) g(x) = x2/3 Is NOT DIFFERENTIABLE at x = 0. LOOK at the graph below:

For NOT Differentiable, think of: jumps, holes, corners, cusps, or where the tangent line to the
graph is a vertical line.
So, we need rules to find faster the derivatives:
DERIVATIVES OF SUMS, POWERS AND POLYNOMIALS
0
THEOREM (SUM RULE) {f (x) + g(x)} = f 0 (x) + g 0 (x). If one uses the other notation, then
df dg d(f + g)
+ =
dx dx dx
0 f (x + h) + g(x + h) − f (x) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
Proof: {f (x)+g(x)} = lim = lim +lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
= f 0 (x) + g 0 (x).
THEOREM (POWER RULE) {xp }0 = pxp−1 , when x > 0.
EXAMPLE: f (x) = x2
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − x2 x2 + 2xh + h2 − x2
Solution: f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim 2x +
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
h = 2x + 0 = 2x DONE
3
THEOREM (CONSTANT PRODUCT RULE) If c is a constant, then (cf (x))0 = cf 0 (x).
ExampleS: (3f (x))0 = 3f 0 (x) and (−6h(x))0 = −6h0 (x).
EXAMPLE: (23x4 )0 = 23(x4 )0 = 23 × 4x4−1 = 92x3 .
Using SUM and CONSTANT term rules one gets the difference rule:
0
{f (x) − g(x)} = f 0 (x) − g 0 (x).
• So, from now on you may compute the derivative of any polynomial.
EX: find the derivatives of
a) f (x) = −3x−3 + 4x2 − 5
1
b) g(x) = −x 2 − 4x20 − 5x + 666
4
c) h(x) = +x
x−45
SOLUTION: a) One has that (by above rules) : f 0 (x) = −3(−3)x−3−1 + 4(2)x2−1 − 5 × 0 = 9x−4 + 8x;
Recall that 5 = 5x0 .
1 −1
b) g 0 (x) = − 21 x 2 −1 − 4(20)x20−1 − 5(1)x0 + 666 × 0 = − 12 x 2 − 80x19 − 5, recall that x = x1 .
c) One must rewrite the function as : h(x) = 4x45 + x, so h0 (x) = 4 × 45x44 + 1 = 180x44 + 1
2+x
EXC: ONE CAN find as above the derivative of j(x) = , just split into 2 fractions, and use
x7
the rules.
2 x
SOL: Rewrite j(x) = 7 + 7 = 2x−7 + x−6 . HENCE:
x x
j 0 (x) = 2 × (−7)x−8 − 6x−7 = −14x−8 − 6x−7 .
More rules:
THE PRODUCT RULE, quotient rule
THE PRODUCT RULE: If f and g are differentiable, then the product f g IS differentiable. More-
over,
(f (x)g(x))0 = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g(x)0 .
THE CONSTANT PRODUCT RULE: (cf (x))0 = c(f (x))0 .
d(f g) df dg
OTHER NOTATIONS: = g(x) + f (x) .
dx dx dx
f (x) 0 f 0 (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
THE Quotient RULE: ( ) = .
g(x) (g(x))2
EX: Find the derivative of
 x2 x7  
a) f (x) = 1 − x + − 2x + x3
2 −7
−x3 + 2x5
b) g(x) =
2 + x6
2+x
c) h(x) = x10
1 + x3
Solution: a) One has by Product rule and the rules on sums, and powers that
4
 2x 7x6 x2 x7
f 0 (x) = (0−1+ − )(2x+x3 )+(1−x+ − )(2+3x2 ) = (−1+x+x6 )(2x+x3 )+2+3x2 −2x−
2 −7 2 −7
3x3 +x2 + 23 x4 + 27 x7 + 37 x9 = −2x−x3 +2x2 +x4 +2x7 +x9 +2+3x2 −2x−3x3 +x2 + 32 x4 + 27 x7 + 73 x9 =
−4x − 4x3 + 6x2 + 52 x4 + 16 7
x7 + 10
7
x9 + 2
(−3x2 + 10x4 )(2 + x6 ) − (−x3 + 2x5 )(6x5 )
0
b) Here one has by quotient rule that g (x) = =
(2 + x6 )2
−6x2 − 3x8 + 20x4 + 10x10 + 6x8 − 12x10 −6x2 + 3x8 + 20x4 − 2x10
= =
(2 + x6 )2 (2 + x6 )2
3 2
2+x 10 (0 + 1)(1 + x ) − (2 + x)(3x )
c) One has: h(x) = 10x9 + x =
1 + x3 (1 + x3 )2
2 3
2+x
9 10 1 − 6x − 2x
= 10x +x
1 + x3 (1 + x3 )2
THE CHAIN RULE
THEOREM: Suppose that F (x) = (f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)), where f, g ARE differentiable. Then F 0 (x) =
f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x).
MEMORIZE IT, you need it everyday in Cal 1, and twice a day in Cal 2 (if you take it).
Basic example: Find the derivative of (x + x3 )9 .
SOL: Write it as a chain as follows: f (x) = x9 AND g(x) = x + x3 . INDEED:
f (g(x)) = f (x + x3 ) = (x + x3 )9 WHICH IS OUR FUNCTION, WOW, (and realize that we need in
the future g 0 (x) = 1 + 3x2 and f 0 (x) = 9x8 ).
LET US APPLY CHAIN RULE NOW:
((x + x3 )9 )0 = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) = f 0 (x + x3 )(1 + 3x2 ) = 9(x + x3 )8 (1 + 3x2 ).
So: POWER RULE combined with Chain rule says this: if u(x) is a function, then (up )0 = pup−1 u0 (x).
EXC: find the derivative of
√
(a) h(x) = 6x + 7,
2
(b) k(x) = √
36 + x2
SOL: (a) Note that h(x) = (6x + 7)0.5 , because 1/2 = 0.5. BY chain Rule: h0 (x) = 0.5 × (6x + 7)0.5−1 ×
3
(6 + 0) = 3(6x + 7)−0.5 = .
(6x + 7)0.5
(b) Rewrite k(x) = 2(36 + x2 )−0.5 , hence by chain rule one gets that: k 0 (x) = 2 × (−0.5)(36 +
−2x
x2 )−0.5−1 (0 + 2x) = −2x(36 + x2 )−1.5 = .
(36 + x2 )1.5
DEMAND and REVENUE functions
Let x be the number of units the consumers are willing to purchase at price p, so we get a demand
function that is decreasing when x is increasing. Notation: p = D(x). Immediately one can create
the revenue function: R(x) = xD(x).
EXC: DF is a small business in ON that is open for business since 2019. It sells 2000 pens per
month at a rate of 10 dollars each. DF notices (from scientific surveys) that sales will increase by
250 pens for every 25 cents reduction in price. Find D(x), and R(x).
SOL: NEED to find p = D(x).
5
WE know that p = 10, when x = 2000, and
WE know that p = 9.75, when x = 2250.
NOW: p = D(x) = mx + b MUST be linear!
10 − 9.75 0.25 1
m= = =− .
2000 − 2250 −250 1000
1
SO: p = D(x) = − x + b. To find b use one of the points on the line:
1000
1 1
10 = − 2000 + b, so b = 10 + 2 = 12. Hence p = D(x) = − x + 12.
1000 1000
1 1 2
It follows that R(x) = xD(x) = x(− x + 12) = − x + 12x.
1000 1000
TRY HOME:
EXC: Find the derivative of:
a) f (x) = (66 + x55 )5 + x + 666.
HINT: Use chain rule + power rule: f 0 (x) = 5(66 + x55 )4 (0 + 55x54 ) + 1 + 0. Simplify it now!
b) Can we find the derivative of g(x) = xx ?
Hint: NO! Not yet! The above is NOT a Power!
c) h(x) = (2 + x4 )2 (x + 1)
HINT: h0 (x) = 2(2 + x4 )(0 + 4x3 ) × (x + 1) + (2 + x4 )2 × 1, simplify it now...
√
d) b(x) = x + 5
1
Hint: b0 (x) = (x + 5)−1/2 × 1, now just simplify it. Can you write the answer as a fraction, and
2
using a positive exponent?
e) k(x) = 67 .
−x
f) r(x) =
x+8
−1(x + 8) − (−x) × 1
Hint: r0 (x) = , now please do simplify the top.
(x + 8)2

6
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 7

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Higher derivatives, Implicit differentiation.

Last lecture we presented few rules on derivatives and Demand+ Revenue!

HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES
Recall that given f (x) we are able to define the derivative of f (x); now one can continue the
process:

(f 0 (x))0 = f 00 (x)
d2 f
and it is called the second derivative. Another notation: = f (2) (x).
dx2
In the same way one may define: the 3rd derivative f (3) (x), the 4th derivative f (4) (x) etc
REMARK: IF f (x) = x4 , then f 0 (x) = 4x3 , so one has f 00 (x) = 4 × 3x2 = 12x2 .
Example: IF f (x) = −8 + 45x + 3x2 − x3 , then: f 0 (x) = 0 + 45 + 6x − 3x2 = −3(x2 − 2x − 15).
Then: f 00 (x) = 6 − 6x = −6(x − 1).
1 1
EXC: Consider f (x) = + . Find f 00 (x).
x2 2x3
3
SOL: Use power rule and sum rule to get that f 0 (x) = −2x−3 − x−4 . So using again power rule
2
and sum rule one has that f 00 (x) = 6x−4 + 6x−5 .
IMPORTANT TOPIC:
IMPLICIT differentiation
When we do not know a formula of a function, but only a relation satisfied by that function, we
can still can find the derivative of the function! The principle works as follows: If f (x) = g(x),
then f 0 (x) = g 0 (x).
EXAMPLE: Find y 0 = y 0 (x) if our function y satisfies y 4 + xy = x.
SOLUTION: (read it many times) One has that (y 4 + xy)0 = (x)0 . So by the rules:
4y 3 y 0 + 1 × y + x × y 0 = 1.
1−y
NOW isolate our rate: y 0 from above by using algebra: y 0 4y 3 + x = 1 − y, hence y 0 = 3
 
.
4y + x
EX Find y 0 = y 0 (x) if you know that 6xy = x3 + y 3 . Then find the equation of the tangent line to the
graph of y(x) at the point (3, 3). Can you find at what point (x, y) with x > 0, y > 0 on the graph
of y one has a horizontal tangent line?
Solution: By Implicit differentiation one has that: 6y + 6xy 0 = 3x2 + 3y 2 y 0 , or if u divide by 3:
2y + 2xy 0 = x2 + y 2 y 0 . Now move some terms in one side, factor and Isolate:
0 2y − x2
2y − x2 = y (y 2 − 2x), so y 0 = .
y 2 − 2x
2 × 3 − 32
NOW just plug y = 3, and x = 3 and get that y 0 (3) = = −1.
32 − 2 × 3
So: Our tangent line is y = mx + n where m = y 0 (3), hence
y = −x + n. To get n just plug in x = 3 and y = 3 and note that 3 = −3 + n, or n = 6.
2
The tangent line is now: y = −x + 6.
x2
If you want to solve y 0 (x) = 0, just solve 2y − x2 = 0, or y = .
2
x2 x2 x6 x6
PLUG in the eq and get: 6x = x3 + ( )3 , or: 3x3 = x3 + . This leads to: 2x3 = .
2 2 8 8
We get then: 16x3 = x6 , or 16 = x3 RECALL that x > 0.
√ 1 1√
So x = 3 16, and then y = x2 = 3 256. So the point on the graph the punisher is looking for is:
2 2
√
3 1√3
( 16, 256).
2
The derivatives of EXP AND LOG
Theorem: (ex )0 = ex ; and the Chain ruls is in this case: (ef (x) )0 = ef (x) f 0 (x)
Theorem: (ln(x))0 = x1 : and the Chain rule is in this case: (ln(f (x)))0 = 1
f (x)
f 0 (x)

EXC: find the derivative of f (x) = ex (x4 − x5 + 2x + 2).

SOL: One has by the product rule: f 0 (x) = ex (x4 − x5 + 2x + 2) + ex (4x3 − 5x4 + 2) = ex (−4x4 −
x5 + 2x + 4 + 4x3 ).
Can you compute the derivative of ex+1 ? Use a trick!
SOL: ex+1 = ex e, so its derivative is ex e = ex+1 , WoW.
Can you compute (ln(2x))0 ?
SOL: YES, because we memorized log laws: First: ln(2x) = ln(2) + ln(x), so its derivative is
1 1
0+ = .
x x
2 ln(x)
EXC: find the derivative of .
x+1
2
x
(x + 1) − 2 ln(x)
SOL: the derivative is .
(x + 1)2
Examle: Find the derivative of (ex + 6x)−4 .
Solution: its derivative is: −4(ex + 6x)−5 (ex + 6).
EXC: Find the derivative of ln(x + e2x ).
1
SOL: by chain rule one has its derivative is (1 + 2e2x )
x + e2x
EXC: find the derivative of (e3x + 3x + 1) ln(x + 4).
SOL: By chain rule and product rule one has that its derivative is: (3e3x + 3 + 0) ln(x + 4) + (e3x +
1
3x + 1) × 1.
x+4
TRY MORE at home:
ln(1 + ex ) 2
EXC: a) find the derivative of f (x) = x
+ x2 e x .
1+e
2 2+ex
b) find the derivative of g(x) = x3 e−x − ln(1+ex )
.

EXAMPLE: Find y 0 = y 0 (x) if our function y satisfies y 4 + xy = ey x.

3
SOLUTION: (read it many times) One has that (y 4 + xy)0 = (ey x)0 . So by the rules: 4y 3 y 0 + 1 × y +
x × y 0 = ey y 0 x + ey × 1.
NOW isolate our rate: y 0 from above by using algebra: y 0 4y 3 + x − ey x = ey − y, hence y 0 =
 
ey − y
4y 3 + x − ey x
IMPLICIT differentiation is what is NEEDED in:
EXC: Find the derivative of f (x) = xx , AND NOT POWER RULE!!!!!!!!!!
SOL: Apply log to both sides:
ln(f (x)) = ln(xx ), so ln(f (x)) = x ln(x). NOW use implicit differentiation and get:
f 0 (x) 1
= 1 × ln(x) + x × , hence f 0 (x) = f (x) ln(x) + 1 = xx (ln(x) + 1).
 
f (x) x
This method above can be called LOGARITHMIC IMPLICIT Differentiation!
A cool exercise is this:
(x + 1)4 x9
EXC: Find the derivative of f (x) = ln( ).
(2 + x)5
SOL: USE your famous log laws that you memorized long ago, and simplify first!
f (x) = 4 ln(x + 1) + 9 ln(x) − 5 ln(2 + x), and find the derivative:
4 9 5
f 0 (x) = + − . WoW!
x+1 x 2+x
EXC: Find y 0 (1) if ey−1 + xy = 1 + y if (1, 1) is on the graph of y(x).
SOL: Note first that (1, 1) satisfies the relation!!!!
−y
USE Implicit diff: ey−1 y 0 + y + xy 0 = 0 + y 0 , so y 0 (ey−1 + x − 1) = −y, hence y 0 = y 0 (x) = .
ey−1 + x − 1
−1
TO GET y 0 (1) just make x = 1, and y = 1, and get y 0 (1) = = −1.
1+1−1
Ex. Find y 0 = y 0 (x) if exy (x + 1) = y 3 + 2x3 .
SOLUTION: Use implicit differentiation (and product rule, and chain rule) and get that:
exy 1 × y + xy 0 (x + 1) + exy (1 + 0) = 3y 2 y 0 + 6x2 , move certain terms, and factor, and then isolate
 
as follows:

0
y exy x(x + 1) − 3y 2 = 6x2 − exy − exy y(x + 1)


,
6x2 − exy − exy y(x + 1)
y 0 = y 0 (x) = .
exy x(x + 1) − 3y 2
√
x2 + 4(1 + x)7
Ex. A bad punisher said find the derivative of f (x) = ln( ) (it is needed in his
(2 + x)6
global fight against an A+ crime organization).
Sol: First deal with log laws as follows:
1
f (x) = ln(x2 + 4) + 7 ln(1 + x) − 6 ln(2 + x), and then by sum and chain rules:
2
4
 1 1 1 1
f 0 (x) = 2
(2x + 0) + 7 (0 + 1) − 6 (0 + 1) =
2x +4 1+x 2+x

x 7 6
= + −
x2 +4 1+x 2+x
ln(x)
EXC: Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) = at x = e.
x
ln(e) 1
Sol: Note that f (e) = = . More: say the equation is y = mx + n. Then m = y 0 (e) = f 0 (e).
e e
1
x − ln(x) × 1 0
So we compute in general: f 0 (x) = x
2
, so f 0 (e) = 2 = 0, so the eq becomes
x e
y = 0x + n. To get n fill in a point:
1 1
= 0 × e + n, so y = .
e e
EXC Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(x5 + x + 1) + ee .
5x4 + 1 5x4 + 1
Sol: One has by chain rule: f 0 (x) = + 0 =
x5 + x + 1 x5 + x + 1
dy
EXC: Find y 0 (or ) at (0, 3) if exy = y 2 − 8 − x2 .
dx
Sol: Use Implicit diff and get: exy (1 × y + xy 0 ) = 2yy 0 − 0 − 2x.
PUT all terms with y 0 in one side, and factor y 0 :
y 0 xexy − 2y = −2x − yexy , divide NOW (to isolate what you need):
 

0 −2x − yexy
y = .
xexy − 2y
0−3
Plug x = 0 and y = 3 and see that y 0 (0) = = 1/2.
0−2×3
EXC: Find f 00 (x) if f (x) = x3 e2x .
Sol: One has by product rule that f 0 (x) = 3x2 e2x + x3 e2x 2.
So: f 00 (x) = 6xe2x + x3 e2x 4.
√
1−x
Exc: Find the derivative of g(x) = e .
√
0
√
1−x
√ 0
√
1−x 1 −0.5 −e 1−x
SOL: g (x) = e ( 1 − x) = e (1 − x) (0 − 1) = √ .
2 2 1−x
√
EXC: If xy + 2y = x find y 0 for (4, 1).
1
SOL: Use Implicit diff and get by chain rule: (xy)−0.5 1 × y + xy 0 + 2y 0 = 1,
 
2
0
Move the y terms in one side, and factor:
1 1
y 0 (xy)−0.5 x + 2 = 1 − (xy)−0.5 y, and NOW isolate:

2 2
1
1 − (xy)−0.5 y
y0 = 2 , so NOW plug x = 4 and y = 1:
1
(xy)−0.5 x + 2
2
5
 1 − 12 × 12 × 1 3/4
y 0 (4) = 1 −0.5 × 4 + 2
= = 1/4.
2
× 4 3

6
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 8

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Exponential Growth/Decay, LIMITS INC-DEC.

Last lecture we presented few rules on derivatives of LOG, EXP! Do your recall the Chain rule
versions?

Exponential growth, and decay.

Let t be the time, P (t) a population at time t. Then P (0) is called the INITIAL POPULATION. It is
denoted by P0 .
Examples: a) Human population in Ottawa, ON starting in 2001.
b) Number of UFOs in the US skies starting in 1930.
c) Number of fish in lake Ontario starting in 1989.
d) Number of bacteria in a culture in a lab in 2019.
Population evolves over time, it is a function of time.
DEFINITION: THe Population grows exponentially if P (t) = P0 bt for some real number b ≥ 0.
Example 1: The number of mosquitoes in a village is 160000 at 1 PM. At 3 PM the number of
mosquitoes in that village is 320000. Assume that this population grows exponentially. Find the
population count at 7 PM.
SOL: The set up is:
Let t be the time, P (t) a population at time t. Then P (0) = P0 = 160000, AND P (t) = P0 bt =
160000bt .
At 1 PM we have the beginning of our experiment/measurement; so t = 0.
At 3PM we have t = 2, so 320000 = P (2) = 160000b2 . Let us isolate b as follows:
320000 √
= b2 , or 2 = b2 , hence b = 2. RECALL that b ≥ 0.
160000
√ t √ 6 6
SO: P (t) = 160000 2 , and from here, at 7 PM, one has: P (6) = 160000 2 = 160000 × 2 2 =
160000 × 8 = 1280000.
REMARK: b stands for BASE, it is our goal to FIND it from the info offered in the text.
Radioactive substances decay exponentially: Uranium, Radon, etc.
DEFINITION: The half-life of a substance is the amount of time it takes for half of a mass of that
substance to DECAY.
EXERCISE 2: Cobalt has a half-life of 270 days. At the beginning in the reactor in Deep River there
were 8 grams. How many grams will there be after 1080 days?
SOL: The set up is:
Let t be the time, P (t) the mass at time t. Then P (0) = P0 = 8, AND P (t) = P0 bt = 8bt .
What we know is: P (270) = 8/2 = 4. LET us isolate for b:
4 1
4 = 8b270 , hence = b270 , or = b270 . It follows that:
8 2
1 1 1
( ) 270 = (b270 ) 270 , thus:
2
2
 1 1
( ) 270 = b.
2
The formula becomes:
1 1 1 t
P (t) = 8(( ) 270 )t = 8(( ) 270 ). So now we can find the answer:
2 2
1 1080 1 1 1
P (1080) = 8(( ) 270 ) = 8(( )4 = 8 = gram.
2 2 16 2
Exercise 3. For the Data in Exercise 2: Find the time when the mass will reach 3 grams (and you
will see again why we need logs!)

SOL: We need to solve for t in P (t) = 3. In other words:

1 t
3 = 8(( ) 270 ), or by dividing by 8:
2
3 1 t
= ( ) 270 . To simplify an exponential, USE a log (and their laws!):
8 2
3 1 t
ln( ) = ln( ) 270 , hence:
8 2
3 t 1
ln( ) = ln( ) thus:
8 270 2
3
3 1 270 ln( )
270 ln( ) = t ln( ), so: 8 = t, stays as is! Or Can simplify more:
8 2 1
ln( )
2
8
270 ln( )
3 =t
2
ln( )
1

LIMITS, assymptotes.

One may define in a similar manner with our previously done limits in an a :

DEFINITION: WE WRITE lim f (x) = L, if we can make the values of the outputs (i.e., f (x))
x→∞
arbitrarly close to L, by taking x sufficiently positive large.

DEFINITION: WE WRITE lim f (x) = L, if we can make the values of the outputs (i.e., f (x))
x→−∞
arbitrarly close to L, by taking x sufficiently negative large.

IF EITHER lim f (x) = L OR lim f (x) = L WE SAY THAT y = L is a HORIZONTAL ASSYMP-

x→∞ x→−∞
TOTE OF f .

EXAMPLE: Look at the function f below, and note the behaviour.

3
One has that:

lim f (x) = −20, and lim f (x) = 10.

x→∞ x→−∞

Hence y = −20, and y = 10 are Horizontal assymptotes for the above function.

In a similar way one may define:

lim f (x) = ±∞.

x→±∞

Example: Think of f (x) = ex . One has lim ex = ∞. The behaviour is based on the graph of the
x→∞
exponential.

Playing Arithmetics with INFINITY: Let k ∈ R, c > 0.

1. ±∞ + k = ±∞; 2. ∞ + ∞ = ∞; 3. (−1)∞ = −∞, 4. c∞ = ∞;

c c c
5. ∞ × ∞ = ∞; 6. = 0; 7. + = ∞ and − = −∞;
∞ 0 0

8. ∞c = ∞; 9. c∞ = ∞ if c > 1; 10. c∞ = 0 if 1 > c > 0;

6x2 + 66
exc: FIND THE HORIZONTAL ASSYMPTOTES OF f (x) = .
−2x2 + 1

6x2 + 66 x2 (6 + x662 ) (6 + x662 ) 66

6+ ∞
SOL: We have lim
x→∞ −2x2 + 1
= lim 2
x→∞ x (−2 + 12 )
= lim
x→∞ (−2 + 12 )
= 1 = 6/ − 2 = −3, so
x x
−2 + ∞
6x2 + 66
y = −3 is a Horizontal assymptote. IN THE SAME WAY: lim = −3.
x→−∞ −2x2 + 1

DEFINITION: We write lim f (x) = +∞ if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarly positive large
x→a
by taking x sufficiently close to a, BUT not a.

Example: Based on the graph of the function f below one has that lim f (x) = ∞
x→2
4
Definition: We write lim f (x) = −∞ if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarly negative large
x→a
by taking x sufficiently close to a, BUT not a.
Example: Based on the graph of the function f below one has that lim f (x) = −∞
x→6

If either lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞ or

x→a x→a

lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim− f (x) = ±∞

x→a+ x→a

then we say that x = a is a VERTICAL ASSYMPTOTE.

9x2 + 8
EXCERCISE: Find the vertical assymptotes for f (x) = .
4 − x2
SOL: LOOK at the denominator: FACTOR it! (2 − x)(2 + x). CANDIDATES: 2, −2.
9x2 + 8 9×4+8
Let us compute lim− 2
= = ∞, so x = 2 is a Vertical assymptote.
x→2 4−x 0+
9x2 + 8 9×4+8
Let us compute lim − = = −∞, so x = −2 is a Vertical assymptote.
x→−2 4−x 2 0−
You may check the other 2 limits, but you stil get ±∞.
5
MAX, MIN, OPTIMIZATION.

DEFINITION: A function is called INCREASING on an interval I if for all x1 , x2 in I such that

x1 < x2 , one has:

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). The idea is graphically displayed below:

DEFINITION: A function is called DECREASING on an interval I if for all x1 , x2 in I such that

x1 < x2 , one has:

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). The idea is graphically displayed below:

REMARK: What about f (x) = x2 ? The pic is:

6
On some interval is decreasing (on (−∞, 0)), on another is increasing (on (0, ∞)). Calculus will
help us find when a function is increasing, decreasing and on what intervals.

REMARK: The famous cubic: g(x) = x3 is always increasing (on I = (−∞, ∞)):

TEST for INCREASING and DECREASING functions:

Assume that a function f is differentiable on an interval I.

a) IF f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in the interval I, then f is increasing on I;

b) IF f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in the interval I, then f is decreasing on I;

FROM NOW on, we must create a table containing the 0s (ROOTS), and the signs (+ or -) of the
derivative!

INTUITION: (recall the link between slope of tangent line AND derivative)

a) You see for increasing functions the slope of tangent line is > 0:
7
b) You see for decreasing functions the slope of tangent line is < 0:

x3
EXC 4: Consider the function: g(x) = −3x + . FIND WHEN g is increasing, or decreasing.
4

SOL: so we need to find on what intervals g is increasing, on what intervals is decreasing.

The domain of g is (−∞, ∞). IT is differentiable everywhere (it is a polynomial).

3x2 −12 3x2 3 3

The derivative is g 0 (x) = −3 + = + = (x2 − 4) = (x + 2)(x − 2).
4 4 4 4 4

IF you solve g 0 (x) = 0 one gets x = −2, and x = 2. The table of sign of the derivative (see the
TEST!) is:
8
SO g is increasing on (−∞, −2) and on (2, ∞), and NOTE that g is decreasing on (−2, 2).
32
EXC 5: Consider the function: f (x) = + x. FIND WHEN g is increasing, or decreasing.
x2
SOL: so we need to find on what intervals f is increasing, on what intervals is decreasing. NOTE
that the domain is D = {x|x 6= 0}.

0 −2 0 −3 −64 x3 − 64
The derivative is f (x) = (32x + x) = −64x +1= 3 +1= .
x x3
Solve f 0 (x) = 0 as follows: x3 = 64, x3 = 43 , so x = (43 )1/3 = 4.
The table is:

So f is decreasing on (0, 4), and f is increasing on (−∞, 0) and on (4, ∞).

9
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 9

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
MAX, MIN.

Goal: Get the idea how to differentiate between a LOCAL max/min and a GLOBAL (ABSOLUTE)
max/min. In word exercises we are looking the absolute maximum or absolute minimum.

DEFINITION: A point c in the domain of f is called a critical point (use notation CP) of f if:

either f 0 (c) = 0, or f 0 (c) Does Not Exist.

1 −1
COUNTERExample: Consider f (x) = x−1 = . One has that f 0 (x) = 2 . NOTE that:
x x
0 is NOT a CP EVEN if f 0 (0) Does Not Exist. Why? Because 0 not in domain of f .
2
Another Interesting example: Take g(x) = x 3 . Now 0 is in the domain of g, and since g 0 (x) =
2 −1 2 1
x3 = one has g 0 (0) Does Not Exist (use DNE). SO 0 is a CP of g.
3 3 x1/3
DEFINITION: Consider a function f and a point c ∈ D, where D is the domain of f .

i) We say that c is a local or relative maximum if there is an open interval containing c, in the
domain of f , such that f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in THAT INTERVAL!

ii) We say that c is a local or relative minimum if there is an open interval containing c, in the
domain of f , such that f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in THAT INTERVAL!

iii) We say that c is a Global or abslolute maximum if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in the DOMAIN of f !

iv) We say that c is a Global or abslolute minimum if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in the DOMAIN of f !

WE SAY c is an extremum. EXTREMA is the plural!

1
EXAMPLE 1. Consider f (x) = with domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). NO extrema (local or global).
x

EXAMPLE 2. Take g(x) = e2x , with domain the whole real line. NO extrema (local or global)
2
EXAMPLE 3. Let h be the function whose graph is below, with domain the real line. INFINITELY
many local(= global) maximum and minimum points!

EXAMPLE 4. Let k(x) = |x| when −2 ≤ x ≤ 3. Here: 0 is a LOCAL and GLOBAL MIN, while 3 is
a global MAX, while −2 is a local MAX.

3
Theorem: If f has a local max, or a local min at c, then c is a CP of f .
First DERIVATIVE TEST:

EXERCISE: Find ALL Critical Points of f (x) = x2 ex , and classify their type.
Sol. f is differentiable everywhere on domain: (−∞, ∞), and f 0 (x) = 2xex + x2 ex = ex (2x + x2 ) =
ex x(2 + x). Solving f 0 (x) = 0 one gets x = 0, x = −2. NOTE that ex 6= 0. SO −2, 0 are THE ONLY
CP of f . Look at the Table of 1st derivative:

So −2 is a LOCAL MAX, and 0 is a LOCAL MINIMUM.

6
Exercise: Find ALL Critical Points of f (x) = , and classify their type.
x−4
−6
Sol: Domain is (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, ∞), and f 0 (x) = (6(x − 4)−1 )0 = −6(x − 4)−2 = 6= 0, so NO
(x − 4)2
CP, NO local extrema.
Exercise: Find ALL Critical Points of f (x) = 11 − 9x − 3x2 + x3 , and classify their type.
Sol: Domain is (−∞, ∞), andf 0 (x) = −9 − 6x + 3x2 = 3(x2 − 2x − 3) = 3(x − 3)(x + 1). To get the
CP solve f 0 (x) = 0, and get x = 3, and x = −1.

SO: 3 is a LOCAL MIN, while −1 is a LOCAL MAX.

NOW:
THEOREM (Extreme Value Theorem): Assume that a continuous function f has as domain the
bounded, closed interval [a, b]. Then f attains a global max, and attains a global min in the domain
[a, b].
PLAN to get the global max, min for functions as in the theorem above (EVT).
4
1. Find f (a), and f (b)
2. FIND Critical points purple [a, b], and evaluate f in those critical points.
3. the smallest value from steps 1, 2 will give you the global MIN; the largest value in steps 1, 2
will give you the global MAX.
1
EXC. Find the global max, global min of f (x) = 1 − 3x2 + x3 on [− , 4].
2
SOL: NOTE that our function is continuous, look at te closed, bounded interval....
1
STEP 1: f ( −1
2
) = and f (4) = 17
8
STEP 2: the derivative is f 0 (x) = 0 − 6x + 3x2 = 3x(−2 + x). SOLVE f 0 (x) = 0, and get x = 0, and
x = 2 and BOTH are in our domain; so f (2) = −3, and f (0) = 1.
STEP 3: LOOK at steps 1,2. DECIDE that 4 is a GLOBAL Max, and that 2 is a global MIN.
TRY HOME: (see link for solution!)
EXC. Find the global max, global min of f (x) = 2 − 36x − 3x2 + 2x3 . TRY it first on [−4, 2]. THEN
on [0, 5].
WORD EXERCISE:
Exc: The famous company DF in ON noticed that the profit function for selling pens is P (x) =
−9 − 15x + 9x2 − x3 , where x is in the interval [0, 6]. Here x represents hundreds of units. Find the
absolute/global Max of the profit.
Sol: Note that P (0) = −9, P (6) = 9.
Next: P 0 (x) = −15 + 18x − 3x2 = −3(x2 − 6x + 5) = −3(x − 1)(x − 5). SOLVE forthe CP as follows:
P 0 (x) = 0, so x = 1 and x = 5: BOTH in domain!
Note P (1) = −16, and P (5) = 16.
Look at the 4 values above and get that in 5 we get a GLOBAL/Absolute MAX. The profit is: 16.

Concavity.

What the second derivative tells us about the shape of the function?
If f 00 (x) > 0 on an interval, meaning f 0 (x) is increasing on that interval, then the slope of the
tangent line to f (x) is increasing. We shall call this shape concave up. (Holds water!)
If f 00 (x) < 0 on an interval, meaning f 0 (x) is decreasing on that interval, then the slope of the
tangent line to f (x) is decreasing. We shall call this shape concave down. (Does NOT hold water!)

A point x in the domain of f is called an inflecton point for f if the function f changes concavity at
that point! (FRom C Up to C down, or the other way around!)The candidates for inflection points
are found by solving f 00 (x) = 0.
REMARK: f (x) = x4 has f 00 (x) = 12x2 , so solving f 00 (x) = 0 gives x = 0 but this point IS NOT an
inflection point! WHY? f 00 > 0 everywhere except 0, so no change!
5
EXC: Find the inflection points of f (x) = −8 + 45x + 3x2 − x3 , and the intervals where it is concave
up, concave down
SOL: the first derivative is computed, f 0 (x) = 45 + 6x − 3x2 = −3(x2 − 2x − 15), hence f 00 (x) =
−3(2x − 2). Solve f 00 (x) = 0, and get x = 1. The table helps you find concavity:

x −∞ 1 ∞
-3 - - -
2x − 2 - 0 +
f 00 (x) + 0 -
f (x) concave UP 39 concave down

So 1 is an inflection POINT! MORE: f is concave up on (−∞, 1), and concave down on (1, ∞).
PRACTICE HOME:
EXC: On what interval(s) is f (x) = 5 + x − 12x2 + 2x3 + x4 concave down?
SOL: Whole real line is the domain! f 0 (x) = 1 − 24x + 6x2 + 4x3 , so f 00 (x) = −24 + 12x + 12x2 =
12(x2 + x − 2) = 12(x − 1)(x + 2).
The candidates for Inflection Points are: x = 1, x = −2. TABLE of SIGN for the second derivative
is

Hence BOTH −2 and 1 are Inflection POINTS. MORE: f is concave down on (−2, 1). It is concave
up on (−∞, −2) ∪ (1, ∞).

6
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 10

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Concavity, Elasticity.

We discussed in the previous lecture: Inflection Points, concavity.

EXC: Find the inflection points, the concavity of f (x) = 1 − 3x2 + x3 + x4 .
SOL: domain is the whole real line; and we have f 0 (x) = −6x + 3x2 + 4x3 , then f 00 (x) = −6 + 6x +
12x2 = 6(2x2 + x − 1) = 6(2x − 1)(x + 1). To get the candidates for Inflection points solve f 00 (x) = 0
as follows: 2x − 1 = 0 gives x = 1/2, and x + 1 = 0 gives x = −1.
The table with the sign of 2nd derivative is here:

1
SO BOTH x = −1 and x = 1/2 are inflection points. MORE: f is concave down on (−1, ), while
2
it is concave UP on (−∞, −1) ∪ (0.5, ∞)
RECALL that for deciding local max/min we created tables with the signs of the 1st derivative.
We have now another trick for you:
SECOND DERIVATIVE test: Assume that f has a CP at c.
a) IF f 00 (c) < 0, then c is a LOCAL MAX;
b) IF f 00 (c) > 0, then c is a LOCAL MIN;
c) if f 00 (c) = 0, the test fails, do not apply it! It could be anything.

Advantage? No table! But can NOT always be applied (think of c)).

EXC: Use the 2nd derivative test to classify the CP of f (x) = 6x2 − x3 + 15x − 666.
SOL: Domain is: whole real line; while f 0 (x) = 12x − 3x2 + 15 = −3(x2 − 4x − 5) = −3(x + 1)(x − 5).
FOR CP solve f 0 (x) = 0, so x = −1, x = 5.
Then f 00 (x) = 12 − 6x. So f 00 (−1) = 12 − 6(−1) = 18 > 0, so −1 is a local MIN, while f 00 (5) =
12 − 6(5) = −18 < 0, so 5 is a local MAX.
2
Elasticity:

Elasticity of demand measures volatility of change of demand for a produced quantity of a given
product.

A product has an elastic demand if small changes in prices yield large changes in demand.

A product has an inelastic demand if large changes in prices yield small changes in demand.

The set up: let x be the number of units, let p(x) be the price at which we sell x units (in other
words, the demand function).
p(x)/x
DEFINITION: The elasticity of a demand function is: η = .
p0 (x)
SINCE p is decreasing, the denominator is negative, so always η is negative.

RULE:

a) IF |η| > 1, then the demand is elastic;

b) IF |η| < 1, then the demand is inelastic.

500
EXC: Assume that p(x) = . Find η when x = 23. Is that time the demand elastic?
x+2
−500 −25 × 2 × 5 × 2 −4
SOL: Find p0 (x) = (500(x + 2)−1 )0 = 500(−1)(x + 2)−2 , so p0 (23) = 2
= = .
25 25 × 5 × 5 5
500
NOW: p(23) = = 20. So: since x = 23 we have:
23 + 2
20
−25
η = 23 = .
−4 23
5
−25 25
Compute: |η| = | |= > 1, so ELASTIC!
23 23
r
x
EXC: do the same exc for p(x) = 100 − , and x = 125.
5
√
r
125
Sol: Note p(125) = 100 − = 100 − 25 = 100 − 5 = 95.
5
1 x 1 −1 125 −1/2 −1 −1 2 −1/2 −1 −1
Note that p0 (x) = − ( )−1/2 , so p0 (125) = ( ) = (25)−1/2 = (5 ) = 5 =
2 5 5 10 5 10 10 10
−1
.
50
95/125 95 × 50 5 × 19 × 25 × 2
When x = 125 one has that η = =− =− = −38, so |η| = 38 > 1, so
−1/50 125 25 × 5
elastic.
50
EXC: Assume that p(x) = √ . Find η when x = 25. Is that time the demand elastic?
x + 100
50 50 50 √ √ √ √
Sol: Note p(25) = √ =√ = √ . NOTE: 125 = 25 5 = 5 5
25 + 100 125 5 5
3
 −1 1 −25
Note that p0 (x) = (50(x + 100)−1/2 )0 = 50 (x + 100)−3/2 , so p0 (25) = −25 3/2
= √ =
2 125 (5 5)3
−25 −25 −1
√ 3 = 3 √ = √ .
53 5 5 ×5 5 25 5
50
√
√
5 5 −50 1 25 5
When x = 25 we compute: η = = √ = −10.
25 × 25−1
√
5
5 5 25 1
Since |η| = | − 10| = 10 > 1, it is elastic.
√
EXC: Assume that p(x) = 4 − x2 . SIMPLIFY the formula of η as much as possible. When x = 1
is the demand elastic?
√
0 1 2 −1/2 −x p/x 4 − x2 1
Sol: NOTE: p (x) = (4 − x ) (0 − 2x) = √ . Then η = 0 = −x =
2 4 − x2 p (x) x √
4 − x2
2 2
4−x −4 + x
− 2
= .
x x2
−3
NOW: when x = 1, we get η = = −3, since | − 3| = 3 > 1, it is elastic.
1
5000
EXC: Assume that p(x) = − 125. SIMPLIFY the formula of η as much as possible. When
10 + x
x = 15 is the demand elastic?
−5000
Sol: NOTE: p0 (x) = {5000(10 + x)−1 − 125}0 = −5000(10 + x)−2 − 0 = .
(10 + x)2
5000 − 125(10 + x) 5000 − 1250 − 125x 3750 − 125x
NOW: p(x) = = = .
10 + x 10 + x 10 + x
3750 − 125x 1 1
We get: η = × × =
10 + x x −5000
(10 + x)2
(3750 − 125x)(10 + x) 125(30 − x)(10 + x) (x − 30)(10 + x)
= = = .
−5000x −5000x 40x
−15 × 25 25 5
When x = 15, one gets |η| = | |= = < 1, so INELASTIC!
40 × 15 40 8
PRACTICE HOME:
1. Can we find the inflection points of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 − 12x2 + 5 + x?
Sol/Hint: Yes we can: f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 − 24x + 0 + 1.
So: f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x − 24 = 12(x2 + x − 2) = 12(x − 1)(x + 2).
Candidates: solve f 00 (x) = 0 and get x = 1, x = −2.
NOTE f 00 (x) < 0 on (−2, 1). WHY? select x = 0 and plug in second derivative, see the sign... SO
ON (−2, 1) our f is Concave down.
NOTE f 00 (x) > 0 on (−∞, −2) ∪ (1, ∞), so f is concave up on (−∞, −2) ∪ (1, ∞), and therefore:
−2, 1 are inflecton points.
In Fact: can you create a table with the sign of f 00 ?
What is th domain of f ? Did you ask yourselves at the beginning?
2. Can we factor the second derivative of f (x) = 2xe9x ?
4
Hint: Look at product rule:
f 0 (x) = 2e9x + 2xe9x 9 = (2 + 18x)e9x . DOO it again:
f 00 (x) = 18e9x + (2 + 18x)e9x 9 = e9x (18 + 18 + 162x).
ANSWER the following:
a) For what values of x one has that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f is 0?
Hint: Can we solve f 0 (x) = 0? There is one root only... RECALL EXP are never zero...
b) What are the candidates for INFLECTION points?
Hint: can you solve: f 00 (x) = 0. ONE root ONLY!!! Recall exponentials are never 0.
CREATE a table for f 0 and one for f 00 .
√
66666 + 6666 x
3. FIND lim .
x→∞ 1 + x6
Hint: I hope you recall that you must factor the top and bottom, use in each case the highest
power... Simplify...Then use the arithmetics of infinities...
4. Does it make sense that we factor the highest power in the following:
1−x
lim √ ?
x→1 x−1

5
 — 1300 —

L ECTURE 11

 Be in zoom, camera ON, muted. Unmute yourself when you want to ask questions.

 Attend the DGDs!

 Read Announcements!

 L AST AND F IRST N AME 

1
Word Problems.

Last lectures: max/min, concavity, elasticity. Ready for test 1?

√
Practice: For what values of x, the function: f (x) = xe−100x has a horizontal tangent line?
√ −100x
0 1 −1/2 −100x √ −100x e−100x xe (−100)
SOL: COMPUTE f (x) = x e + xe (−100) = √ + =
2 2 x 1
use a common denominator, add fractions and get:
e−100x + 2xe−100x (−100) e−100x (1 − 200x)
= √ = √ .
2 x 2 x
A HORIZONTAL LINE HAS SLOPE 0, SO SOLVE f 0 (x) = 0 as follows:
0 = e−100x (1 − 200x), and since EXP is never 0, one has: 0 = 1 − 200x, or 200x = 1, or x = 1/200.
As a plan:
Given a certain function, finding its maximum or minimum values means to optimize the func-
tion. Functions may appear from real life situations: economics (cost, revenue, profit), engeneer-
ing (volume, area, acceleration), biology (population).
For word problems there is a plan:
1.Read and understand the question: what is given? what is asked for? any restrictions?
2. If necessary draw a diagram to better view all objects at work, how they interact.
3. Introduce variables based on the statement.
4. Write equation(s) that will lead to a function to be maximized or minimized.
5. Find the maximum, minimum values using Calculus.
Example: Super Trumpy Hotel in Kincardine, ON has 300 rooms. It will rent all rooms if the hotel
charges 40$ per room. If the hotel increases the price by 2$, then 3 fewer rooms will be rented.
Find the prices that maximizes the REVENUE! Explain why your answer is an ABSOLUTE max.
SOL: From statement one can see that the price, say p, is a linear function of x, the number of
rooms rented.
Say, p(x) = mx + b. To find the slope:
∆p 40 − 42 −2
m= = = .
∆x 300 − 297 3
−2
So p(x) = x + b. To get b plug in:
3
−2 −2 −2
40 = 300 + b, so b = 40 − 300 = 40 + 200 = 240. SO p(x) = x + 240.
3 3 3
−2 2
The Revenue function: R(x) = xp(x) = x + 240x. NOTE: IT IS a quadratic!
3
−2
MORE: CP are found here: 0 = R0 (x) = 2x + 240. SO:
3
4x 3 × 240
= 240, hence: x = = 180.
3 4
2
 −2
IT is a a MAX because it is concave DOWN parabola! That is the REASON! So p(x) = 180 +
3
240 = 120.
For OPTIMIZATION: How to show that your max/min is GLOBAL/MIN:
a) the function is simple, such a parabola. MUST say: Parabola, orientation: UP, or DOWN.
b) Extreme value Theorem
c) If a continuous function f defined on an open interval I has one and only one CP inside I, then:
i) a LOCAL max, is also a GLOBAL max;
ii) a LOCAL min, is also an ABSOLUTE min.
EXC: A hotel in Kincardine, ON has a lot on the side of a river, exactly near the river. The lot is
rectangular, and its area is 12250m2 . Melania, the owner of the lot and hotel, wants to fence the lot
for a private golden resort. The side corresponding to the river does not need to be fenced. The
fencing for one side perpendicular to the river costs 30$ per m, and the other two sides cost 20$
per m. What dimensions minimize the cost?
Sol: Let x be the length of the side perpendicular on the river, and y the side parallel to th river.
See the diagram!

The cost is C = 30x + 20y + 20x = 50x + 20y. There are TWO variables! We need ONE!
12250
Recall 12250 = A = xy, so isolate, say, y = . THUS:
x
12250 245000
C(x) = 50x + 20 × = 50x + .
x x
RESTRICTIONS: Since x is a length: x > 0, so x is in I = (0, ∞).
245000
Compute the derivative: C 0 (x) = 50 − BECAUSE C(x) = 50x + 245000x−1 .
x2
245000 245000
To get the CP solve C 0 (x) = 0 as follows: 50 = 2
, or x2 = = 4900,
x 50
√ √ √ 12250
and since x is positive: x = + 4900 = 49 100 = 70, so y = = 175.
70
THIS x = 70 is a CP. It is the ONLY one. WHY? The other candidate (when the derivative does
not exist) is NOT in the domain!
3
 245000
NOTE: C 00 (x) = × 2 > 0, (INDEED use: C 0 (x) = 50 − 245000x−2 )
x3

245000
so 70 is a LOCAL min. (WE ALSO have: : C 00 (70) = × 2 > 0)!!!!
703

SINCE it is the only one in I, it will be a GLOBAL min.

EXC: To visit a resort in Kincardine, ON, a travel agency, Stealing N Corrupting, charges groups
of tourists 300$ per tourist, minus 3$ per tourist for each extra tourist over a group of size of 40.
It costs 6000$ plus 120$ per tourist to organize and manage the tour. How many tourists should
take the tour to maximize the proft?

Sol: Let x be the number of tourists taking the famous tour; THEN the price per tourist is:

p(x) = 300 − 3(x − 40) = 300 − 3x + 120 = 420 − 3x

The revenue is: R(x) = xp(x) = 420x − 3x2 .

The cost is C(x) = 6000 + 120x. So the

profit is P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = 420x − 3x2 − 6000 − 120x = −3x2 + 300x − 6000.

300
CP are found here: 0 = P 0 (x) = −6x + 300, so x = = 50. It is the ONLY one!
6

The graph of P is parabola that is concave DOWN, so the CP is a local MAX, which will be a
GLOBAL max.

EXC: A Superhero from CNL (Can Not Lose) wants to create using science, and facts fom calculus,
an open box to send it full of goodies to Santa Claus! The base is a square. The surface area is
108m2 . What dimensions will maximize the volume?

Sol: Say the length of a side the square is x, and the height is h. BOTH must be positive! So x > 0.

Then we know: V = x2 h, and

108 − x2
A = x2 + 4xh = 108. Isolate now h = .
4x

108 − x2 x3
Replace h in V and get that V (x) = x2 = 27x − .
4x 4
4
 3 3
Comute CP as follows: 0 = V 0 (x) = 27 − x2 , or 27 = x2 , so
4 4

27 × 4 √
x2 = = 36, so x = + 36 = 6.
3

3
NOTE V 00 (x) = − 2x < 0 FOR ANY x (so also for x = 6), so 6 is a LOCAL max. Since there is
4
only one CP, IT WILL be a GLOBAL max.

GRAPHING: we will be using Cal to graph functions for which we know a formula.

RECALL first:

We call x = a a Vertical Assymptote for f if at least one of the following conditions is fulfilled:

a) lim f (x) = +∞,

x→a

b) lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a

c) lim− f (x) = +∞,

x→a

d) lim− f (x) = −∞,

x→a

e) lim+ f (x) = +∞,

x→a

f) lim+ f (x) = −∞.

x→a

Visual example:
5
x=-6 for red, and x = 2 for blue.
−9
EXAMPLE: a) f (x) = has x = 8 as a VA.
8−x
b) g(x) = 8x + 1 does NOT have any VA.
Two Important Examples:
(x + 3)(x − 3)
a) f (x) =
(x − 4)
(x + 3)(x − 3)
b) g(x) =
(x − 4)(x − 3)
Think of x = 3. Is it a VA?