lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Part 1 Fluid Properties Fluid Lab

mechanical vibration (‫)ةيقيبطتلا ءاقلبلا ةعماج‬

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Instruction Manual

Fluid Properties
F1-30 ISSUE 2

February 2012 : PC-0055576

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Table of Contents

Copyright and Trademarks .................................................................................... 1

General Overview ..................................................................................................... 2

Equipment Diagrams ................................................................................................. 4

Important Safety Information ..................................................................................... 5

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5

Water Borne Hazards ............................................................................................ 5

Description ................................................................................................................ 6

Overview ............................................................................................................... 6

Installation ................................................................................................................. 7

Advisory................................................................................................................. 7

Calibrating the Aneroid Barometer ......................................................................... 7

Operation .................................................................................................................. 8

Operating the Equipment ....................................................................................... 8

Equipment Specifications .......................................................................................... 9

Overall Dimensions................................................................................................ 9

Specification of Components ................................................................................. 9

Environmental Conditions .................................................................................... 10

Routine Maintenance .............................................................................................. 11

Responsibility ...................................................................................................... 11

General................................................................................................................ 11

Cleaning .............................................................................................................. 11

Laboratory Teaching Exercises ............................................................................... 12

Index to Exercises ............................................................................................... 12

Nomenclature ...................................................................................................... 12

Exercise A - Liquid density / specific gravity using a hydrometer ............................. 13

Exercise B - Liquid density / specific gravity using a pycnometer ............................ 17

Exercise C - Solid density / specific gravity using a pycnometer .............................. 20

Exercise D - Liquid viscosity using a falling sphere viscometer ............................... 23

ii

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Table of Contents

Exercise E - Capillary elevation in capillary tubes .................................................... 27

Exercise F - Capillary elevation between plates ...................................................... 30

Exercise G - Archimedes Principle .......................................................................... 32

Exercise H - Using an Aneroid barometer to measure atmospheric pressure .......... 38

Exercise I - Project Work ......................................................................................... 39

Contact Details for Further Information .................................................................... 41

iii

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Disclaimer
This document and all the information contained within it is proprietary to Armfield
Limited. This document must not be used for any purpose other than that for which it
is supplied and its contents must not be reproduced, modified, adapted, published,
translated or disclosed to any third party, in whole or in part, without the prior written
permission of Armfield Limited.

Should you have any queries or comments, please contact the Armfield Customer
Support helpdesk (Monday to Thursday: 0830 – 1730 and Friday: 0830 - 1300 UK
time). Contact details are as follows:

United Kingdom International

(0) 1425 478781 +44 (0) 1425 478781
(calls charged at local rate) (international rates apply)

Email: support@armfield.co.uk

Fax: +44 (0) 1425 470916

Copyright and Trademarks

Copyright © 2012 Armfield Limited. All rights reserved.

Any technical documentation made available by Armfield Limited is the copyright

work of Armfield Limited and wholly owned by Armfield Limited.

Brands and product names mentioned in this manual may be trademarks or

registered trademarks of their respective companies and are hereby acknowledged.

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

General Overview
A fluid is defined as any substance which when acted on by a sheer force, however
small, undergoes a continuous and unlimited deformation. If the rate of deformation
is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied force then the substance is
termed a Newtonian fluid. Otherwise the fluid is termed non-Newtonian.

A clear understanding about the physical properties of fluids is essential before

studying the behaviour of fluids in static or dynamic applications. The F1-30 Fluid
Properties apparatus provides an introduction to the fundamental properties of
Newtonian liquids that affect their behaviour in practical applications. A
demonstration of the behaviour of non-Newtonian liquids is included in the Project
Work exercise.

The apparatus consists of a collection of components that demonstrate individual

fluid properties. The components are stored on a common support frame
manufactured from PVC with circular spirit level and adjustable feet for levelling. The
apparatus is designed to stand on a suitable bench top where some of the
components can be operated independent from the support frame.

Each of the glass components is filled with appropriate liquids to suit the various
demonstrations described in the experimental section of this instruction manual.

A freestanding dual scale lever balance is also supplied to support several of the
demonstrations.

F1-30 Fluid Properties apparatus

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

General Overview

The following demonstrations are possible using the F1-30:

Measuring fluid density and relative density (specific gravity) of a liquid using a
universal hydrometer

Measuring density and relative density (specific gravity) of a liquid using a

pycnometer (density bottle)

Measuring density and relative density (specific gravity) of a solid using a

pycnometer (density bottle)

Measuring fluid viscosity using a falling sphere viscometer

Observing the effect of capillary elevation between flat plates

Measuring the effect of capillary elevation inside capillary tubes

Verifying Archimedes principle (Buoyancy) using a brass bucket & cylinder with
a lever balance

Measuring atmospheric pressure using an aneroid barometer

Operation of the F1-30 does not require connection to a Hydraulics Bench Service
unit F1-10.

Other accessories in the F1 range can be used to complement the range of

demonstrations relating to fluid properties by demonstrating the behaviour of liquids
in static applications before studying the behaviour in dynamic applications. Typical
products are:

F1-11 Dead Weight Pressure and calibration of a Bourdon Gauge

F1-12 Hydrostatic Pressure

F1-14 Manometric Height

F1-29 Fluid Statics and Manometry

F1-31 Pascal’s Apparatus

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Equipment Diagrams

Figure 1: Front View of F1-30 Fluid Properties apparatus

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Important Safety Information

Introduction
All practical work areas and laboratories should be covered by local safety
regulations which must be followed at all times.

It is the responsibility of the owner to ensure that all users are made aware of
relevant local regulations, and that the apparatus is operated in accordance with
those regulations. If requested then Armfield can supply a typical set of standard
laboratory safety rules, but these are guidelines only and should be modified as
required. Supervision of users should be provided whenever appropriate.

Your F1-30 Fluid Properties Apparatus has been designed to be safe in use when
installed, operated and maintained in accordance with the instructions in this manual.
As with any piece of sophisticated equipment, dangers exist if the equipment is
misused, mishandled or badly maintained.

Water Borne Hazards

The equipment described in this instruction manual involves the use of water, which
under certain conditions can create a health hazard due to infection by harmful
micro-organisms.

For example, the microscopic bacterium called Legionella pneumophila will feed on
any scale, rust, algae or sludge in water and will breed rapidly if the temperature of
water is between 20 and 45°C. Any water containing this bacterium which is sprayed
or splashed creating air-borne droplets can produce a form of pneumonia called
Legionnaires Disease which is potentially fatal.

Legionella is not the only harmful micro-organism which can infect water, but it
serves as a useful example of the need for cleanliness.

Under the COSHH regulations, the following precautions must be observed:

• Any water contained within the product must not be allowed to stagnate, ie.
the water must be changed regularly.

• Any rust, sludge, scale or algae on which micro-organisms can feed must be
removed regularly, i.e. the equipment must be cleaned regularly.

• Where practicable the water should be maintained at a temperature below

20°C. If this is not practicable then the water should be disinfected if it is safe
and appropriate to do so. Note that other hazards may exist in the handling of
biocides used to disinfect the water.

• A scheme should be prepared for preventing or controlling the risk

incorporating all of the actions listed above.

Further details on preventing infection are contained in the publication “The Control
of Legionellosis including Legionnaires Disease” - Health and Safety Series booklet
HS (G) 70.

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Description
Where necessary, refer to the drawings in the Equipment Diagrams section. The
schematic drawing shows the general layout of the support frame and the location of
the various components that are located or stored on it.

Overview
The apparatus consists of a collection of components that demonstrate individual
fluid properties. The components are stored on a common support frame
manufactured from PVC with circular spirit level and adjustable feet for levelling. The
apparatus is designed to stand on a suitable bench top where some of the
components can be operated independent from the support frame.

A freestanding dual scale lever balance is also supplied to support several of the
demonstrations.

The support frame is constructed from white rigid PVC for durability and ease of
maintenance. The adjustable feet and the button spirit level (1) are used to level the
equipment.

The following items supplied with F1-30 are located on the frame or supported by it:

Spirit filled Thermometer (item1)

2 Hydrometer jars (item 2)

Aneroid Barometer (item 3)

Capillary tubes (item 4)

Universal hydrometer (item 5)

Capillary plates (item 6)

Beaker (item 7)

Displacement Vessel for Archimedes exercise (item 8)

Measuring cylinder (item 9)

2 Falling sphere viscometers (item 10)

Circular Spirit Level (item 11)

Archimedes bucket and cylinder (item 12)

50ml Gay-Lussac Glass Pycnometer (free standing – stored inside beaker)

Lever balance (free standing)

Plastic storage box containing steel spheres, wire etc. (free standing)

2 x 50ml plastic containers

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Installation
Advisory
Where necessary, refer to the drawing in the Equipment Diagrams section. The
schematic drawing shows the general layout of the support frame and the location of
the various components that are located or stored on it.

The support frame should be located on a firm work surface at a convenient

operating height then the feet should be adjusted to level the frame by referring to the
circular spirit level (11) on the frame.

The equipment is shipped with the individual components packed separately so it is

necessary to install these on the support frame. Unpack each item separately, check
for damage during shipping then install the components on the support frame using
the labels attached to the support frame to identify the correct locations.

The Lever Balance and box containing spheres etc should be placed in a secure
location until ready for use.

Calibrating the Aneroid Barometer

Before using the Aneroid Barometer it should be adjusted to read the correct
atmospheric pressure, correcting for the altitude where the equipment is operated.

Remove the two fixing screws that secure the barometer to the frame then adjust the
screw at the rear of the instrument using a suitable flat bladed screwdriver to give the
correct reading. Lightly tap the instrument on the front after making any adjustment to
confirm that the needle has settled at the correct reading.

The current pressure can be obtained from a reference barometer at the same
location. Alternatively the pressure can be obtained from a local meteorological
centre either by phone or using the internet. Because the atmospheric pressure is
continuously changing ensure that the value obtained is current and not previous
history.

After adjusting the barometer and rechecking the reading replace the fixing screws to
secure it to the support frame.

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Operation
Where necessary, refer to the drawings in the Equipment Diagrams section.

Operating the Equipment

The apparatus consists of a collection of components that demonstrate individual
fluid properties. The components are stored on a common support frame
manufactured from PVC with circular spirit level and adjustable feet for levelling. The
apparatus is designed to stand on a suitable bench top where some of the
components can be operated independent from the support frame.

Refer to the Laboratory Teaching Exercises for details on how to perform the various
demonstrations.

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Equipment Specifications
Overall Dimensions
Height - 503mm

Width - 600mm

Depth - 160mm

Specification of Components
2 x Hydrometer jars; 50mm diameter and 450mm high (clipped to stand)

1 x Universal hydrometer with varying resolution of 0.01 at 0.70SG to 0.5 at 2.00SG

(in protective housing)

2 x Falling sphere viscometer tubes; 40mm diameter with calibration marks at 0, 25,
100, 175, 200 and 220mm (clipped to stand)

1 x Plastic storage box containing steel spheres of 1.588, 2.381 and 3.175mm
diameter

1 x Spirit filled glass thermometer; Range -10° to 50°C (in protective housing)

1 x Direct reading aneroid barometer; Range 910 to 1060mbar (fixed to stand)

1 x Parallel plate capillary apparatus

1 x Capillary tube apparatus; 6 tubes 150mm long with bores of 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.2, 1.7
and 2.2mm

1 x Archimedes apparatus (displacement vessel, machined bucket & matching

cylinder)

1 x 250ml plastic measuring cylinder

1 x 600ml glass beaker

1 x 50ml Gay-Lussac Glass Pycnometer

1 x Dual scale lever balance, adapted for use with Archimedes apparatus; Ranges 0
to 250gms x 1gm and 0 to 1kg x 10gms

2 x 50ml Plastic containers

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Environmental Conditions
This equipment has been designed for operation in the following environmental
conditions. Operation outside of these conditions may result reduced performance,
damage to the equipment or hazard to the operator.

a. Indoor use;

b. Altitude up to 2000m;

c. Temperature 5°C to 40°C;

d. Maximum relative humidity 80% for temperatures up to 31°C, decreasing

linearly to 50% relative humidity at 40°C;

e. Mains supply voltage fluctuations up to ±10% of the nominal voltage;

f. Transient over-voltages typically present on the MAINS supply;

Note: The normal level of transient over-voltages is impulse withstand (over-

voltage) category II of IEC 60364-4-443;

g. Pollution degree 2.

Normally only nonconductive pollution occurs.

Temporary conductivity caused by condensation is to be expected.

Typical of an office or laboratory environment.

10

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Routine Maintenance
Responsibility
To preserve the life and efficient operation of the equipment it is important that the
equipment is properly maintained. Regular maintenance of the equipment is the
responsibility of the end user and must be performed by qualified personnel who
understand the operation of the equipment.

General
Fluids should be drained from the F1-30 Fluid Properties Apparatus before storage.
Safety data sheets should be referred to regarding handling and disposal of the
various liquids.

Cleaning
If it is necessary to clean the outside of the equipment it should be wiped over with a
damp cloth. Do not use solvents that will attack the PVC or other materials of
construction and do not use abrasive cleaners.

Should the inside of the glass components become scaled they may be cleaned
using a mild descaler that is suitable for use with glass.

11

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Laboratory Teaching Exercises

Index to Exercises
Exercise A - Liquid density / specific gravity using a hydrometer

Exercise B - Liquid density / specific gravity using a pycnometer

Exercise C - Solid density / specific gravity using a pycnometer

Exercise D - Liquid viscosity using a falling sphere viscometer

Exercise E - Capillary elevation in capillary tubes

Exercise F - Capillary elevation between plates

Exercise G - Archimedes Principle

Exercise H - Using an Aneroid barometer to measure atmospheric pressure

Exercise I - Project Work

Nomenclature
Name Symbol Unit Definition

Temperature T °C Measured variable

Volume V litres Measured variable

Time t secs Measured variable

Mass M kg Measured variable

Density ρ kg/m3 Measured variable

Specific Gravity s Dimensionless Measured variable

Length L m Constant

Cross sectional Area A m2 Constant

Coefficient of viscosity 

Force F N/m2

Acceleration due to gravity g m2/s Constant = 9.81

12

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise A - Liquid density / specific gravity using a

hydrometer
Objective
To determine the density of various liquids by measuring the relative density (specific
gravity) using a universal hydrometer

Method
By measuring the temperature and specific gravity of a liquid and calculating the
density of the liquid from the known density of water at that temperature

Equipment Required
Universal Hydrometer

2 Hydrometer Jars

Thermometer

Suitable liquids for testing

Note: The liquids used in this exercise must be safe to handle. For convenience it is
suggested that the liquids tested should be those to be used in Exercise D for
determining the viscosity of liquids: E.g. Glycerol and edible oil such as Sunflower oil,
Rape seed oil or Olive oil.

Optional Equipment
None

Theory
Density
The density of any fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume and is denoted by the
symbol “ ”

where

the metric unit is kg/m3 since any volume is proportional to a linear dimension cubed.

Because a liquid is incompressible the density of a liquid remains sensibly constant,

only varying with the temperature of the liquid. However, gas is compressible and the
density will vary as the volume occupied by a given mass of gas varies.

13

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Specific gravity / relative density

The specific gravity or relative density of a fluid is defined as the mass of a given
volume of a fluid divided by the mass of the same volume of water and is denoted by
the symbol “s”

where

If V is the volume of a liquid and of the water, l is the density of the liquid and w is
the density of the water

.....1.2

The Hydrometer
The principle of the common hydrometer depends upon the fact that when a body
floats in a liquid the gravitational force on the mass of the volume of liquid displaced
is equal to the gravitational force on the mass of the body. That is, it depends upon
Archimedes’ principle which is demonstrated in Exercise G.

The Hydrometer supplied with F1-30 is a commercial instrument that has been
calibrated ready for use. The scale is calibrated to indicate Specific Gravity therefore
when floated in water the hydrometer will sink until 1.00 on the scale aligns with the
surface of the water in the hydrometer jar. When immersed in other liquids, the
hydrometer will indicate the SG of other liquids directly on the scale.

The density of the fluid can be determined from the SG measurement by multiplying
the reading by the density of water.

Refer to Exercise E - Project Work for details on making your own simple
hydrometer.

14

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise A

Equipment Set Up
Locate the F1-30 on a firm and level surface then adjust the feet if necessary to level
the unit observing the circular spirit level attached to the base.

Fill one Hydrometer jar with clean water and fill the other jar with a different liquid
such as glycerol or castor oil. The depth of liquid should be sufficient to allow the
Hydrometer to float.

Procedure
Fill one hydrometer jar with sufficient water to float the hydrometer. Carefully float the
hydrometer in the water, ensuring that it is clear of the walls. When it has settled
confirm that the surface of the water corresponds with a reading of 1.00 on the
hydrometer scale. This confirms that the hydrometer is operating correctly. Measure
and record the temperature of the water using the spirit filled thermometer.

Replace the water with one of the liquids to be tested and fill the other jar with the
other liquid to be tested.

Float the hydrometer in each liquid in turn then measure and record the specific
gravity reading indicated on the scale. Also measure the temperature of each liquid.
Carefully wipe the hydrometer clean after immersion in each liquid to avoid cross
contamination.

Results
Barometric pressure mm of Hg,

Liquid temperature °C.

Liquid Scale Reading =

Specific Gravity, s

Water

Glycerol

Edible Oil

15

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

The density of water is usually taken to be 1000 kg/m3. However, the actual density
varies with temperature as follows:

Temperature Density

°C kg/m3

4 999.97

10 999.7

20 998.2

25 997.05

30 995.65

40 992.2

60 983.2

From the measured values of specific gravity calculate the actual density of the
liquids:

Density 

Liquid gm/ml kg/m3

Water

Engine Oil

Glycerol

Castor Oil

Conclusion
The hydrometer is a simple tool that allows the specific gravity and hence the density
of a liquid to be determined relatively quickly.

Comment on applications where changes in the density of a liquid is important and

where a hydrometer could be used to determine another important property of the
liquid.

16

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise B - Liquid density / specific gravity using a

pycnometer
Objective
To measure density and relative density (specific gravity) of various liquids using a
pycnometer (density bottle).

Method
By measuring the change in weight of a density bottle filled with the liquid to be
tested then calculating the density from the known volume and increase in weight.

Equipment Required
50 ml Gay-Lussac Pycnometer

Lever operated balance

Suitable liquids for testing

Note: The liquids used in this exercise must be safe to handle. For convenience it is
suggested that the liquids tested should be those to be used in Exercise D for
determining the viscosity of liquids: E.g. Glycerol and edible oil such as Sunflower oil,
Rape seed oil or Olive oil.

Optional Equipment
Accurate Laboratory balance

Theory
Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of a body to its volume. Therefore, if a
known volume of liquid is weighed, the density of the liquid can be determined from
the equation:

Where

ρL = Density of the liquid

ML = Mass of the liquid

VL = Volume of the liquid

All at temperature t °C

17

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

The glass pycnometer is calibrated so that when filled with a liquid and the stopper is
fully inserted, excess liquid is expelled via the hole in the stopper leaving a precise
known volume of liquid inside.

Measurement of the dry pycnometer and the pycnometer filled with liquid therefore
allows the density of the liquid to be calculated as follows:

where

ρL = Density of the liquid

ML = Mass of the liquid

MP = Mass of pycnometer

MP+L = Mass of pycnometer filled with liquid

VP = Volume of the pycnometer

= Volume of the liquid VL

= 50 mL for the pycnometer supplied

All at temperature t °C

18

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise B

Equipment Set Up
Ensure that the pycnometer has been cleaned and is thoroughly dry before
proceeding with this exercise.

Set up and level the lever balance on a solid work surface.

Note: The lever balance supplied with F1-30 is adequate to demonstrate how the
change in weight can be used to calculate liquid density but will not provide an
accurate value. If an accurate laboratory balance is available then this can be used to
obtain an accurate value for the liquid density.

Procedure
Ensure that pycnometer is dry then weigh it, complete with its stopper, and record the
weight.

Fill the pycnometer with the liquid to be tested, allow any air bubbles to rise to the
surface then insert the stopper fully. Wipe the outside of the pycnometer to remove
any spilt liquid then reweigh it and record the weight.

If it is required to measure the density of an alternative liquid then the pycnometer

must be cleaned and dried before repeating the procedure.

Results
Dry weight of pycnometer MP = gm

Filled weight of pycnometer MP+L = gm

Weight increase due to liquid ML = MP+L - MP gm

Volume of pycnometer VP = 50 mL

Density of liquid kg/m3

Conclusion
Comment of the practicality of using a pycnometer to determine the density of
different liquids.

19

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise C - Solid density / specific gravity using a

pycnometer
Objective
To measure the density and relative density (specific gravity) of a small irregular solid
object or granular material using a pycnometer (density bottle).

Method
By inserting a solid object or sample of granular material, of known weight, into the
pycnometer and measuring the change in weight of the pycnometer without water
then filled with water. The change in weight is used to determine the volume of the
solid object allowing its density to be calculated.

Equipment Required
50 ml Gay-Lussac Pycnometer

Lever operated balance

Note: Water is recommended for this exercise unless the solid material to be tested
is not compatible with water. Alternative liquids can be used if required provided that
they are safe to handle. For convenience it is suggested that the liquids tested should
be those to be used in Exercise D for determining the viscosity of liquids: e.g.
Glycerol and edible oil such as Sunflower oil, Rape seed oil or Olive oil.

Optional Equipment
Accurate laboratory balance

Theory

Note: The solid object or granular material chosen for this exercise must not be
soluble in water.

20

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise C

When the solid is loaded into the pycnometer it will displace its own volume of liquid,
allowing the actual volume of the solid to be determined from the change in weight,
as follows:

Mass of dry solid /granular material = MS gm

Dry weight of empty pycnometer = MP gm

Mass of pycnometer filled with liquid only = MP+L gm

Mass of liquid = ML = MP+L – MP gm

Volume of pycnometer (volume of liquid) = VP (50 ml for pycnometer supplied)

Density of liquid = ρL = ML / VP gm/ml

Mass of pycnometer with liquid and solid = MP+L+S gm

Mass of liquid displaced = MLdisp = MP+L + MS –MP+L+S = ml

Volume of liquid displaced (Volume of solid) = VLdisp = MLdisp / ρL ml

Density of solid = ρS = MS / VLdisp gm/ml (kg/m3)

Equipment Set Up
Ensure that the pycnometer has been cleaned and is thoroughly dry before
proceeding with this exercise.

Set up and level the lever balance on a solid work surface.

Note: The lever balance supplied with F1-30 is adequate to demonstrate how the
pycnometer can be used to determine the density of a solid object but will not provide
an accurate value. If an accurate laboratory balance is available then this can be
used to obtain an accurate value for the density of the solid object.

Procedure
Note: The density of the steel balls used in the measurement of viscosity (Exercise
D) can be determined using this technique if required.

Ensure that pycnometer is dry then weigh it, complete with its stopper, and record the
mass MP (gm)

Fill the pycnometer with clean water or alternative liquid as required, allow any air
bubbles to rise to the surface then insert the stopper fully. Wipe the outside of the
pycnometer to remove any spilt liquid then reweigh it and record the mass MP+L (gm).

Weigh the solid or granular material to be measured and record the mass MS gm.

Remove the stopper the carefully insert the solid or granular material into the
pycnometer, displacing liquid from the pycnometer. Replace the stopper, dry the
outside of the pycnometer then reweigh the pycnometer and record the mass MP+L+S
gm.

If it is required to measure the density of an alternative liquid then the pycnometer

must be cleaned and dried before repeating the procedure.

21

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Results
Mass of dry solid /granular material MS = gm

Dry weight of pycnometer MP = gm

Mass of pycnometer filled with liquid MP+L = gm

Mass of liquid ML = MP+L – MP = gm

Volume of pycnometer (volume of liquid) VP = 50 ml

Density of liquid ρL = ML / VP = gm/ml

Mass of pycnometer with liquid and solid MP+L+S = gm

Mass of liquid displaced MLdisp = MP+L + MS –MP+L+S = ml

Volume of liquid displaced (Volume of solid) VLdisp = MLdisp / ρL =

Density of solid ρS = MS / VLdisp gm/ml (kg/m3)

Conclusion
Comment of the practicality of using a pycnometer to determine the density of an
irregular shaped solid or granular material.

Comment on alternative methods for determining the density of an irregular shaped

object or granular material.

22

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise D - Liquid viscosity using a falling sphere

viscometer
Objective
To measure the viscosity of various liquids at atmospheric temperature and pressure
using a Falling Sphere Viscometer.

Method
By timing the fall of different sized spheres through a given depth of the liquid to be
tested then calculating the viscosity from the mean velocity.

Equipment Required
2x Falling sphere viscometers

Steel balls of different sizes

Universal Hydrometer (if Exercise B has not been performed)

Spirit filled thermometer

Laboratory stop clock (not supplied by Armfield)

Suitable liquids for testing: The liquids used in this exercise must be safe to handle.
For convenience it is suggested that the liquids tested should be those to be used in
Exercise A for determining the density of liquids: E.g. Glycerol and edible oil such as
Sunflower oil, Rape seed oil or Olive oil.

Optional Equipment
Vernier calliper or micrometer to measure the diameter of the spheres.

Theory

23

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Referring to the diagram, when the ball is moving with a uniform velocity u, then
forces acting on the sphere are:

a. the gravitational force on the ball mg.

b. the buoyant force or Up-thrust FB

c. the viscous force resisting motion FV

Since the velocity of fall is uniform, the algebraic sum of these forces must be zero.

therefore

The gravitational force on the ball:

where s = density of ball

r = radius of sphere

The buoyant force on the ball:

where l = density of liquid.

The viscous force on the ball from Stokes Law,

where  = Coefficient of viscosity

u = Mean velocity of ball

The viscometer is used to determine the mean velocity of the different sized balls as
they fall through the liquids to be tested. The density of the liquids can be confirmed
by performing Exercise A. The density of the balls can be confirmed by performing
Exercise C if required.

24

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise D

Equipment Set Up
Locate the F1-30 on a firm and level surface then adjust the feet if necessary to level
the unit observing the circular spirit level attached to the base.

Fill the two Falling sphere viscometer tubes with the liquids to be tested, typically
Glycerol and edible oil as suggested in exercise A. The tubes should be filled to the
neck so that the 200 graduation is covered.

Procedure
If a vernier calliper or micrometer is available measure and record the diameter of the
steel balls, otherwise the nominal diameters can be used for the exercises as follows:

Small 1.5875mm

Medium 2.38125mm

Large 3.175mm

Fill the viscometer tubes with the liquids under test to a level just below the exit from
the capillary tube as shown in the diagram above.

Suggested test liquids are:

Glycerol

Edible oil

Note: Since glycerol absorbs moisture easily from the atmosphere, a small amount
of cotton wool should be placed in the top of the capillary tube if the tube is left full for
any length of time.

Use three balls of different diameters with each liquid; measure diameters of the
balls. Nominal size of balls supplied: 1.588mm, 2.381mm, 3.175mm.

If the specific gravity of the liquids to be tested has not been determined by
performing Exercise A then these values should be obtained using the Universal
Hydrometer as described in Exercise A.

Results:

Barometric pressure mBar,

Temperature of liquid °C.

Measured diameter of balls 1.59mm, 2.38mm, 3.175mm,

Specific gravity of steel: 7.8

Specific gravity of liquids:

Engine oil – typically 0.89 (figure quoted for Castrol XXL)

Glycerol – typically 1.25

Castor Oil – typically 0.95

25

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Drop balls of different diameters, one at a time through the funnel at the top of the
viscometer and time the fall between the marks on the wall of the viscometer. Repeat
each measurement three times to obtain an average timing for each diameter of ball.

Repeat the measurements for each size of ball falling through the liquid in the second
viscometer.

Note that with liquids of low viscosity the larger spheres cannot be used because the
fall time will be too short to obtain accurate results. A smaller size ball could be used
to increase the fall time but observation of the sphere through the liquid would then
be difficult.

Results
For each timing calculate the mean velocity of the ball as it falls through the liquid as
follows:

Mean velocity of ball

then

Note r in metres, g in m/s2,  in kg/m3, u in m/s

Calculate the Kinematic viscosity

Conclusion
Compare the results obtained with standard tables for the liquid tested.

Comment on the accuracy of the results and account for any variation.

26

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise E - Capillary elevation in capillary tubes

Objective
To measure the effect of capillary elevation inside capillary tubes

Method
By immersing tubes with different capillary bore diameters into water and comparing
the elevation of the level inside the tubes due to surface tension

Equipment Required
Glass capillary tubes in frame

Pencil and waterproof card (cut to size to fit behind capillary tubes)

Methylated spirits or similar degreasing solution (not detergent)

Wetting agent or detergent.

Optional Equipment
None

Theory
When a tube with a small bore is inserted into a container of liquid, the level will
either rise or fall within the tube as shown in the diagram depending on the angle of
contact between the liquid surfaces.

For liquids which wet the surface of the tube, such as water, the liquid surface is
attracted up the tube resulting in capillary elevation. For liquids which do not wet the
tube, such as mercury, the liquid surface is repelled resulting in capillary depression.

Considering the water, the gravitational force on the column of liquid elevated must
be supported by the surface tension , acting round the periphery of the tube.

27

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Resolving vertically

rearranging this gives

However, where the liquid starts to wet the wall of the tube;  is zero so the equation
becomes

This capillary action due to surface tension can cause serious errors when measuring
pressures in terms of a head of liquid such as with a piezometer tube, if the bore of
the tube is too small.

Equipment Set Up
Locate the frame containing the row of capillary tubes on a firm and level surface. If
the equipment has not been used for some time it is advisable to degrease the bores
of the glass tubes using methylated spirits or similar cleaning fluid but do not use
detergent as this will reduce the effect of the surface tension. Care must be taken
when handling the glass tubes to avoid damage or injury.

Ensure that the tubes are assembled in order of bore diameter then fill the tray at the
bottom with clean water.

Procedure
Observe the level of the water in each of the tubes and

Observe the small meniscus around the outside diameter of the tubes where the
water level rises slightly due to surface tension in the water.

Make sure the capillary tubes are thoroughly clean then rinse in clean water to
remove all traces of detergent.

Fill the water trough to the level of the bottom support plate and insert the capillary
tubes.

Observe that the water level inside each of the tubes rises, reducing bore sizes
producing more elevation.

Place a card behind the capillary tubes.

Mark the card with the height of the capillary elevation in each tube.

With a pair of dividers, measure the capillary rise “h” for each diameter of tube and
record the measurements.

28

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise E

Results
Calculate the theoretical capillary rise for each diameter of tube using the equation

(m)

where the Surface tension of water  = .072N/m at 25°C.

Compare the measured and calculated values for h as follows:

ID of Tube Measured Capillary Calculated Capillary

(mm) Rise, h (mm) Rise, h (mm)

0.5

0.8

1.1

1.7

2.0

2.2

Conclusion
Comment on the difference between the measured and calculated capillary rise in
each tube.

Comment on advantages and disadvantages of capillary elevation (or depression in

non-wetting liquids) in everyday applications.

29

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise F - Capillary elevation between plates

Objective
To demonstrate the effect of capillary elevation between two flat glass plates due to
surface tension in a liquid.

Method
By creating a small but variable gap between two vertical flat plates and observing
the rise in water level between the plates.

Equipment Required
Flat glass plates in frame

Pencil and waterproof card (cut to size to fit behind glass plates)

Methylated spirits or similar degreasing solution (not detergent)

Wetting agent or detergent.

Suitable liquids for testing such as a solution of sodium chloride. The liquids used in
this exercise must be safe to handle.

Optional Equipment
None

Theory
Capillary elevation between flat surfaces is similar to the elevation that results in
small bore capillary tubes as demonstrated in the previous exercise.

This exercise demonstrates capillary elevation between flat surfaces and does not
compare measured and theoretical values.

Equipment Set Up
Locate the frame containing the two glass plates on a firm and level surface. If the
equipment has not been used for some time it is advisable to degrease the glass
plates using methylated spirits or similar cleaning fluid but do not use detergent as
this will reduce the effect of the surface tension. Care must be taken when handling
the glass plates to avoid damage or injury.

Wrap a length of fine wire around one plate near one end then sandwich the two
plates together and install them vertically between the supporting clips in the frame
with the bottom edge of the plates inside the trough.

Procedure
Fill the trough with clean water.

If necessary insert a piece of card behind the plates to aid visualisation of the water
level between the plates.

The exercise can be repeated with wire wrapped around both ends of the plates to
create a parallel gap between the plates.

30

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise F

The exercise can be repeated with wire of different diameter to change the dimension
between the plates.

Since surface tension and hence the capillary elevation of the liquid will change
slightly with the temperature of the liquid, the exercise can be carried out using
chilled water or hot water (not scalding) and the results compared.

Since the surface tension and hence the capillary elevation of a liquid varies with the
properties of the liquid, the exercise can be carried out using alternative liquids such
as a solution of sodium chloride which exhibits increased surface tension.

Results
Sketch the variation in water level, due to surface tension, as the gap between the
plates varies.

It should be noted that where the gap is at its smallest the rise is greatest, and
conversely where the gap is widest the capillary rise is at its smallest.

Conclusion
Surface tension in liquid causes the free surface of the liquid to be drawn along a
surface in contact with the liquid resulting in a meniscus that becomes extremely
large when the liquid enters a small gap between adjacent surfaces.

Comment on advantages and disadvantages of capillary elevation (or depression in

non-wetting liquids) in everyday applications.

31

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise G - Archimedes Principle

Objective
To verify Archimedes principle using a brass bucket & cylinder with a lever balance
and displacement vessel

Method
By weighing the machined bucket and cylinder in air then with the cylinder immersed
in water to determine the up-thrust and using a displacement vessel to measure the
volume

Equipment Required
Archimedes apparatus (machined bucket and cylinder)

Lever balance

Displacement vessel

Optional Equipment
50ml Plastic container

Small measuring cylinder typically 100 ml (not supplied)

Theory
Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force on an object immersed in liquid is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

When a body floats freely in a fluid, whether completely or partially immersed, it is

acted upon by two forces only:

a. the gravitational force on the mass of the body acting vertically downward
through its centre of gravity

b. the buoyant force or Up-thrust exerted by the surrounding fluid on the body.

32

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise G

This Up-thrust acts vertically upward through the centre of buoyancy which is at the
centre of gravity of the displaced liquid. A body totally immersed and floating freely in
a fluid of density l is shown below:

Consider a vertical prism taken from within the body and having an area ΔA.

Let the pressure acting on the top of the prism be p and that on the bottom be (P +
lgh)

The net vertically upward force or Up-thrust acting on the prism

If the whole body is considered to be made up of a large number of such prisms, then
the net total Up-thrust on the whole body

Which is the gravitational force on the mass of fluid displaced by the body.

This equation expresses algebraically Archimedes’ principle, which states that every
body experiences an Up-thrust equal to the gravitational force on the mass of fluid it
displaces.

33

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

In practice, the body usually floats at the surface of separation of two fluids and the
fluids commonly encountered are air and water. In general, let a body float freely in
two fluids which do not mix having densities of ρl and ρ2 as shown below:

Considering a vertical prism taken from within the body and having an area ΔA.

Let the pressure acting on the top of the prism be P and that on the bottom be (P +
ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2)

The net vertical upward force or Up-thrust acting on the prism

If the whole body is considered to be made up of a large number of such prisms, then
the net total Up-thrust on the whole body

Which is the gravitational force on the masses of fluid displaced by body.

34

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise G

An examination of this equation will make it clear that when a body is floating freely in
a gas and a liquid, such as air and water, and since the density of the gas is
negligible compared to that of a liquid, then the gravitational force on the mass of the
gas displaced by the body will be negligible compared to the gravitational force on
the mass of liquid.

FB = ρ2g V2 ......4.3

Which is the gravitational force on the mass of the liquid displaced by body.

It should be noted that the Up-thrust is simply the resultant vertical force due to static
fluid pressure.

Equipment Set Up
Locate the lever balance on a firm and level surface. Set the counterweight (raised
position) to operate over the range 0 – 250gm then adjust the levelling screw to zero
the cursor on the scale.

Archimedes demonstration apparatus

35

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

Procedure
When performing an experiment using the Archimedes apparatus, a brass cylinder
and a brass bucket with identical internal volume are suspended from a lever arm
balance allowing the mass in various configurations to be measured including the
cylinder immersed in water. Water displaced when immersing the cylinder can also
be collected and measured to determine the volume of the cylinder.

a. Suspend the bucket and cylinder by a fine thread from the hook on the
underside of the pan on the lever balance.

b. With the balance set to operate on the 0-250gm range, note the mass of the
bucket and cylinder.

c. Fill the displacement vessel with water then allow it to drain to the level of the
spout on the side. When the level has settled place an empty plastic container
under the spout before proceeding.

d. Immerse the cylinder completely in the displacement vessel and again note
the mass. Allow the displaced water to collect in the container then remove
the beaker and retain the displaced water.

e. Remove the cylinder from the displacement vessel and note the mass of the
bucket only.

f. Completely fill the bucket with water and note the mass.

g. Measure the volume of water collected in the container using an accurate

measuring cylinder.

Note: After use ensure the bucket, cylinder and displacement vessel are dried
thoroughly.

Results
Archimedes’ Principle states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a
fluid it experiences an up thrust equal to the gravitational force on the mass of fluid
displaced.

Mass of bucket with cylinder in air m1 = gm

Mass of bucket with cylinder immersed in water, m2 = gm

Up-thrust

Mass of bucket only in air m3 = gm

Mass of bucket filled with water m4 = gm

Mass of water = (m4 - m3) gm

and gravitational force on the mass of water

36

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise G

From Archimedes’ Principle:

Up-thrust = gravitational mass of water displaced by cylinder

therefore m1 - m2 = m4 - m3

From your measurements show that m1 - m2 = m4 - m3

Conclusion
Archimedes principle has been verified.

37

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise H - Using an Aneroid barometer to measure

atmospheric pressure
Objective
To measure the current atmospheric pressure using an aneroid barometer.

Method
By reading the pressure indicated on the barometer fitted to F1-30 and comparing
the value with another instrument in the same location.

Equipment Required
F1-30 Fluid Properties apparatus

Theory
The atmospheric pressure continuously varies with changes in the weather. The
atmospheric pressure also varies with the elevation above sea level.

Before using an aneroid barometer it must be calibrated against another instrument

at the same location to correct for any change in elevation since it was last
calibrated.

Once calibrated for elevation the aneroid barometer will indicate changes in
atmospheric pressure due to the weather.

Equipment Set Up
Locate the F1-30 on a firm and level surface then adjust the feet if necessary to level
the unit observing the circular spirit level attached to the base.

Procedure
Read the current atmospheric pressure indicated on the Aneroid Barometer and
record the value obtained.

Obtain the current value for the atmospheric pressure from a reference barometer at
the same location if available. Alternatively the pressure can be obtained from a local
meteorological centre either by phone or using the internet. Because the atmospheric
pressure is continuously changing ensure that the value obtained is current and not
previous history.

Results
Compare the value obtained using the Aneroid barometer with the value obtained
independently. If there is a marked discrepancy between the readings obtain another
value independently. If the Aneroid barometer is proven to indicate the wrong
reading, discuss the need to recalibrate the instrument with the laboratory supervisor.

Conclusion
Comment on any variation in the two values.

38

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Exercise I - Project Work

To make a simple hydrometer for use in Exercise A
A simple hydrometer may be made from a piece of glass tube closed at one end with
a paper scale inside. A small amount of lead shot or sand should be placed in the
bottom of the tube as shown. The amount will need to be adjusted until the tube
floats at a sensible depth in the liquids to be tested. Insufficient shot and the tube will
float too high and be unstable, too much shot and the tube will sink.

First immerse the tube in water and mark on the paper scale the length immersed,
taking care to return the scale to the same position inside the tube after marking it.
Then repeat by immersing the tube in another liquid, and again, mark the length
immersed.

If LW = length immersed in water of density w

and Ll = length immersed in liquid of density l

l = s w

then the gravitational force on the mass of water displaced = wg.A.Lw (where A =
cross section area of glass tube), the gravitational force on the mass of liquid
displaced = lg.A.Ll = s wg.A.Ll. From Archimedes’ principle the gravitational force
on tube = gravitational force on the mass of water displaced = gravitational force on
the mass of liquid displaced.

39

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Armfield Instruction Manual

If then, the depth of immersion in water is marked on the paper scale as 1.00 and for
the liquid by Lw/Ll using a number of different liquids a scale may be constructed to
read specific gravities directly.

To investigate the properties of non-Newtonian liquids

Normal liquids such as water, that exhibit constant viscosity, are referred to as
Newtonian liquids. Some liquids do not behave normally, because the viscosity is not
constant, and these are referred to as non-Newtonian liquids. One example of a non-
Newtonian liquid is ketchup that becomes less viscous when agitated. Liquids
exhibiting this type of behaviour are referred to as thixotropic. A completely different
type of non-Newtonian liquid is a suspension of cornstarch in water, sometimes
called Oobleck. This behaves in the opposite way to ketchup because it flows as a
thick liquid when allowed to rest but acts like a solid when force is applied. A non-
Newtonian liquid with this type of behaviour is referred to as a dilatant material or
shear thickening liquid.

The behaviour of non-Newtonian liquids can be investigated and some of the

exercises such as the measurement of viscosity can be performed.

A suspension of cornstarch can be made quite easily by mixing approximately 1 part

water with 1.5 or 2 parts cornstarch in a bowl to give a consistency similar to honey.
The composition can be varied to optimize the demonstration and it may be
necessary to add more water or more cornstarch to obtain the required consistency.
This cornstarch-water mixture acts as a thick liquid when allowed to rest, but acts like
a solid when force is applied, i.e. it will allow slow movement will not allow rapid
motion E.g. a hand will sink into the suspension slowly but it will resist if it is punched.
Similarly a solid ball can be formed by squeezing it in the palm of the hand but it will
flow between the fingers when the pressure is released.

Note: Because of the properties of cornstarch the liquid must be disposed of

carefully after use. The mixture of cornstarch and water must not be flushed
down the drain because it will block the pipework. If the suspension is allow to
settle then excess water can be poured off the top leaving the cornstarch to be
disposed of in a dustbin / trash can.

40

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|32183418

Contact Details for Further Information

Main Office: Armfield Limited

Bridge House
West Street
Ringwood
Hampshire
England BH24 1DY

Tel: +44 (0)1425 478781

Fax: +44 (0)1425 470916
Email: sales@armfield.co.uk
support@armfield.co.uk
Web: http://www.armfield.co.uk

US Office: Armfield Inc.

9 Trenton - Lakewood Road

Clarksburg, NJ 08510

Tel/Fax: (609) 208 2800

Email: info@armfieldinc.com

41

Downloaded by Murtada Ali (yahg95@gmail.com)