Pokudin V.G. Vikhrov N.M. os ‘ ° Pokudin V.G. Vikhrov N.M. te SHIP REPAIR TECHNOLOGYV.G. Pokudin, N.M. Vihrov TECHNOLOGY SUDOREMANTA Textbook Recommended by the UMO for education in the field of operation of water transport as a textbook for students (cadets) of higher educational institutions studying in the direction of training 180400 "Operation of water transport and transport equipment" in the specialty 180403 "Operation of ship power plants". Decision of 07.12.2006 St. Petersburg Publishing House "ParkKarmn" 2007ba UDC 629.122.004.67(075) BBK 39.42(075) P48 Pokudin V.G., Vihrov N.M. P48 Ship repair technology: Textbook. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "ParkKom", 2007-424 p. ISBN 978-5-98 175-012-0 The preface and chapters 1, 3, 5, 8 and 10 were written by V.G. Pokudin, chapters 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 were written by N.M. Vikhrov, the appendices were written by the authors jointy. The textbook discusses the basics of the analysis of the causes of damage and measures to prevent them, the organization of technical disassembly, and detection of their elements, the technological processes of repair and increasing the resource, the appointment and running-in after repair. A significant part of the textbook is devoted to the consideration of the content and features of the implementation of maintenance processes for the main types ship's technical equipment and hull with recommendations for ensuring the quality of work. Issues such as finding out the reasons for the breakage of bolts of and analysis of laying cmeanns ates the gaps, preventing damage from shifts, ensuring the quality of running-in of friction pairs in the educational literature are considered for the first time. The textbook takes into account the current national regulations in the field of ship repair, the recommendations of equipment manufacturers for maintenance. Itis intended for students and cadets of higher educational institutions studying in the specialty "Operation of ship power plants" and can be used for advanced training courses for ship mechanics and employees of technical maintenance services of ship companies. ISBN 978-5-98175-012-0 UDC 629.122.004.67(075) BBK 39.42(075) © ~~ Pokudin V.G., Vihrov N.M., 2007 © Publishing house "ParkKom", 20073 CONTENT Foreword Chapter 1. Causes and types of damage 1.1. Classification of defects, damages and their causes. 1.2. Friction and wear damage. 1.3. Fatigue failure of metals... 1.4. Fretting corrosion damage.. 1.5. Hardening of metals and its consequences. 1.6. Pitting 1.7. Erosion wear.. 1.8. Cavitation......... 1.9. Damage caused by high temperatures. 1.10. Cold damage.. 1.11. Carrasion damage... 1.12. Movement damage.. 1.13. Reasons for broken bolts and ties... 1.14. Heavy duty damage... 1.15. Effect of deposits on damageability and technical Chapter 2. Dismantling of ship technical equipment. 2.1. «om Of disassembly ...... 2.2. General instructions for the organization and conduct of disassembly. 2.3. Measurements taken before and during disassembly... 2.4. Branding and marking of parts ...... 2.5. Methods for dismantling parts and assemblies. 2.6. Disassembly of threaded connections. ,, 2.7. Disassembly of diesel engine units. 2.8. Removing cylinder bushings... 2.9. Dismantling of liners of frame bearings. 2.10. Prevention of damage during dismantling and transportation 2.11. Removal of deposits and cleaning... 2.12. Conservation and deconservation.... Chapter 3. Methods for detecting defects and damage .. 3.1. Purposes and means of fault detection 3.2. Detection of mechanisms for changing work parameters. 3.3. Detection by inspections... 3.4. Detection by tapping.. 3.5. Micrometric defect. 3.6. Capillary defects... 3.7. Magnetic flaw detection... 3.8. Eddy current defect...3.9. Ultrasonic detection... 3.10. Radiation detection mathod... 3.11. Metallographic analysis and mechanical testing. 3.12. Hydraulic tests.......... 3.13. Leak detection with a leak detector...... 3.14. Impermeability tests of compartments and structural elements. 118 3.15. Limits of permissible wear and damage .... 3.16. Categories of assessments of technical condition. Chapter 4. General methods of repair and increase the resource of parts ... 4.1. The choice and justification of the repair method 4.2. Repair by replacement of damaged elements. 4.3. Machining repair..... 44. Locksmith repair.. 4.5. Repair by welding and surfacing of metals.. 4.6. Metal spray repair. 4.7. Electroplating repair, eee eee eeea eee eeeaeeeee 4.8. Cold stitching of cracks (Metalock method).... 4.9. Repair by the method of nozzles, sleeves and overlays. 4.10. Repair with the use of polymer compositions.. 4.11. Editing parts and structures... 9 ....... 4.12. Ways to harden and increase the resource ... 4.13. Control of tightening forces of threaded elements. 4.14. General rules for assembling units and mechanisms.. ..... Chapter 5. Maintanance and repair of diesel engines wo... ooo. accccucasuseueeeeesetaccensteentecneessesseeeee 182 5.1. The nature and frequency of maintenance operations of diesel engines. 5.2. Maintenance of fuel equipment 0... . 5.3. That of the foundation frame, bed and cylinder HIGERES sa eenRneneeae 195 5.4. Maintenance of diesel bearings .... §.5. Control of laying of crankshafts on rakepa.. 5.6. Maintenance of CPG parts ..... 5.7. Repair of foundation frames... 5.8. Repair of cylinder blocks... 5.9. Repair of cylinder bushings... 5.10. Repair of pistons and rods... 5.11. Repair of covers of working cylinders... 5.12. Valve repair... 5.13. Repair of crankshafts. 5.14. KV laying after repair. Chapter 6. Repair of the ship's hull. ....... ps dee RRR wene emeEReNEESR OR EEeNEREnE 283 6.1. Ship lifting facilities... 6.2. Court order in doc.Chapter 8. Repair of auxiliary mechanisms and pipelines... 8.1. Applications.... un 6.3. Special cases of docking ships .... 6.4. Hull defects... 6.5. Defection of the ship's hull. 6.6. Vessel hull repair methods... 6.7. Cleaning and painting of ship hulls. . 6.8. Maintenance of the ship's hull Chapter 7. Repair of the shatt-screw complex . 7.1. Dismantling of components........ 7.2. Repair of intermediate and thrust shafts. 7.3. Repair of the stem device when lubricated with water. 7.4. Repair of the stern gear during ail lubrication. 7.5. Repair of propellers... eens eee 7.6. Mounting and alignment of shafting.... 7.7. Maintenance of shaft lines and stern gears.... Maintenance and repair of steam boilers and heat exchangers. 8.2. Maintenance and repair of pipelines.... ..........s-- 8.3. Maintenance and repair of fittings of ship systems. . 8.4. Maintenance and repair of pumps..... ....- 8.5. Maintenance and repair of compressors. Chapter 9. Repair of ship devices . a 9.1. Maintenance of windlasses, capstans and Meee winches... 9.2. Maintenance of hydraulic drives. 9.3. That hatch covers ... 9.4. Maintenance of the steering... gear... 9.5. The nature of damage and types of repair operations of elements ship devices... savas ZA Chapter 10 10.1. Installation of mechanisms on foundations... 10.2. Run-in of mechanisms after maintenance and repair. 10.3. Testing mechanisms after repair Bibliographic list.6 Foreword Modern ships are complex engineering structures with a high saturation of energy and power equipment. Their use takes place in isolation from coastal repair bases and therefore, according to the conditions for ensuring the safety of navigation, prompt resolution of issues of preventing and eliminating failures, preventing intensive wear and tear, maintaining the technical condition of equipment and the hull at the required level is provided. To this end, ships are equipped with the necessary machine tools, metawork and Welding ‘equipment, — tools and devices, spare parts and consumables. At the same time, the ship's crew is entrusted with the obligation to perform a large amount of ‘work to control the technical condition, promptly carry out repair operations on board. In accordance with this, itis necessary to be able to recognize the nature and location of the malfunction , identify the type of damage, give ita qualitative assessment, make decisions on the need for repair, navigate the choice of tools, materials and methods of repair, competently perform the necessary repairs, assemble and run mechanisms after repair. When preparing and carrying out factory repairs, the ship's crew, on the basis of preliminary fault detection, draws up an —— for the repair of equipment and hull, controls the completeness of its implementaton, am» from the repair, * participates in testing. regulatory accepts skill Hse Ale, and technical documentation, knowledge of the features of technological processes, the level of technical requirements for objects after repair, the goals and conditions of testing.© This academic discipline is associated with all special disciplines, the studied types of equipment of which are design. repair objects, performed taking into account the features of their The proposed textbook outlines the basics of ship repair operations with an analysis of the key points that affect the quality of execution. Information of a regulatory nature onthe we of repair, a detailed description a the technological processes and the means used in this case, students can obtain from the current _ and technical documentation of reference books. A number of information on the choice of materials and means of repair, criteria for assessing the technical condition are given in the Appendix. The authors also hope that this textbook will be useful to all specialists involved in the maintenance and repair of ships, to deepen their knowledge and improve their skills.8 CHAPTER 1. CAUSES AND TYPES OF DAMAGE 1.1. Classification of defects, damages and their causes A defect is a discrepancy between the performance characteristics of products and the technical requirements established by the documentation for manufacturing or repair. Technical requirements are specified in the form of permissible deviations from dimensions, coaxiality, strength characteristics, plasticity, surface quality, acceptability of defects, their limits, etc. For the linear dimensions of shafts, for example, the technical requirements are specified in the form of a nominal size and a tolerance field for it. The defect is obtained with deviations both to the upper and lower sides of the tolerance field. Similarly, a defect is determined for working cylinders, gaps in joints, etc. The requirements for mechanical characteristics are usually specified by an acceptable lower limit. For example, tensile strength is not less than 100 MPa, or ductility is not less than 15%, hardness is not less than 200 HB, etc. Although the latter characteristic can also be specified upper and lower limits. For a piston ring, for example, the hardness should be in the range of 170-240 HB. This is due to the fact that at lower hardness, wear resatance decreases, and at hardness. its running-in Lo worsens, and the likelihood of damage to the cylinder liner working in tandem with it increases. Requirements 2) aihevce relations stipulate which a ten ae unacceptable and which can take place, but with restrictions in magnitude. For example, the porosity and looseness of the walls of the cylinder bushings of the intemal combustion engine, as well as cracks, are unacceptable. Separate zones of porosity are acceptable in pump casings, if this does not lead to loss of tightness. Damage is a deviation dite Performance Characteristics of the product beyond the limits established by the documentation for use. For linear dimensions, mechanical characteristics, the lower9 the limits of permissible changes, expressed in numerical or percentage form. The admissibility and dimensions of cracks, deformations, delaminations, etc. are also discussed. So cracks in cylinder bushings are unacceptable, and on liners they are allowed in separate zones, ifthey do not lead to babbitt delamination. It should be noted that the allowable limits for changes in characteristics for damages are several times higher than the usual deviation limits for defects. Such tightening of requirements is necessary to ensure the resource of products to their limiting state. The most common types of damage are shown in Fig. 1.1. Types of damage | i —- with resizing without resizing | Bag agai |_| friction | [ fengue H __failure purty changed surfaces | [ fretting corrosion = renin ssi gaia amano 1 PITTING | | overheat —— l st chien is peer ane —— deformations | aging LW Fig.1.1. Types of damage to parts and structures. For generalized reasons for the formation of defects and damage, they are classified as follows: 1. Structural defects occur due to design errors. They can be easily and difficultly removed. So the appointment of gaps in stern tube devices without taking into account the swelling of the textolite in water, although1d led to major accidents on 2 ships, it was easily eliminated by assigning increased clearances. At the same time, the appearance of cracks in the bearing shoulders of the cylinder liner of B&W engines could not be prevented, since this would require a reconfiguration of the engine as a whole. 2. Technological (production). defects 1 are with from design requirements and are due to the qualifications of the performers, the imperfection of technical control. So, for example, the wear of the gear teeth of the camshaft drive on RD76 engines up to 3 mm per year was due to improper heat treatment and low surface hardness. 3. Damage from the normal physical wear and tear — cation inevitable resulting from the action of friction, corrosion, of dimensionally changing parts, as well as the action of high temperatures and time, which change the mechanical properties of materials. 4. Damage due to violation of the rules of technical onerstion is associated with insufficient qualifications andlow executive opine Arise dus to improper use, poor quality or untimely maintenance. 5. Damage under severe operating conditions, when objects ‘experience exposure levels that are signaicanay higher than the normative ones. Occur when sailing in ice, severe storm conditions, transportation of chemically active cargo, etc. The most serious attention is paid to the identification of the type and nature of damage during maintenance and repair, since each of them corresponds to certain causes, the knowledge of which makes it possible to determine possible measures to increase the resource, the probability of failure-free operation and, thereby, reduce the volume of repairs required. Let's take a closer look at opportunities ensiying species damage and the necessary measures to increase the resource.11 1.2. Friction and wear damage These damages occur in numerous friction units of power plants: bearings of engines, mechanisms and shaft lines, CPG parts, plunger pairs, sliders, etc. Wear damage manifests itself in the form of a change in size, a violation of the shape of the part, deterioration in the condition of the friction surfaces in cases where they go beyond the established norms. Dimensional changes are limited due to a decrease in the strength of parts and an increase in gaps between rubbing surfaces. So, when the cylinder liner is worn, not only the strength of its walls decreases, also the gap in the joint with the piston trunk increases, which can lead to knocks when the piston is shifted atthe moment of passing dead points. In all cases, an increase in clearances in the bearings causes a decrease in pressure in the carrier oil layer, and in the head and connecting rod bearings it can also be accompanied by the appearance of knocks. The ieee of parts of friction units depends on the wear rate, characterized by the amount of wear related to 1000 hours of operation. For modern power plants, the wear rate is 0.3-2 ym for crankshaft jaumals, 10-40 ym for cylinder bushings, and 50-200 um for piston rings per 1000 hours. Specific wear rates for various friction units for this type of engine are given by the manufacturer in the instructions for operation. This is done in order to be able to control wear processes by ship mechanics and take the necessary measures in a timely manner. A noticeable increase in the wear rate usually occurs when the wear pattern is disturbed, when abrasive mechanical mechanical wear occurs from the pure interaction 4 gorrosion- of surfaces. Abrasive wear occurs when there are particles in the friction zone, the hardness of which exceeds the hardness of the surfaces of the parts. The result is intense scratching and accelerated wear of the surfaces.12 A sign of abrasive wear is a large number of rough scratches in the direction of movement of the surfaces. For CPG parts, the abrasives are sob parties of ‘combustion from the (coke), metal products, dust wear ot parts. The impact of these factors is reduced by quality combustion providing fuel, availability of a ‘oil. imaly motor cleaning, detergent additives B hhigh- Fig.1.2. Traces of abrasive In the engine plain bearings, abrasives shaft journals in the = of mineral ms metal dust enter along with the oil and cause gross tisks on the liners and shaft journals (Fig. 1.2). Preventive measures are high-quality filtration and oil separation. In order to restore the normal operation of bearing assemblies in these cases, in addition to replacing the liners, it is necessary to eliminate the increased roughness of the neck. A more radical means of protection against abrasive wear is to increase the surface hardness of the most worn element of the friction pair. Thus, due to the application of porous chromium to the piston rings, it was possible to reduce their wear rate by several times and increase the time for motor cleaning with the removal of the SOD pistons. Corrosion-mechanical wear occurs during the corrosive effect on friction = in which the products of chemical _ formed on the surfaces are easily destroyed, and in exposed areas they are restored again. With this nature of the impact, the wear tate increases B several times, and the themselves are strongly smoothed due to the polishing effect on them of the products of chemical reactions (Fig. 1.3).13 Corrosion-mechanical wear manifested itself most clearly in CPG parts with the start of using high-viscosity grades of fuel with a high sulfur content, the combustion products of which lead to the formation and condensation of sulfuric acid. ‘The surfaces of cylinder bushings and piston rings acquired a low roughness, the wear rate increased by 4-6 times compared to operation on diesel fuel. Neutralization. the aggressive Fig.1.3. View of the shaft surface during corrosion effect of sulfur is carried out by introducing an serene alkaline additive KOH into the oils, the amount which should correspond to the sulfur content. Violation of the shape of the parts occurs due to the uneven force effect ‘on the friction surface, the violation of the distribution of the lubricant, the presence of local wear zones. So in trunk engines, the action of a variable normal force in the plane of movement of the connecting rod causes uneven wear of the cylinder liner and piston skirt in the form of ovality, and a change in gas pressure as the piston is lowered leads to the appearance of a taper of the sleeve. These factors worsen the working conditions of the piston rings. Uneven force action on the connecting rod journal as the crankshaft tas bea » the distribution 5 ee ovality. Uneven KShM of lubricant, distortions ~ lead to the formation of its of the In view of the significant INFLUENCES. Saul of the contact of mated pairs and the effectiveness of lubrication, the values of ovality and taper have to be regulated in the same way as wear. Another type of shape violation is the formation of “workouts” - ledges on the surface between zones with varying degrees of wear. For14 Cylinder bushings are characterized by the formation of operating time in its upper part, where the upper piston ring stops. Due to the fact that the running time and the resulting carbon deposits can prevent the passage of the piston rings when removing the piston, they must first be removed The operating time can also be formed in the area where the lip seal is located in the form of an annular recess on the shaft. The impermeability of the seal is sharply broken and is not fully restored even after replacing the cuff, due to the insufficiency of its tightness relative to the shaft. Deterioration of the friction surface beyond the established limits also applies to damage, even if the changes in size and shape will be within acceptable limits. There are the following types of damage. An increase in surface roughness, which affects the wear rate and temperature conditions of the assembly. It is most typical for bearing assemblies in case of contamination or watering of the oil. The surface condition may deteriorate when the sath friction and wear-resistant layers are completely worn out. This happens with liners when the Pb-Sn layer is worn and nickel or bronze is exposed, as well as when chromium is worn and chipped on piston rings. Rubbing on friction surfaces in the form of light, smoothed zones appear on the protruding surface areas. A local increase in surface temperature in this zone can cause darkening of lead in the antifriction layer, which can be seen in Fig. 1.4. They are formed by direct contact of the And interacting “under hindered lubrication =" conditions of elevated temperature background. of the surface Rubbing on the soft anti-friction layer of Pb-Sn trimetallic liners does not pose a danger and self-eliminates due to rapid wear or plastic deformation of this zone.Otherwise this is the case aka e rubbing on the liner with hard antifriction yer fam babbitt 683 or Al-Sn20 alloy, A1-Sp40. Spontaneously such rubbing does nol disappear and, in order to Fig.1.4. Rubbing on the decrease temperature, ae ree eae have to be removed by scraping, thereby leveling the friction surface. Similarly, you have to deal with rubbing on the surfaces of cylinder bushings and piston skirts. Figure 1.5 shows the piston skirt, on which rubbing, due to untimely removal, begins to move into the next stage of scoring damage. =e eminence} Rice. 1.5. The beginning of a badass on a skirt Fig.1.6. Seizure of the bearing shell piston. Surface tearing occurs due to a significant increase in local temperatures with plasticization and diffusion "seizure" of metals, followed by deep tearing with the formation of grooves. A view of the piston with scuffing on the surface is shown in Fig. 1.6. A temperature level of several hundred degrees can lead to a large increase in the diameter of the piston and its complete wedging in the cylinder liner. The frictional forces that accompany this can cause the connecting rod to bend and unbend and break.Bipiiersonom 16 1.3. Fatigue failure of metals It occurs under variable loading with stresses below the ultimate strength. The most dangerous type of loading are cycles with a change in the sign of stress. In addition to the variable nature of loading, the number of exposure cycles is of great importance. The decrease in the level of destructive stresses depending on the number of cycles is shown in Fig. 1.7 (Wehler curve). Such graphs ley 1 are built on the basis of test results of metal to cyclic perap hence! stresses ina es cycle (breast / god =-1). On the graph, aang: fh the fract Oy, below . . une of SoNE Fig.1.7. Fatigue stress can be with an, anita ‘ Curve increase in the number of cycles. The value of b., is called the endurance limit of a given material. When tested in water, the level of destructive stresses is significantly raduced. Ots The level of fatigue limit values is related to the level of static tensile strength approximately as follaws ratios - with variable bending b.1 0.47 bi - with variable tension br 0.32 bi - with variable torsion t.1 = 0.22 bi The main condition for the absence of destruction of parts operating without limiting the number of cycles is Grab =04 Such important parts as crankshafts on the connecting rod journals and cheeks, shaft lines at flanges and keyways, connecting rod, sewing and foundation bolts, body structural elements can be subjected to fatigue failure.17 Any type of fatigue failure has the following features: a) failure occurs in the form of the nucleation and development of a crack up to a complete rupture (Fig. 1.8); b) before the appearance of a crack, a rather long period passes, which is called 8 After the the period. incubation eee (hidden), crack progresses quite quickly and a rupture occurs. The time of crack development is called the failure period; V) cracks wae ner eB Fig. 1.8. Fatigue crack onthe arbitrary place, and in the zones of shaft journal the highest values of tensile stresses, the a concentrators, zones are formed inthe places of the presence as a tule, these stresses. They are risks, scratches, rough transitions in size, cutouts, groaves, holes, etc. In such places, the acting stresses increase their value Grab ~ Grasch KKkit where Kki is the stress concentration factor. The Khi value depends on the size and shape of the concentrator and ranges from 1 to 3 or more. Kin values = 3 are obtained at the ends of cracks in the zone of "undercuts" - sharp transitions in sections, on sharp edges of cutouts and holes. d) fatigue fracture has the form of brittle fracture and is mr accompanied by plastic —setarnstons. Therefore, it does not aoe suddenly without any preliminary indications in the change in the operation of the element;18 ay * fracure point for simple types of loading has a specific form (Fig. 1.9). There are 2 characteristic zones here. Zone A - smooth, matte (porcelain) with possitte transition planes. This is a zone of crack development with of surfaces from mutual displacements, due to the fact that the crack “breathes” under variable loading. Zone B - the zone of instantaneous, brittle fracture has a Fig.1.9. Type pronounced granular appearance. of fatigue fracture The fracture site can also look like a more complex picture in the presence of several stress concentrators and the simultaneous action of different loads: bending and torsion, bending and tension, etc. Variants of such Pictures can be found in reference books. By the ratio of the areas of zones A and B, one can judge the level of loading. Figure 1.10 b): ee a fracture ata high degree of loading, when { failure occurs in a short service life, and a fracture ata low ‘elias: “ Fig.1.10. The ratio of fracture load. And zones at high (a) and low (b) loading levels In view of falues the fact that fatigue are of a sudden nature and can cause significant damage, they are carefully mime eo prevented using the following basic measures. In the manufacture of parts, a decrease in the level of Kki is ensured. To do this, fillet transitions are used in places of ledges of diarneters, the bolt head to its body, grinding the exits of the holes on the surface of the necks, polishing the surfaces until the grinding traces are completely removed, removing19 chamfers on sharp edges, the use of small threads instead of large ones. Types of incorrect and correct design of section transitions are shown in Fig. 1.11. Additionally, surface hardening can be applied. 1@@ Fig.1.11. Examples of incorrect and correct design of fillet transitions. rolling, hardening, increasing the endurance limit by 40%. This effect is explained by the fact that the compressive stresses created during processing reduce the level of cyclic tensile stresses that cause cracking. During assembly and installation, carefully follow the instructions, avoiding the creation of additional stresses from distortions, misalignments, deformations, increased tightening forces, etc. During operation and maintenance, the following measures are taken: + the operation of objects in resonance zones is excluded (during startups, mode changes and shutdowns, they pass as quickly as possible); # the condition of the fastenings of mechanisms on the foundations is regularly checked, pipelines on racks and hangers; # with the established periodicity, measurements are made of parameters that indirectly characterize the levels of cyclic stresses: KV outriggers, misalignment of shafting, thicknesses of the outer skin and hull braces; * surfaces of hazardous areas are protected from water ingress (roller painting) and condensate (engine heating in the parking lot); ® ~©Potentially dangerous zones with stress concentrators are inspected in each case of checks and revisions of nodes. It must be remembered that20 the incubation period can be very long, and the destruction period immeasurably shorter. Therefore, if the assembly was inspected earlier and there were no cracks, it does not mean that they should not be further. If risks, nicks, traces of corrosion are found in hazardous areas, they are carefully removed, with displaying this event in documents. The effect of minor damage and water on the fatigue strength of parts is shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Change in fatigue limit of steel of different bending strength depending on the state of the surface, % = | but kgf/mm? | Type of surface treatment ae High quality polish ~ | 100,0 Rough polish or superfinish (95,0 Fine turning or fine grinding « 93,0 rough « rough «< j 90,0 Surface with scale 70,0 « damaged by corrosion 60,0 fresh water Surface damaged by corrosion in 40,0 Sea water gies eatin nce eget ys faa ee gees It is thanks to such a vast complex fatigue measures destruction of large parts is a rare event. Bo severe ps appearance fatigue cracks requires ca immediate repair or replacement of the damaged element. 1.4. Fretting damage Fretting corrosion arises pm interference, (FC) of the covered n landings contact surfaces that transmit with a cyclic nature. Practice shows that in such landings the contact is only a part of the nominal area and is spotty -as shown in Figure 1.12. Through this spotted contact is the transfer of forces through friction. the key concentration is view transfer invalid stresses. She is as forces fs used effort reeugh an Fig.1.12. Traces of fretting corrosion on the shaft cone insuring element If the transmitted forces are cyclical, then under the conditions Trab > t, there are prerequisites for local fatigue failure. Then, after a certain cycle time, microcracks are formed in the contact zones, which are powerful stress concentrators (K = 3). Thus, FA leads to the formation of concentrators, which are not was in the design. After the formation of cracks, further destruction proceeds according to the laws of fatigue with the breakage of the male part (shaft). A striking example of a node in which a FC can occur is the cone of the propeller shaft, on which the propeller is installed with an interference fit. In the 1950s, there were dozens of cases of propeller shaft failure with the loss of propellers, which prompted us to investigate the nature of this phenomenon and find measures to protect against it. At the present stage, these measures are reduced to the following: a) Before landing the propellers, their hub is adjusted along the shaft cone, which in this case plays the role of a standard. Adjustment is carried out by scraping or grinding the contact spots in order to increase the contact area, which makes it possible to reduce the magnitude of the specific loads in the contacts. The adjustment is carried out under conditions that exclude the bending of the shaft cone and, therefore, is carried out with a suspended shaft in a vertical position or on special stands, where the screw is placed ona trolley, which is moved along the rails to connect and disconnect the screw from the shaft.22 In the practice of ship repair, there are cases of landing propellers with epoxy compounds. No hub adjustment is required in this case. 5) It is strictly controlled to ensure the specified tightness when landing the screw. The preload is necessary to ensure the conditions under which May 2K Me, where K is a safety factor equal to 1.2 6 depending on conditions of swimming and the presence ofa safety key. Such large reserves are required due to the presence of torsional vibrations in the shafting, reaching 70% Moore or more. The propeller is the source of torsional vibrations. c) After the screw has sd and ero locked, the screw hub is carefully sealed against water entering the shaft cone. The presence of water creates conditions for corrosion fatigue, in which the value of b. decreases, compared with tests in air (see Fig. 1.7). d) during the operation of the vessel, the propeller during docking is periodically dismantled for inspection of the shaft cone. When fretting and cracks are detected, appropriate measures are taken. FC can also be found in other landings from interference: cams camshafts, liners in the heads of connecting rods and other 1.5. Hardening of metals and its consequences Hardening - is a change in the properties of the metal (H) of due to cold ~ AS 8 result, strength properties and hardness are increased, but plastic properties are greatly reduced and a tendency to brittle fracture appears, and the tendency to corrosion increases. Taking into account the changes occurring in metals, H is often used as a positive effect to increase wear resistance, endurance limit b-1, for which they resort to surface hardening.23 With volume hardening (over the entire section), strength benefits and the absence of a tendency to plastic (residual) deformations are used. So the wires of steel ropes are necessarily subjected to cold drawing, as aresult ‘of which the cross-section and weight of the rope are significantly reduced and it does not twist in a spiral after passing through the blocks. However, it must be understood that hardened parts tolerate static loads well and very poorly tolerate dynamic loads. This is due to the fact that parts that do not have cold hardening require work proportional to the area A under the curve obtained during tensile tests (Fig. 1.13) for their destruction. The part, which initially has a work hardening, will be destroyed at the cost of work proportional to the area B, because part of the work with area C has already been spent during the hardening itself (Fig. 1.14). 6-H al Fig.1.13. Graph and character Rice. 1.14. Graph and of rupture during character of fracture in ductile fracture brittle fracture The appearance of hardening in the process of manufacturing, repair, disassembly - assembly and in operation can lead to negative consequences up to the formation of cracks and destruction. Let's consider some examples. Example 1 Hardening in connecting rod bolts. The reason for its appearance is overload, leading to the achievement of stresses equal to the yield strength of the material. This happens more often when the engine is peddling, when winding cables on the propeller, when hitting24 propeller blades on floating objects or the ground, etc. In such cases, it is mandatory to check the connecting rod bolts for cracks and work hardening. The low quality of the material can also lead to hardening - insufficient for the given conditions from. Then, either already during installation, or under the influence of working loads, work hardening and their deformation will appear in the bolts. In such cases, the bolts loosen, and they begin to work in fatigue mode and break like brittle materials without forming a neck. The conclusion follows from this: in addition to monitoring the condition of the cotter pins of the nuts of the connecting rod bolts, it is necessary to periodically check its length in an unloaded state. The presence of work hardening is indicated by the appearance of permanent deformation. 4l= 1-1, where 41 - residual deformation; 1 - measured bolt length; 1% - the initial length, fixed during manufacture. The value of 4% must be recorded from the accounting documentation and can be stamped on its head. Permissible level 4/ is set by the manufacturer and is at the level of 0.2%. If it is exceeded, the bolts are rejected. EXAMPLE 2 Work hardening in fastener threads. The stresses arising during the tightening of the nuts in the threads in its individual sections reach blue, which leads to a redistribution of the perceived forces between the turns. Moreover, this does not happen instantly, but over a period of tens and even hundreds of hours. All this is expressed in the fact that when hardening in the threads of the thread, the supporting end of the nut will move somewhat away from the supporting end of the bolt head, which leads to a decrease in the bolt tightening forces created during tightening, and, unlike hardening of the bolt itself, its length remains unchanged. . Taking into account this phenomenon, after mounting and tightening new bolts with nuts, an additional tightening is provided after a certain interval of work. Further reduction of forces in the presence of work hardening occurs much more slowly and Sghtening may be necessary after a long period ‘of time.25 (In the instructions for the B&W 50/110 engine, it is indicated: the control tightening of the anchor ties after their installation should be carried out no later than 300 hours of engine operation, then tightening should be done regularly after 10 thousand hours). For maintaining the required efforts 8 fixing atementa provide for the following measures: a) periodic ‘contral tightening of nuts is, cared ‘out; Timing is set by the manufacturer and can adjust the ship's crew: 5) when disassembling and assembling, nuts are not recommended to be rearranged to other bolts (studs); for this purpose, they are marked in pairs, and in case of damage they are replaced in pairs; c) to slow down the rate of force reduction, preliminary “training” of bolts with nuts (tightening, recoil, holding, — orthe - tightaning ~— use of tubular extension stops with simultaneous bolt elongation, which (tightening) deformation, increases the amount of elastic can be provided. Example 3 - Low cycle metal fatigue. In the presence of work hardening, the metal becomes sensitive to repeated deformations and, with a small number of deformation cycles, cracks appear in it. This effect is used to break off a piece of soft wire by several bends and unbends. Similarly, the connecting rod breaks when the piston is scuffed. In this regard, rudder stocks and propeller blades are vulnerable, deforming during overloads in ice conditions. The Register establishes the limit of permissible twisting (hardening) of the stock (15°), within which it can be further used only after the hardening has been removed. Cold (impactless) dressing of bent propeller blades is allowed only if the bend does not exceed 20°. Low-cycle fatigue can also occur in hull structures when sailing in severe storm conditions, which is confirmed by the world statistics of ship deaths after ship fractures.26 Example 4 Hardening during assembly operations. Hitting the end of the shaft to remove the coupling halves and bearings will lead to hardening and expansion, which makes further disassembly much more difficult. Impacts during disassembly can only be applied with lead hammers — body working in a fatigue punch. or through = intermediate Impacts on the surfaces of narts, mode, can cause the formation of cracks, because the resulting nicks are stress concentrators. Such nicks are polished with microhardness control. The examples given show the dong at ardoning "parts working with cyclic loads, and therefore so much attention is paid to its prevention. Hardening can be removed and lost characteristics can be restored only with the help of hot heat treatment - recrystallization arveding, 1.6. Surface pitting Pitting (P) - the phenomenon of brittle chipping of metals on the surface. foading. — sxines on variable contacts “the eyclic nature of P is always preceded by surface crushing, which leads to the formation of a work-hardened metal layer, in which low-cycle fatigue leads to the formation of cracks and spalling. The kinetics of the process development is shown in Figure 1.15. Here is the surface of the part, on which we roll the loaded roller back and forth. If condition ok 201 takes place, then P will develop in the following stages: 1 - formation of hardening zone; P - already a small number of cycles, a crack appears, coming from the surface; — lll crack develops in a brittle layer, having no prospect of penetrating into more plastic layers; IV - the crack comes to the surface again, forming chipping. The reasons for the appearance “es to his warning of P and measures to consider on specificSlander Rice. 1.15. Stages of pitting development Example 1 - P in gears. Most often, its cause can be determined by the nature of its development and distribution over the surface. There may be options: a) P at the edges of the tooth, which occurs at the running-in stage - Figure 16, a. The reason lies in the misalignment of the axes of the gear pair, in which the contact is formed not along the entire length of the teeth, but at their edges, leading to overloads in these areas. a) 6) V) LY LY Rice. 1.16. The nature of pitting due to: a) misalignment of the axes, b) waviness of the tooth profile; c) lack of running-in; d) low hardness, increased gaps b) P forms foci in different zones along the length of the teeth, Figure 16.6. cause in poor processing of teeth with the formation —_stwavness0n them. Additional grinding (even by hand) can eliminate this cause. There are cases that this kind of P disappears spontaneously due to the smoothing of the bumps and an increase in the contact area.28 ¢) P in a narrow zone along the length of the tooth with insufficient running-in fig. 16, c. 4) P ona large part of the length of Figure 16, d. Main reasons: ® low surface hardness due to poor heat treatment. On the lead ship "Krasnograd" for this reason, the installation gap of 0.15 mm in the engagement of the camshaft drive increased 20 times over the year and reached 3 mm; @ te presence of increased gaps, al which the smoothness of the engagement is disturbed and the surfaces collide. Soon cTb destruction progresses as it develops and the gap grows; * poor running-in and transition to increased loads without providing developed contact areas. During the running-in process, it is necessary to form contact zones, the parameters of which are specified by the manufacturer and are at the level of: 90-95% according to length, 60-70% of the height of the tooth Figure 15, d. In some cases, to form contact zone, the main gears have to be run in without load with using lapping pastes (reducers). Example 2-P in rolling bearings. In ball and roller bearings, it occurs due to their collisions with the cages. In the presence of P, the noise in the bearing assembly increases sharply and a sudden jamming of the shaft is possible. Therefore, to prevent this phenomenon, the following measures are taken + Rotate idle, idle mechanisms at least once a day. + When bearings are inspected, they should be rejected and Further nee use when: - increase in gaps by 2 or more times; fs damage to separating clips; = the presence of corrosion and discoloration.29 @ In the nodes of mechanisms associated with ensuring the operation of engines and nat having redundancy, the bearings are Feabioed alter working out the assigned resource, regardless of their condition. For gas turbine units, the resource is 12-20 thousand hours. Example 3 - P on camshaft cams. Reasons may be: a) Skewed rollers relative to the cams. P will be on one side cam and roller. b) Poor heat treatment after carburizing. P ona large part from the side of the roller on top. c) Poor cam profiling. There are blows at the beginning of the roller advance. d) Increased thermal gaps in the valve actuator, when the pushrod with the recker start to come into contact with shocks. 1.7. Erosive wear Erosive wear (El) occurs from the jet action of liquid or gas flows, when surface layers are destroyed and particles are carried away (this is akin to what happens during soil erosion and the formation of dust storms). Wear is accelerated if there are solid particles in the streams and in cases of concomitant corrosion that reduces the strength of the surface layers and facilitates their destruction. We will consider the features of El and BAT ways to deal with specific examples. Example 1 - El of pipelines of ship systems. Operational practice shows that 95% of all damage to pipelines occurs in specific, "weak" places of systems in which fluid flows are turbulent, which increases the speed and level of impact on the surface. The types of such areas are shown in Figures 17(a-d). It should be noted that sections appear at the flow inlet to such zanes.30 damage is only 0.5 d long, and at the outlet the length of the sections is (1.5-2) d, where is the diameter of the pipeline. Fig. 1.17. Weak sections of pipelines Designers usually jisiGasd the wall thickness of pipes with a margin for corrosion, the wear rate of which for steel pipes is 0.1-0.2 mm / year. The rate of El reaches 1-1.5 mm/year and this can lead to through wear-fistulas already in 1 year. Therefore, it is so important to know how to protect against El. The following measures are taken: a) Weak areas are made short for ease of replacement. b) These assemblies can be made from pipes with increased thickness, and covered from the inside with protective layers, such as, for example, glue "Octopus", which increases the resource before replacement ¢) The bending radius of the pipe is made nat less than R2 2.5 d. d) Limit the flow rates according to the pipe material. So for non- galvanized steel pipes, the allowable water flow rate is at the level of 1 m/s, for brass and red copper 1.2-1.5 m/s, for alloys of the MNZH type at the level of 2.5 m/s. Galvanized steel helps protect pipes from corrosive erosion. Example 2 Erosion of steam turbine blades.31 El in steam turbines usually occurs in LPT at the end stages and can severely damage the blades. The reasons are in the droplets formed water capable of bombarding the back of the shoulder blades. Protection methods: a) Remave moisture through the drainage system. b) Perform steam separation and reheating. c) To increase the strength and hardness of the back zones of the blade by applying special layers or by electrospark hardening. Example 3 - El of boiler pipes. Wear occurs from gas flows in the presence of solid particles of incomplete combustion of fuel (coke). The front sections of the pipes are thinned. Most typical for solid fuel boilers. Example 4 - El of the ends of the ship's hull. In the fore part, the oncoming flows, and in the aft part, the flows of water sucked in by the propeller increase the wear rates of these zones compared to the middle part. They counteract this by creating smooth contours, increasing the thickness of the skin, applying resistant paints. Example 5 - El in engine cooling cavities. In these nodes, El can have varieties. So absent lack of anti-corrosion additives may develop = piting Fig.1.18. Pitting corrosion of Rice. 1.19. Erosive destruction of the cylinder liner the bridge in the cover of the heat exchanger(point) erosion (Fig. 1.18). With improper organization of water flows, larger-scale destruction is also possible. So, due to a design error, the upper thickened belt of the cylinder bushing of the DKRN engine blocked half the drain hole in the block, as a result of which the cylinder block was badly damaged in this place. 1.19). 1.8. Cavitation Cavitation (K) is a kind of El and occurs under conditions of a rapid change in pressure in a liquid, when it boils when itis discharged and vapor bubbles collapse when the pressure increases. If the bubbles are on the surface of the metal, then the impact fons of the liquid can have a destructive effect on most mitt Quite often, damage from K is found on the propeller blades on the suction side. In ship technical equipment, this phenomenon is less common, but with very solid damage. Example 1-K in pumps. It occurs under certain conditions in the working cavities, where, after suction, the pressure in the liquid increases rapidly. Evaporation of the liquid is facilitated with increased vacuum due to an ‘incompletely open intake valve, clogged filters, contamination of the intake area, and the presence ofair leaks on it. The increased temperature of the liquid also plays a negative role. (Tins, due to the fear of damage to worn-out pipelines by high pressure, the fire pump was used for domestic needs with the inlet valve half-covered. After 10 months of operation, the impeller was forced to be replaced). Measures to protect pumps from cavitation are:33 - Use the pumps only with fully open intakes. valves and clean filters; - promptly eliminate leaks in the receiving part of the pipeline; = avoid pumping fluid with temperatures higher specified in the passport. Example 2 - K in engine cooling cavities. As the CPG parts wear and the gap between the piston skirt and the cylinder liner increases, the impact force from the piston shift leads to noticeable fluctuations in the gap between the sleeve and the block in the lower belt of the cooling cavity seal. With an increase in the gap, water boils, and with a decrease in pressure, an increase in pressure. As a result of severe damage to the seal beltin the block, the rubber rings themselves are damaged and cease to create a seal. On Sulzer RND90 engines, after 12 years of operation, the depth of damage caverns reached 12 mm, rubber rings were replaced after 1000 hours of operation. The block had to be restored. To prevent k, it is necessary to reduce the clearances between the piston and the bushing by replacing them. In the above case, the gap was restored by replacing the bronze belts on the pistons. Example 3 - K in bearing units. Itcan occur on liners in the oll supply areas B of tha bearings, as well as in the intermediate bearings of the shafting when the CPP is operating at reduced loads, when significant transverse shaft vibrations are possible. Preventive measures are to deaerate the oil and keep it temperature within the specified limits. 1.9. High temperature damage High temperatures in engineering are considered to be those under the influence of which there are negative consequences. This is most noticeable in lubrication and cooling systems, in friction units, where an increase34 temperatures even a few degrees above a certain threshold can accelerate the formation of deposits, disrupt heat transfer, worsen friction conditions, etc. For structural materials, the effect of high temperatures: is alsa evaluated according to the consequences that they cause. In shipboard sachnical means the most sonmen are the following types consequences. Metal overheating. Metal overheating occurs when the operating temperature of parts or structural elements exceeds the recrystallization temperature of this metal for a long time, as a result of which the metal grains grow and its structure undergoes noticeable changes in the direction of grain coarsening. This has a very significant effect on the change in the strength rm of the metal: there is a decrease in the tensile strength and yield strength, plastic properties, impact strength, and brittleness increases. Overheating is especially dangerous for tubes of steam boilers, CPG parts and manifests itself B. Its ot group presence =o~“"~™ single cracks by (Fig. 1.20). in the form a of metallographic comparison sruciure ws with the analysis “- standard, a mechanical fasts Asa mie the Register requires the replacement of elements if their mechanical characteristics have Fig. 1.20. Boiler tube damage from overheating decreased by more than 10%. To design and operational measures, are used to = overheating. Based on the level of operating temperatures, the designer selects materials whose recrystallization temperature is higher than the operating temperature. To exclude accidental castings, the level of permissible temperatures is set, which are lower than the recrystallization temperature by 50-100°C.Permissible temperature levels for some structural materials are presented in table 1.2. Table 1.2 Permissible temperatures of metallic materials materials 11°C | 150 250 Alloys based on Al Cu-based alloys | i Carbon steels, gray cast irons | 350 | Heatesistan low-alloy steels with additives (Mo, W, V 550 | grades: 20XM; 25XMF; 15XMV, etc.) Heat-resistant steels with a high content of alloying Lelements (Cr, M, W, V, Ti, Ni) ‘Over 700 Lott Operational measures provide for ensuring a high-quality combustion process, excluding contact with nozzle torches, maintaining the cleanliness of heat exchange surfaces. Creep. This phenomenon also occurs at temperatures above the recrystallization level, but at stresses reaching the yield strength at a given temperature. Under such conditions, plastic deformation constantly develops in time, which eventually leads to destruction, since stresses will increase in the decreasing section of the rad or in the tube wail until the ultimate strength is reached. The most common creep occurs in the elements of steam boilers. In water- tube boilers, it leads to the appearance of a “bloating" of the tube with local deposits, to sagging pipes (Fig. 1.21) and their exit from the row with extensive deposits. These phenomena are evaluated by the increase in diameter or the deflection arrow. f. In fire tube boilers, due to sludge deposits, creep can manifest itself in the subsidence of the combustion chamber (Fig. 1.22). In this case, there isa violation of the arched shape, in which the walls usually work only in compression, and part of the walls begins to experience tension. As a result, subsidence36 will progress rapidly. The subsidence is estimated by decreasing the vertical dimension H. _—— \ Fig. 1.21. Sagging of boiler Fig.1.22. Flame subsidence tubes during creep cameras Thermal fatigue. This phenomenon usually occurs in the thick heat transfer walls of cylinder heads, piston heads, etc. It manifests itself in the cracking of the metal on a hot surface with the development of a through general crack (Fig. 1.23). This type of destruction is associated with altemation compressive stretching temperature stresses. Mechanism appaarance voltage changes can be explained by such example. If we put two metal plates on top of each other heat one of them, then the deformation elongation heated plates at Fig.1.23. Thermal fatigue crack meets resistance and does not generate on the firing surface of the cylinder head no stress. If you do the same operation on pre-bonded plates, then stresses will arise in each of them. The cold plate will hold back the elongation of the hot plate, i.e. compress it, and hot will stretch the cold. Eventually37 the hot plate will experience compressive, but cold tensile stress. The considered model reflects the events occurring in a thick heat transfer wall, where one surface is strongly heated and the other is cooled by liquids. However, whether this will lead to thermal fatigue or not depends on the stress level and the number of thermal cycles. a 6 oot Nature changes 6r(t) stresses can be seen in the diagram in Fig. 1.24. As the temperature rises, the stresses on the = surface increase proportionally along the o-< we te eee met reaches level 14, then the OPER stresses remain ona have Sat elastic craacer ater Rice. 1.24. Diagram of change of thermal stresses on the firing surface below E 7 Lids the engine andreduce temperature, they are completely removed. With this nature of ONGIEE: tensile stresses do not arise and there are no conditions for the formation of thermal fatigue cracks. If the working temperature of the wall reaches level 12, then the growth of elastic stresses is possible only up to the paint "e" (yield paint level), and then they will already have a plastic character and change along the e-d line. In this area, the phenomenon of ‘raptamting’ erraieg ae iis plastic occurs, deformation, as during forging metal, as a result of which hardening is formed with the shortening of the heated layers and a decrease in their plasticity. During cooling, the change in stresses goes along the line d- e and reaches zero values even with incomplete cooling at point 13. Further cooling leads to the formation of tensile stresses of the residual character of most38 The result is a fatigue cycle with alternating stresses from 02 DO GOST Some paradoxical damage lies in the fact that the formation of cracks and their development does not occur during engine operation, when beige is in effect, but when it cools and brown appears. Thermal fatigue prevention measures are: - ensuring high-quality combustion of fuel without contact of the torch with metal; - maintaining the cleanliness of heat exchange surfaces; - timely removal of emerging microcracks with grinding surfaces: - reducing the thickness of the heat transfer wall (when upgrading structures). Temperature deformations. In the practice of operating ship technical equipment (STS), ane has to deal with temperature deformations of their elements. Despite the fact that they usually have an elastic, recurrent nature, restrictions and obstacles in their implementation cause efforts of hundreds and even thousands of kgf. These efforts are prevented by ensuring freedom of deformation, which is controlled — during -~< assembly, maintenance and repairs. The types of control will become clear from the following examples: a) freedom of deformation of turbine housings, heat steam boders ensured agpartunity exchangers, movement of their sliding supports Figure 1.25 shows the layout of the steam boiler supports, where one of the supports is rigidly fixed, Fig.1.25. Ensuring freedom of temperature deformations of steam boiler supports and the rest have gaps relative to the bolts, which provides freedom39 movements. Cleanliness must be observed during operation and lubrication of sliding bearings; 5) the freedom of shaft elongation during heating is ensured by the sufficiency of axial clearances 2 in the bearings. So atte shafts of pumps, anchors of electric motors, generators, one support is fixed, and the second is also made sliding with the corresponding axial clearance, the presence of which is checked during installation. For crankshatts, in aidan ta axial in the main bearings, there are also axial clearances in the connecting rod and head bearings, which ensures thal the piston does. not pile up on the cylinder liner, causing the CPG to “tip”. The need to ensure freedom of temperature deformations from bearing, aun an example. When replacing the alternator the corrugated spring pad was mistakenly replaced with a set of flat pads of the same thickness. A few minutes after the start of the diesel generator, all 4 M8 bolts, fastening the bearing cover, were cut off. The calculation showed that the breaking force was about 4 te; c) non-uniform temperature fields of various STSs inevitably lead to their deformation, which must be taken into account when performing various control measurements. So the crankshafts are stanging Depending on the thermal state of the engine, and to exclude me NFUENCEo! heating the ship's hull by the sun’s rays, the alignment of the shafting is checked at night or in cloudy weather. The steam turbine rotor before start-up has uneven heating of the upper and lower parts, which leads to its upward bending. To avoid the appearance of centrifugal force and vibration, the start-up of the turbine must be preceded by turning the rotor to equalize temperatures; d) if for some reason the frame bearings melt, then there is a high probability of residual bending40 KV. This is explained by the fact that the HF heated to several hundred degrees sags on the melted supports and bends down. Ifthe necessary measures are not taken, then during naling, the heat fixation of the bend will occur and it will not disappear even when it cools completely. The frame necks acquire a runout, the newly installed liners will be forcefully damaged, and the CV itself may collapse over time. Therefore, if the engine is stopped due to heating of its bearings, it is necessary to immediately start turning the CV and pumping oil until the temperatures drop, and only then proceed to inspect the bearings, is provided for in sections & the PTE of diesel engines. Due to the complexity of straightening CVs. with residual bending, they are often rejected. 1.10. Damage under the action of low temperatures In most structural metals, ot gradual decrease in viscous-plastic properties occurs, and at —— ocresats a a certain temperature threshold, their abrupt drop occurs, as shown in the example of a change in impact strength Ku in Figure 1.26. The temperature corresponding to this drop is called the Cold Brittleness Threshold (CCB). As you can see, for carbon steel, itis near zero temperature and it can be moved to the zone of negative temperatures by alloying, which is done for materials of ice-going ships (09G2, aK 1 (-190), Cu (-210), Ti(-260) Low alloyed (09G2, 40HSND) $13, Si4 Alloys A! Lc -* Q 6 “0 20 0 @ Fig.1.26. The influence of low temperatures on the impact strength of the metal devices. 1OKHSND, etc.). Metals such as Al, Cu, Ti practically do not have phew rat allows: ake use B refrigeration units, aviaton, spaceAy For pipelines. made a carbon steel, a Particular dangers their defrosting. When the temperature drops to the region of negative values, the diameter of the pipes decreases, and the volume of freezing water, on the contrary, increases. These two counter processes lead to an increase in rupture stresses in the pipe walls and to their rupture, since embrittled metal is not capable of plastic deformation. Therefore, in winter conditions of operation and repair of ships, the corresponding water systems must be reliably drained. Pipes made of red copper, aluminum can not be dried. The existence of PHC should also be taken into account when carrying out repair work associated with impacts, bending, welding in cold conditions. With this in mind, the Register allows welding at any air temperature, provided that the wera = Consumables have a positive test result at-25°C. In other cases, during welding, heating of the edges to + 20 ° C is required with a strip of 75 mm on both sides of the seam for the steels indicated in Table. 1.3. Table 1.3 Conditions for the appointment of edge heating during welding [ Steel categories ~ | Airtemperature, °C ~ No material testing - ~pelow 25 (Sea forgings and castings ~ below -15 r Boiling and semi-calm ” , below -10 [ Re eens : wai ceils _ Welding of low-alloy steel pipelines in systems at 2 350°C is possible only at positive temperatures. Similar conditions must be observed when performing bending or straightening work, even in small volumes.