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    Marine Science

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    Practical Handbook Marine Science Third Edition Edited by Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D. Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Practical handbook of marine science / edited by Michael J. Kennish Rat ed cm.~ (Marine science series) Includes bibliographical re‘erences (p. ). ISBN 0-8493.2391-6 |. Oceanography. 2. Marine biology. 1. Title: Marine science, Il, Kennish, Michael J MIL Series GC11.2 .P73 2000 $51.46-de21 (00.060005 ‘This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with Permission, and sources ae indicated. A wide variety of references ate listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity ofall materials ‘oF forthe consequences of their use. Neither this book aor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electonic oF mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior Permission in writing from the publishes ‘The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, ‘oF for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Cosporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431, ‘Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe © 2001 by CRC Press LLC [No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2391-6 Libwary of Congress Card Number 00-060995 Printed in the United States of America 1234567890 Printed on acid-free paper Dedication This book is dedicated to the Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve at Mullica River-Great Bay, New Jersey | | | Preface ‘This third edition of Practical Handbook of Marine Science provides the most comprehensive contemporary reference material on the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the marine realm, Since the publication of the second edition of this book 5 years ago, there have been significant advances in nearly all areas of marine science. It is the focus of this volume to examine these developments and to amass significant new data that will have appeal and utility for practicing marine scientists and students engaged in investigations in oceanography and related disciplines. Because of its broad coverage of the field, this volume will be valuable as a supplemental text for undergraduate and graduate marine science courses. In addition, administrators and other profes sionals dealing in some way with the management of marine resources and various problems pertaining to the sea will find the book useful. Much of this third edition consists of updated material as evidenced by the large number of recent references (1995 to 1999) cited in the text. This edition contains a systematic collection of selective physical, chemical, and biological reference data on estuarine and oceanic ecosystems. It is com. prised of six chapters: Physiography, Marine Chemistry, Physical Oceanography. Marine Geology, Marine Biology, and Marine Pollution and Other Anthropogenic Impacts. Each chapter is arranged in a multisectional format, with information presented in expository, illustrative, and tabular formats. “The main purpose of this handbook is the same as the two previous editions: to serve the multidisciplinary research needs of contemporary marine biologists, marine chemists, marine geol- ogists, and physical oceanographers. It is also hoped that the publication will serve the academic needs of a new generation of marine science students. T wish to acknowledge my colleagues who have been instrumental in enabling me to gain new insights into the complex and fascinating world of marine seience. In particular, in the Institute of Marine and Coastal Seiences at Rutgers University Tam thankful to Kenneth W. Able, Michael P, DeLuca, Richard A. Lutz, J. Frederick Grassle, John N. Kraeuter, and Norbert P. Psuty, also express my deep appreciation to the editorial staff of CRC Press, especially John B. Sulzycki, who supervised all editorial and production activities on the book, and Christine Andreasen, who provided technical editing support on the volume. Finally, Lam most appreciative of my wife, Jo-Ann, and sons, Shawn and Michael, for recognizing the importance of my commitment to complete this volume and for providing love and support during its preparation. The Editor Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D., is a research professor in the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. He graduated in 1972 from Rutgers University, Camden, New Jersey, with a B.A. degree in Geology and obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in the same discipline from Rutgers University, New Brunswick, in 1974 and 1977, respectively. Dr. Kennish’s professional affiliations include the American Fisheries Society (Mid-Atlantic Chapter), American Geophysical Union, American Institute of Physics, Atlantic Estuarine Research Society, New Jersey Academy of Science, and Sigma Xi. Dr. Kennish has conducted biological and geological research on coastal and deep-sea environ- ments for more than 25 years, While maintaining a wide range of research interests in marine ecology and marine geology, Dr. Kennish has been most actively involved with studies of marine pollution and other anthropogenic impacts in estuarine and coastal marine ecosystems as well as with biological and geological investigations of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and seafloor spreading ‘centers, He is the author or editor of ten books dealing with various aspects of estuarine and marine science. In addition to these books, Dr. Kennish has published more than 100 research articles and book chapters and has presented papers at numerous conferences. His biographical profile appears in Who's Who in Frontiers of Science and Technology, Who's Who Among Rising Young Americans, Who's Who in Science and Engineering, and American Men and Women of Science. | Introduction Marine science constitutes a broad field of scientific inquiry that encompasses the primary disciplines of oceanography—marine biology, marine chemistry, marine geology, and physical oceanography —as well as related disciplines, such as the atmospheric sciences. Its scope is extensive, covering natural and anthropogenic phenomena in estuaries, harbors, lagoons, shallow seas, continental shelves, continental slopes, continental rises, abyssal regions, and mid-ocean Tidges. Because of the breadth of its coverage, the study of marine science is necessarily @ ‘nuttidisciplinary endeavor, requiring the efforts of many scientists from disparate disciplines Chapter | describes the topography and hypsometry of the world oceans. Emphasis is placed oon the major physiographic provinces (ie., continental-margin, deep-ocean, and mid-ocean ridge provinces), ‘The characteristics of the benthic and pelagic provinces in the sea are also discussed Chapter 2 examines marine chemistry, focusing on the major, minor, trace, and nutrient elements in seawater, Information is also presented on dissolved gases and organie compounds in the hydrosphere. In addition, vertical profiles of the various chemical constituents are detailed. The major nutrient elements (i, nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon) are particularly noteworthy because Of their importance to plant growth, with nitrogen being the principal limiting element to primary production in estuarine and marine waters, However, phosphorus may be the primary limiting lement to autotrophic growth in some estuaries during certain seasons of the year. Low silicon availability, in turn, can suppress metabolic activity of the cell, can limit phytoplankton production, “and can reduce skeletal growth of diatoms, radiolarians, and siliceous sponges. Hence, these three nutrient elements play a critically important role in regulating biological production in the sea. ‘Chapter 3 deals with physical oceanography. It investigates the physical properties of seawater ‘and the circulation patterns observed in open-ocean, coastal-ocean, and estuarine waters, Waves, currents, and tidal flow, as well as the forcing mechanisms responsible for their movements, are lassessed. Ocean circulation is divided into two components; (1) wind-driven (surface) currents ‘and (2) thermohaline (deep) circulation. These components are described for all the major oceans: ‘A detailed account is given on conspicuous wind-driven circulation patterns (e.g.. gyres, meanders, teddies, and rings). In estuaries, water circulation depends greatly on the magnitude of river discharge relative to tidal low, ‘Turbulent mixing in these shallow systems is a function of river flow acting against tidal motion and interacting with wind stress, internal friction, and bottom friction, Surface wind stress and meteorological forcing also play a vital role in modulating circulation in coastal ocean waters. Chapter 4 addresses marine geology. Major structural features of the seafloor (e.g.. mid-ocean ridges, transform faults, and deep-sea trenches) are explained in ight of the theory of plate tectonics, ‘which represents the unifying paradigm in geology. The dynamic nature of the ocean crust and seafloor is coupled to the movement of lithospheric plates. ‘The genesis of ocean crust occurs along ‘a globally encircling mid-ocean ridge and rift system through an interplay of magmatic construction, hydrothermal convection, and tectonic extension, The destruction of ocean crust, in tum, takes place at deep-sea trenches. ‘The relative motion of lithospheric plates is responsible for an array df tectonic and topographic features on the seafloor. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridges, the deep ocean floor exhibits the following prominent topographic features: abyssal hills and plains, seamounts, aseismic ridges, and trenches. The continental margins are typified by continental rises slopes, and shelves, The seafloor is blanketed by sediments in most areas. Terrigenous sediments predominate on the continental margins, The deep ocean floor contains a variety of sediment types, With various admixtures of biogenous, terrigenous, authigenic, volcanogenic, and cosmogenic Components. The relative concentration of these sediment components at any site depends on water depth, the proximity to landmasses, biological productivity of overlying waters, voleanic activity (on the seafloor, as well as other factors. Marine biology is treated in Chapter 5. Major taxonomic groups of plants and animals found in estuarine and oceanic environments are reviewed, Included here are various groups of phyto- plankton, zooplankton, benthic flora and fauna, and nekton, Data are compiled on the abundane: biomass, density, distribution, and diversity of these organisms, Information is also chronicled on estuarine and marine habitats. Chapter 6 conveys the seriousness of pollution and other anthropogenic impacts on biotic Communities and habitats in estuarine and marine environments, Acute and insidious pollution problems encountered in these environments are commonly linked to nutrient and organic carbon loading, oil spills, and toxic chemical contaminant inputs (i.e., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and radioactive substances). Many human activities disrupt and degrade habitats, leading to significant decreases in abundance of organisms. For example, uncontrolled coastal development, altered natural flows, overexploitation of fisheries, and the introduction of exotic species can have devastating effects on estuarine and coastal marine systems. The impacts of human activities—especially in the coastal zone—will continue to be a ‘major issue in marine science during the 2ist century, Contents Chapter 1 Physiography 1. Ocean Provinces... 1 A. Dimensions 1 B. Physiographic Provinces. 2 1. Continental Margin Province. 2 2, Deep-Ocean Basin Provin wd 3. Mid-Ocean Ridge Province sod C. Benthic and Pelagic Provinces a F Benthic Province 3 2. Pelagic Province. = : 4 1.1 Conversion Factors, Measures, and Units scum — sensed 1.2 General Features of the Barth ....r. a 10 1.3 General Characteristics of the Oceans 4 1.4 Topographic Data 7 Chapter 2 Marine Chemistry 1. Seawater Composition ‘A. Major Constituents... B. Minor and Trace Elements. C. Nutrient Elements... 1. Nitrogen... 2. Phosphorus... 3. Silicon Gases Organie Compounds. : Dissolved Constituent Behavior Vertical Profiles.. Conservative Profile Natrient-Type Profile = Surface Enrichment and Depletion at Depth Mid-Depth Minima - Mid-Depth Maxima Mid-Depth Maxima or Minima in the Suboxic Layer Maxima and Minima in Anoxic Waters H, Salinity . Periodic Table. Properties of Seawater Atmospheric and Fluvial Fluxes ‘Composition of Seawater. 2.5 Trace Elements. 216 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Chemisty. mS Havre ne 2.7 Organic Matter... 107 2.8 Decomposition of Organ “Matter 126 2.9 OKYgEM sere : 128 2.10 Nutrients sl 36 2.11 Carbon 53 Chapter 3. Physical Oceanography I. Subject Areas. . Tl, Properties of Seawater... A. Temperature B. Salinity C. Density... IIL, Open Ocean Circulation, A. Wind-Driven Circulation. 1. Ocean Gyres 2. Meanders, Eddies, and Rings 3. Equatorial Currents... 4. Antarctic Circumpolar Current 5. Convergences and Divergences Ekman Transport, Upwelling. and Downwelling . Langmuir Circulation... Surface Water Circulation Atlantic Ocean 2. Pacific Ocean 3. Indian Ocean, 4. Southern Ocean 5. Arctic Sea . Thermohaline Circulation 1. Atlantic Ocean 2. Pacific Ocean 3. Indian Ocean 4. Arctic Sea. . IV. Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Circulation A. Estuaries . B. Coastal Ocean 1. Currents. 2. Fronts 3. Waves Kelvin and Rossby Waves Edge Waves. Seiches.. Internal Waves Tides. Surface Waves. Tsunamis... 3.1 Direct and Remote Sensing (Oceanographic Applications) 3.2 Light 3.3 Temperature... 3.4 Salinity 3.5 Tides 3.6 Wind 3.7 Waves and Their Properties 3.8 Coastal Waves and Currents 3.9 Circulation in Estuaries. 3.10 Ocean Circulation... 167 wl 67 167 168 168 169 169 169 169 170 ATL 171 wlTL vad 2 onl T2 172 173, TB 173 173 174 174 174 175 175, weed 76 176 7 ool TT snl TB -AT8 178, 179 179 179 ol 79 180 182 185 193 196 201 206 2d 215 220 238 258 Chapter 4 Marine Geology 1. Plate Tectonics Theory os IL. Seafloor Topographic Features .. A. Mid-Ocean Ridges B. Deep Ocean Floor Abyssal Hills... Abyssal Plains.. Seamounts Ascismic Ridges Deep-Sea Trenches C. Continental Margins... 1. Continental Shelf 2. Continental Slope. 3. Continental Rise. IIL, Sediments ‘A. Deep Ocean Floor.. I. Terrigenous Sediment 2. Biogenous Sediment a. Calcareous Oozes. b. Siliceous Oozes. 3, Pelagic Sediment Distribution 4, Authigenic Sediment. 5. Volcanogenic Sediment. 6. Cosmogenie Sediment 7. Deep-Sea Sediment Thickness B. Continental Margins. J. Continental Shelves .... 2: Continental Slopes and Rises 4.1 Composition and Structure of the Earth... 42 Ocean Basins. - 43. Continental Margins... 44 Submarine Canyons and Oceanic Trenches... 4.5. Plate Tectonics, Mid-Ocean Ridges, and Oceanic 4.6 Heat Flow 47 Hydrothermal Vents... 4.8. Lava Flows and Seamounts 4.9 Marine Mineral Deposits 4.10 Marine Sediments 4.11 Estuaries, Beaches, and Continental Shelves. Crust Formation Chapter 5 Marine Biology I. Introduction IL, Bacteria ILL, Phytoplankton. 441 A. Major Taxonomic Groups. . = ABS. 1. Diatoms - : se - : 445 2. Dinoflagellates ss a : 445 3. Coccolithophores ... “ . ; eevee 5 4, Silicoflagellates 46 B. Primary Productivity 1. so ss ss oh 46 Chapter 4M: IL. Seafloor Topographic Features ... 1 ine Geology Plate Tectonics Theory. A. Mid-Ocean Ridges... B. Deep Ocean Floor Abyssal Hills... Abyssal Plains Seamounts. Aseismic Ridges Deep-Sea Trenches C. Continental Margins. 1. Continental Shelf. 2. Continental Slope... 3. Continental Rise: weep IIL, Sediments 4 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 ‘A. Deep Ocean Floor. I. Terrigenous Sediment 2. Biogenous Sediment a. Calcareous Oozes. b. Siliceous Oozes. Pelagic Sediment Distribution ‘Authigenic Sediment... Voleanogenic Sediment. Cosmogenic Sediment Deep-Sea Sediment Thickness B. Continental Margins.. 1, Continental Shelves 2. Continental Slopes and Rises Composition and Structure of the Earth Ocean Basins Continental Margins. Submarine Canyons and Oceanic Trenches sane Plate Tectonics, Mid-Ocean Ridges, and Oceanic Crust Formation « Heat Flow... Hydrothermal Vents. Lava Flows and Seamounts Marine Mineral Deposits, 4,10 Marine Sediments 4.11 Estuaries, Beaches, and Continental Shelves Chapter 5 Marine Biology 1 HL. Bacteria Introduction IIL. Phytoplankton. A. Major Taxonomic Groups... 1. Diatoms 2. Dinoflagellates 3. Coccolithophores, 4, Silicoflagellates... B. Primary Productivity. IV. Zooplankton A. Zooplankton Classifications . Classification by Size. : 2. Classification by Length of Planktonic Life a. Holoplankton b. Meroplankton ¢. Tychoplankton V. Benthos..... A. Benthic Flora 1, Salt Marshes. 2. Seagrasses 3. Mangroves. B. Benthic Fauna... 1. Spatial Distribution Reproduction and Larval Dispersal Feeding Strategies, Burrowing, and Bioturbation.. Biomass and Species Diversity a. Biomass. b. Diversity C. Coral Reefs. VEL Nekton san A. Fish : 1. Representative Fish Faunas ... a. Estuaries b. Pelagic Environment Neritic Zone... Epipelagic Zone. iii, Mesopelagic Zone iv. Bathypelagic Zone. v. Abyssopelagic Zone ... ¢. Benthic Environment . i, Supratidal Zone..... i, Intertidal Zone iii, Subtidal Zone. iv, Bathyal Zone... v. Abyssal Zone . vi, Hadal Zone . B. Crustaceans and Cephalopods C. Marine Reptiles D. Marine Mammals. E, Seabirds 5.1 Marine Organisms: Major Groups and Composition. 5.2 Biological Production in the Ocean .. 5.3. Bacteria and Protozo: 5.4 Marine Plankton. 5.5 Benthic Flora... 5.6 Benthic Fauna 5.7 Nekton 5.8. Fisheries 5.9 Food Webs... apne 5.10 Carbon Flow... 5.11 Coastal Systems 5.12 Deep-Sea Systems. Chapter 6 Marine Pollution and Other Anthropogenic Impacts I. Introduction. : LL Types of Anthropogenic Impact A. Marine Pollution 1. Nutrient Loading, 2. Organic Carbon Loading 3. Oi. - 4. Toxie Chemicals... a. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons bb. Halogenated Hydrocarbons. c. Heavy Metals d. Radioactive Substances. B. Other Anthropogenic Impacts... Coastal Development Marine Debris... Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal Oil Production and Marine Mining... Exploitation of Fisheries, Boats and Marinas : Electric Generating Stations. Altered Natural Flows. 9. Introduced Species. III. Conclusions 6.1 Sources of Marine Pollution 6.2 Watershed Effects 63. Contamination Effects on Organisms 64 Nutrients 6.5. Organic Carbon 6.6 Sewage Waste 6.7 Pathogens... 68 Oil ssn 6.9. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. 6.10 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 6.11 Heavy Metals 6.12 Radioactive Waste 6.13 Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal... vweene Index CHAPTER 1 Physiography |. OCEAN PROVINCES A. Dimensions The world oceans including the adjacent seas cover ~71% of the earth’s surface (~3.6 X 108 km?), and they have a total volume of ~1.35 10? km’. The mean depth of all the oceans amounts to ~3700 m, with the Pacific Ocean being deepest (4188 m), followed by the Indian Ocean (3872 m) and the Atlantic Ocean (3844 m). Nearly 75% of the ocean basins lie within the depth zone between 3000 and 6000 m. The seas are much shallower, being ~1200 m deep or less. The Pacific Ocean is by far the largest and deepest ocean, comprising 50.1% of the world ocean and occupying more than one third of the earth’s surface. By comparison, the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean constitute 29.4 and 20.5% of the world ocean, respectively. The oceans range from ~S000 km (Atlantic) to 17,000 km (Pacific) in width. ‘Ocean water is not evenly distributed around the globe. In the southern hemisphere, the percentage of water (80.9%) to land (19.1%) far exceeds that of the percentage of water (60.7%) to land (39.3%) in the northern hemisphere. This uneven distribution greatly affects world meteo- rological and ocean circulation patterns. The mean temperature of the oceans is 3.51°C, and the mean salinity 34.7%c, Excluding the Southern Ocean as a separate entity, the Pacific Ocean exhibits the lowest temperatures and salinities with mean values of 3.14°C and 34.6%c, respectively. In contrast, highest mean temperatures (3.99°C) and salinities (34,92%c) exist in the Atlantic Ocean despite its large volume of riverin. inflow. This is particularly true in the North Atlantic, where the mean temperature (5.08°C) and salinity (35.09%e) exceed those of all other major ocean basins. The Indian Ocean has intermediate ‘mean temperature (3.88°C) and salinity (34,78%o) values. ‘The major oceans also include marginal seas. Some of these smaller systems are bounded by land or island chains (e.g., Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Sea of Japan). Others not bounded off by land are distinguished by local oceanographic characteristics (e.g., Labrador, Norwegian, and Tasman seas).! Marginal seas can strongly influence temperature and salinity conditions of the major ocean basins. For example, the warm, saline waters of the Mediterranean Sea can be detected over thousands of kilometers at mid-depths in the Aantic Ocean. ‘Comparing oceanic depths and land elevations on earth, it is quite clear that relative to sea level, the landmasses are not as high as the oceans are deep. As demonstrated by a hypsographic curve, 84% of the ocean floor exceeds 2000 m depth, while only 11% of the land surface is greater than 2000 m above sea level. The maximum oceanic depth, recorded in the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific, amounts to 11,035 m. The highest elevation on land, Mt. Everest, is 8848 m. 2 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE B. Physiographic Provinces 1. Continental Margin Province The ocean floor is divided into three major physiographic provinces—the continental margins, deep-ocean basins, and mid-ocean ridges—characterized by distinctive bathymetry and unique landforms. The continental margins represent the submerged edges of the continents, and they consist of the continental shelf, slope, and rise, which extend seaward from the shoreline down to depths of ~2000 to 3000 m. The continental shelf is underlain by a thick wedge of sediment derived from continental sources. Here, the ocean bottom slopes gently seaward at an angle of ~0.5°. Although typified by broad expanses of nearly flat terrain, many shelf regions also exhibit irregularly distributed hills, valleys, and depressions of low to moderate relief. Continental shelves, which range from 11,000 m) have been recorded in deep-sea trenches. These long, narrow depressions are on average 3000 to 5000 m deeper than the ocean basins. They are bordered by voleanic island arcs or continental margin magmatic belts, and mark the sites of major lithos- pheric subduction zones. Deep-sea trenches represent tectonically active areas associated with strong earthquakes and volcanism, 3. Mid-Ocean Ridge Province The largest and most volcanically active chain of mountains on earth occurs along a globally encircling mid-ocean ridge (MOR) and rift system that extends through all the major ocean basins {as seafloor spreading centers. It is along the 75,000-km global length of MORs where new oceanic crust forms through an interplay of magmatic construction, hydrothermal convection, and tectonic extension.5® These spreading centers are sites of active basaltic volcanism, shallow-focus earth- quakes, and high rates of heat flow. The seafloor at MORs consists of a narrow neovolcanic zone (1 to 4 km wide) flanked successively by a zone of crustal fissuring (0.5 to 3 km) and a zone of active faulting out to a distance of ~10 km from the spreading axis. The neovolcanic zone is the region of most recent volcanic activity along the ridge. The summit of the ridge is marked by a rift valley, axial summit caldera, or axial summit graben, The MOR system is segmented along-axis by transform faults, which commonly extend far into deep-ocean basins as inactive fracture zones. The irregular partitioning of the ridge axis by transform faults creates a hierarchy of discontinuities. ‘The mid-ocean ridge physiographic province lies at a depth of 2000 to 3000 m. The volcanic ridges comprising this mountain system are comparable in physical dimensions to those on the continents. Most seamounts form on or near mid-ocean ridges. The inner valley floor of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge is composed of piled-up seamounts and hummocky pillow flows, representing the product of erustal accretion.*“® They account for highly variable and rugged voleanic landscapes. {As this volcanic material and the remaining newly formed lithosphere cool and subside on either side of the MOR, the elevations of the submarine volcanic mountains decline, and the topography becomes less rugged. The original volcanic topography also is gradually buried under a thick apron of sediments as the lithosphere moves away from the MOR, C. Benthic and Pelagic Provinces 1. Benthic Province ‘The oceans can also be subdivided on the basis of major habitats on the seafloor (benthic province) and in the water column (pelagic province). The benthic province consists of five discrete zones: littoral, sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, and hadal. The littoral (or intertidal) zone encompasses the bottom habitat between the high and low tide marks. Immediately seaward, the sublitioral (or subtidal) zone defines the benthic region from mean low water to the shelf break at a depth of ~200 m. The seafloor extending from the shelf break to a depth of ~2000 m corresponds to the bathyal zone. The deepest benthic habitats include the abyssal zone from 2000 to 6000 m depth ‘and the hadal zone below 6000 m. These zones roughly conform with the aforementioned physi- graphic provinces. For example, the sublittoral zone represents the benthic environment of the continental shelf, The bathyal zone corresponds to the continental slope and rise, and the abyssal zone to the deep-ocean basins exclusive of the trenches, which are represented by the hadal zone. The abyssal zone accounts for 75% of the benthic habitat area of the oceans, and the bathyal and sublitioral zones 16 and 8% of the area, respectively. 4 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE. 2. Pelagic Province Pelagic environments are subdivided into neritic and oceanic zones. The neritic zone includes all waters overlying the continental shelf, and the oceanic zone, all waters seaward from the shelf break. Waters of the oceanic zone are further subdivided into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathy- pelagic, abyssalpelagic, and hadalpelagic regions. Epipelagic waters constitute the uppermost por- tion of the water column extending from the sea surface down to a depth of 200 m. The waters between 200 and 1000 m constitute the mesopelagic zone, and those between 1000 and 2000 m, the bathypelagic zone. Deepest ocean waters of the pelagic province occur in the abyssaipelagic zone, located between 2000 m and 6000 m depth, and in the underlying hadalpelagic zone, ‘occupying the deep-sea trenches. The abyssalpelagic, mesopelagic. and bathypelagic zones contain the greatest volume of seawater, amounting to 54, 28, and 15% of all water present in the oceanic zone, respectively. REFERENCES 1. Pickard, G. L. and Emery, W. J., Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction, 4th ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1985, 2. Millero, F.J., Marine Chemistry, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997, 3. Pinet, P. R., Invitation 10 Oceanography; Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, MA, 1998. 4. Smith, D. K., Seamount abundances and size distribution, and their geographic variations, Rev, Aquat, Sci, 5, 197, 1991 5. Macdonald, K. C. and Fox, P. J., The mid-ocean ridge, Sci. Am., 262, 72, 1990. 6. Cann, J. R., Elderficld, H., and Laughton, A. S,, Eds.. Mid-Ocean Ridges: Dynamics of Processes Associated with Creation of New Ocean Crust, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1998 7. Macdonald, K. C., Scheirer, D. S., and Carbotte, S. M., Mid-ocean ridges: discontinuities, segments, and giant cracks, Science, 283, 968, 1991 8. Smith, D. K. and Cann, J. R., The role of seamount volcanism in crustal construction at the Mid- Atlantic (24°-30°), J. Geophys. Res., 97, 1645, 1992 mith, D. K. and Cann, J. R., Building the crust at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Nature, 365, 707, 1993, Smith, D. K., Mid-Atlantic Ridge volcanism from deep-towed side-scan sonar images, 25-29°N. 4. Volcanol, Geotherm. Res., 67, 233, 1995, PHYSIOGRAPHY 1.1 CONVERSION FACTORS, MEASURES, AND UNITS. Table 1.1-1 Recommended Decimal Multiples and Submuttiples ‘Muttiples and ‘Submultipies Prefixes Symbols 10" oa. E 10" peca P 10” tora T 10° siga c 10° mega M 10° kilo k 10 hhecto h 10 deca da 10") deci 4 10-8 centi c 107 rl m 10 micro » 10° ‘nano n 10-8 pico > 10" femto f 10" ato a Source: Beyer, W.H., Ed., CRC Standard Math ematical Tables, 28th od., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1987, 1. With permission. Table 1.1-2 Conversion Factors Metric to English To Obtain Multiply By inches Centimeters 0.3937007874 Feet Meters 3.280830805 Yards Meters 1.093613298 Miles Kilometers 0.6219711922 Ounces Grams 3.527396195 x 10°# Pounds Kilograms 2,204622622 Gallons (US. liquid) Liters 02641720524 Fluid ounces Miliiters (co) 3,381402270 x 10°* ‘Square inches ‘Square centimeters (0.1550003100 Square feet ‘Square meters 40.76391042 Square yards ‘Square meters 1.195990046 (Cubic inches Miliiters (cc) 6.102374409 x 10-* Cubic fet Cubic meters 96.31466672 Cubic yards Cubic meters 1,307950819 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE Table 1.1-2 Conversion Factors (continued) English to Met To Obtain Muttiply By Microns Mis 25.4 Contimeters Inches 254 Meters Feet 0.3048 Meters Yards os1aa Kilometers Miles 1.600344 Grams ‘Ounces 28.34952313 Kilograms Pounds 045959237 Liters Gallons (US. liquid) 3.785411784 Milliiters (ce) Fluid ounces 29.57952956 ‘Square centimeters ‘Square inches 6.4516 ‘Square meters ‘Square feet 0.09280304 Square meters Square yards 083612736 Miliiters (ce) Cubic inches 16.387064 Cubic meters Cubic feet 2.881684659 x 10-# Cubic meters Cubic yards 0764554858 Conversion Factors—General To Obtain Multiply By ‘Atmospheres Feet of water @ 4°C 2.950 x 10°? ‘Atmospheres: Inches of mercury @ 0°C 3.942 x 10-7 ‘Atmospheres Pounds per square inch 6.804 x 10-7 sTu Foot-pounds 1.285 x 10-9 BTU Joules 9.480 x 10-« Cubic feet Cords 128 Degree (angle) Radians 57.2058 Ergs Foot-pounds 1,956 x 10° Foet Miles 8280 Feet of water @ 4°C Atmospheres 33.90 Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours 1.98 x 108 Foot;pounds Kilowatt-hours 2.655 x 10° Foot-pounds per min Horsepower 33 x 10" Horsepower Foot-pounds per second 1.818 x 10-9 Inches of mercury @ 0°C Pounds per square inch 2.036 Joules BTU 1054.8 Joules Foot;pounds 1.35582 Kilowatts BTU per minute 1.758 x 10-2 kilowatts Foot-pounds per minute 2.26 x 10-* Kilowatts Horsepower o.7as712 Knots Milos per hour 0186897624 Miles Feet 1.894 x 10-4 Nautical miles Miles 0.86897624 Radians Degrees 1.745 x 10-8 Square feat Acres 43560 Watts BTU per minute 17.5796 ‘Temperature Factors F = 9/5 (°0) + 32 Fahrenheit temperature = 1.8 (temperature in kelvins) ~ 459.67 °c Fahrenheit temperature Celsius temperature 5/9 (°F) ~ 32] 1.8 (Celsius temperature) + 32 temperature in kelvins — 273.15 * Boldtace numbers are exact; others are given to ten significant figures where 60 indicated by the multiplier factor. ‘Source: Beyer, W. H., Ed., CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1987, 21. With permission PHYSIOGRAPHY (eenuquco) 5x 270 9101 (01 54 ay@t'206 on ‘Wa! wa/6 0910°0. (ae gi) Ae ait Besesr euyal wo/8 89.1% ae Z0 1 Berea wal Z249e0°0 uot (10 eouno) ne 20 $000 61 - wosks'sn “warsks oueH _wesks S11 weeks MeN ‘hisu0a seni «PA P6LOE"L uh eo, eulse vesee'e au 95y0u'0 wussol uo iL su 168200 wi Ul erLZs oreo uo 22891 adi cussoee reevo uo b uio190'0 we (10) cu 04 - 20190 ub ___waisks sn _wersés ou10N waists “Sin —__weisks anne sainseow pinbA uiien Tu ORE UNF wn ese wt ux se60st w 2e1200 wy ue ot aut a goes lwoue) W828" al L980 wtb PA L9E60°F wh wo 201 sw 689/01 wt w pri6o wht au e960 81080 t 2 62500 un ovs'z L ao e91sy'9 v1 20860 wo 1 ul Ssh 0. ‘Ul s-Ob - 266 me WD »-Ob (Curbs) Ul $51000 ‘Ul -Ob - LO6E ve WO Ob _ —wesks sn woisks omen waisks “Sin _woishs uN ea a6u01 ‘SUOISIBAUED Pt lun ‘Seunseawy “WoIsAS 'S'N] PUB MIO E-1'L eIdeL PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE 1 be0200 9708900 ovis ‘s68900 een t 82960 9s'seu 290860 (away 969'PL £601 t 09. Se104 86 10°0 esei000 beL000 b e£100°0 s ‘p0S'PL 2610"b 269860 ose b_ewonutp 0 ve une OL, eq ‘ainsseig b “OL x 861s ‘8r901 201 x 1096 Ob x tere, esto see t x 98l'b Ol x ELVE 201 x 109° 501 * 009° +01 x 08F'6 x 06% sure, ' ‘ol © 2000" Maynor 0b * SoBr 6 x 6982 n Ob x 69UL2. L 619 “nua wm ‘10 761003 (Panunuos) suoysienuog pue ‘syUn ‘Seunseay “WOIShS “SN PUE >HEW E11 AGEL PHYSIOGRAPHY ossIWed IMA “6961 yj-ie6uuds “p3 “H 9 ‘INedapem “| 10n Aasiueyooe9 Jo YooqnUeH “'y ‘wueWOPKeH :29:noS “Ut 29:22 Jo SS2W AUN SI Sfodnpulone punod | = AB a} | © zeet ‘001 208 08 zsoh 008 82 ov zuph 008 99% oe z6zt oz ave 02 aun 009 oz Olt 4. _ 2. _ _ _ (ae 9. wWoyuaryey 0% apesBNUED 206. 0s zz oot zt ° ase oor ¥61 06 8s— 0s zs oe gab 08 8rb~ 001 eer ose ash 02 8e2~ ost~ zee oz, ov 09 azo oz. 4 ES 4 oe 4 oe ~ yaqueryey o} epesBQued ul SIP = Hs x (2e — 41) 6h = Be x (H.) snuinesy seei60q ZE + DeL SI = de x 2E + Ul #16 = 4s x eumproduioy yualyey 8001800 ypesb4vE9 seeiboq BLELE + Dol = Mo x DP) UNH 49 epeABAUED einjosay 10 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE 1.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH SURFACE OF THE EARTH ‘CHAINS OF ISLANDS FDITERRANEANSEAS| CORNET Eee] Gee] i ARYSSAL SILLS gl le alle ale al fe STERVONIS OF FRACTURE Z0¥ES, FLANK ZONES: CENTRAL RIFTS ps ag Figure 1.2-1 Divisions of the earth's surface. (From Millero, F. J,, Chemical Oceanography, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996, 4. With permission.) Table 1.2-1 Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth Quantity Symbol Value Unit Mass M 59742107 @ Major orbital semi-axis Bo +.000000 au. 1-4959787 - 10" km Distance from sun at perineion ‘ 0.9833 aU Distance from sun at aphelion 5 10167 au Moment of perihelion passage T Jan.2, 452 min Moment of aphelion passage T, duly 4,5 9.05 min Siderial rotation period around sun Poe 31.5581 - 10° s 965.25636 4 Mean rotational velocity Ue 29.78 kes Mean equatorial radius a 6978,140 km Mean polar compression (lttening facto) ® 11298.257 Difference in equatorial and polar semivaxes ane 21.385 km Compression of meridian of major equatorial axis ay 1205.2 Compression of meridian of minor equatorial axis ay 1298.0 Equatorial compression ® 190,000 Difference in equatorial semi-axes a-b 213 m Ditference in polar sem-axes we 70 m Polar asymmetry 1 1.10 ‘Mean acceleration of gravity at equator a 9.76036 mist Mean acceleration of gravity at poles rm 9.83208 ms? Diference in acceleration of gravy at pole and g, ~ g, 5.172 coms? at equator Mean acceleration of gravity for entire surface 9 or97e mis of terestrial ellipsoid PHYSIOGRAPHY " Table 1.2-1 Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth (continued) Quantity ‘Symbol Value Unit Mean radius a 6371.0 km Area of surface 8 5.10 108 kere Volume v 1.0832 - 1012 kms Mean density ® 5515 giom ‘Siderial rotational period P 86,164.09) 8 Rotational angular velocity ° 7.292116 - 10°* radis Mean equatorial rotational velocity v 0.46512 kes Rotational angular momentum L 5,861 - 10° Js Rotational energy E 2.137 » 10% J Ratio of centritugal force to force of gravity 4 0.003467 at equator Moment of inertia 1 8.070 - 10" kg me Relative braking of earth's rotation due Se,lo 42-10% century to tidal friction Relative secular acceleration of earth's rotation Auylor 14-10% century Not secular braking of earth's rotation Aula 28-10% century Probable value of total energy of tectonic 5 1 108 sicentury deformation of earth ‘Secular loss of heat of earth through radiation we 4-108 Jieertury into space Portion of earth's kinetic energy transformed into AE 1.3108 wicentury heat as 2 result of lunar and solar tides in the hydrosphere | Differences in duration of daysin March and August. AP 0.0025 (March-August) s Corresponding relative annual variation in earth’s Aww 2.9 - 10°* (Aug.-March) ‘tational velocity Presumed variation in earth's radius between wR 9.2 (Aug.-March) om ‘August and March ‘Annual variation in level of world ocean ah, ~10 (Sept.-March) om ‘Area of continents Se 1.49 108 kim® 292 % of surface Area of world ocean s 3.61 - 10° km? 70.8 % of surface Mean height of continents above sea level he 875 m ‘Mean depth of world ocean 4 3794 m ‘Mean thickness of lithosphere within the limits of Me 35 km the continents Mean thickness of lithosphere within the limits off az kn the ocean ‘Mean rate of thickening of continental lithosphere A/S 10-40 mit0F y ‘Mean rate of horizontal extension of continental = AVAL 0.75-20 karvi0* y lithosphere Mass of crust m, 2.98 10% kg Mass of mantic 4.05 10" kg ‘Amount of water released from the mantle and core 3.40 - 102 kg in the course of geological time Total reserve of water in the mantle 2-108 kg Present content of free and bound water in the 24 108 kg ‘earths lithosphere ‘Mass of hydrosphere m, 1.664 - 10% ‘Amount of oxygen bound in the earth's crust 1.300 - 10" Amount of tree oxygen 15-10” Mass of atmosphere m, 5.136 - 10" Mass of biosphere m, 4.148 - 10 Mass of living matter in the biosphere 36-10% Density of living matter on dry land o4 Density of living matter in ocean 15-10% 12 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE Table 1.2-1_ Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth (continued) ‘Age of the earth 455-10" y ‘Age of oldest rocks 40-10? y ‘Age of most ancient fossils 34-10? y ‘Note: This table is @ collection of data on various properties of the earth, Most of the values are given in Si Units. Note that 1 AU (astronomical unit) = 149,597,870 km Source: Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P.R., Eds., CRC Hanabook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th ed., CRG. Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 14-6. With permission, REFERENCES, 1. Seideimann, P. K., Ed., Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, University Science Books, Mill Vatiey, Ca, 1992, 2, Lang, K.R., Astrophysical Data: Planets and Stars, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992. Table 1.2-2 Density, Pressure, and Gravity as a Function of Depth within the Earth Depth ° P 9 Depth op Pp a km glcm? kbar evs? km g/m? kbar emis? Crust Mantle (solid) 1771496752994 2071 5.12 9031002 ° 102 0 981 2a71 581 10611017 3 1.02 3 982 2671 5.45 1227 1042 3 280 3 982 2888 © «5531352 1069 24 280 5 983 Outer Core (liquid) Mantle (solid) 2886 © 9.96 1952 1069 at 349 5 983 2971 1009 14421050 a 351 2983 3371 10631858953, 6 352 19 (gag 3671 11.00 2154 a74 a1 348 26 (get 4071 11.86 2820 760 101 344 33d 4471 11.69 (2844641 124 340 39985, 4871 1199 3116517 171 337 58987 5156 12:12 3281427 204 334 73989 ont 337 8991 Inner Core (solid) 321 347 108 993 at 359° 124 994 S156 12.90 3281427 art 395 199 999 O71 12.48 938555, art 454 328 997 S771 1252 3529218 um 467 466992 6071 1263 3502122 1471 481 607991 63711258 3617 0 ‘Note: This table gives the density », pressure p, and acceleration due to gravity g as a function of depth below the earth's surface, as calculated from the model of the structure of the earth in Reference 1. The model assumes a radius of 6371 km for the earth. The boundary between the crust and mante (the Mohorovicic disconti- Fruity) is taken as 21 km, while in reality it varies considerably with location, ‘Source: Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P. R., Eds., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th ed., GRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 1410. With permission. REFERENCES 1. Anderson, D. L. and Hart, R. S., J. Geophys. Res., 81, 1461, 1976. 2, Carmichael, R. S., CRC Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989, 467. PHYSIOGRAPHY ‘able 1.2-3 Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust and Sea ‘Abundance "Abundance Element Crust (mg/kg) Sea(mg/l) Element Crust (mg/kg) Sea (mg/l) Ae 55 x 10-8 N 1.9 x 10" 5x 10 Ag 75% 107 4x 108 Na 236 x10 1.08 x 10" al 8.23 x 10" 2x 109 Nb 2.0 x 10° 1x 10° Ar 35 48 x 107 Nd 4.15 % 10" 28x 10° As 18 37 x 10 Ne Bx10% 12x 10+ Au 4x 109 4x 10% Ni Ba x 10° 56 x 10-* 8 1.0 x10" 444 ° 461 x10) 857 x 10 Ba 4.25 x 10° 1.3.x 107 Os 1.5 x 10 Be 28 56 x 10° P 4.05 = 10° 6x 107 Bi 85 x 109 2x 105 Pa 14 x 10°° 5x10" Br 24 673 x 10 Pb. 1.4 x 107 3x 105 c 2.00 x 102 28 x 10 Pd, 15x 102 Ca 415 x 108 4.12 x 10° Po 2x10" 1.5.x 10% Cd 45x10 11x 10 Pr 92 64 x 107 ce 6.65 x 10! 12 x 10° Pt 5x 109 a 145 x10 1.94 10" Ra ax107 89x 10 Co 25 x 10 2% 105 Rb 9.0 x 10 12x10" cr 1.02 x 102 3x 104 Re 7x 104 x10 Gs 3 3x 104 Rh 1x10 cu 60 x 10" 25 x 104 Rn 4x10 6x 10% Dy 52 9.1 x 107 Ru 1x 109 7x 107 Er 35 a7 x 107 s 350 x 10? 9.05 x 108 Eu 20 1.3 x 107 Sb 210" 2d x 10-4 F 5.85 x 10° 13 Sc 22 « 10° 6 x 107 Fo 5.63 x 10 2x 109 Se 5x 10? 2x 104 Ga 19 x 10 3x 105 si 2.82 x 10° 22 Go 62 7x 107 sm 7.05 45x 107 Ge 15 5x 10% Sn 23 4x 10% H 1.40 x 1021.08 x 10% sr 3.70 x 102 79 He ax 109 7x10 Ta 20 2x 108 HE 3.0 7% 106 cs 12 14 x 107 Hg as x 108 ax 105 Te 110 Ho 13 22 x 10 Th 96 1x 108 1 45 x 10 6x 10% Ti 5.65 x 10° 1x 10 In 25x 10" 2x 108 mW 85 x 107 1.9 x 10° ir 1x 103 Tm 52 x 10" 17 «107 kK 2.09 x 10 3.99 x 107 u a7 32 x 109 Kr 1x18 21x 104 v 1.20 x 108 25x 10-9 la 39 x 10) 34x 10-8 w 1.25 1x 104 u 2.0 x 10° 1.8 x 10" Xe 3x 105 5x 108 lu Bx1O? 1.5.x 107 Y 33 x 10) 1.3 x 10° Mg 293% 108 1.29 x 10° Yo 32 a2 x 107 Mn 950 x 102 2x 104 Zn 7.0% 10 49 x 10° Mo 12 1x 10-7 2 1.65 10 3x 10% Note: ‘This table gives the estimated abundance of the elements in the continental crust (in mgikg, ‘equivalent to parts per milion by mass) and in seawater near the surface (in moll) Values Fepresent the median of reported measurements, The concentrations of the less abundant tlements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude. Source: Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P. R., Eds., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th d., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 14-14. With permission. REFERENCES 4. Carmichael, R.S., Ed., CRC Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989. 2. Bodek, | et al., Environmental Inorganic Chemistry, Pergamon Press, New York, 1988, 3, Ronov, A, B. and Yaroshevsky, A. A., Earth's crust geochemistry, in Encyclopedia of Geochemistry ‘and Environmental Sciences, Faibridge, R. W., Ed., Van Nostrand, New York, 1969, 13 4 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE 1.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OCEANS Table 1.3-1 Area, Volume, Mean, and Maximum Depths of the Oceans and Their Adjacent Seas Depth ‘Ares* Volumes Mean* Maximum? Sea (10% km?) (108 km’) (m) (m) Oceans without adjacent seas Pacific Ocean 166.24 696.19 4.188 11,0208 ‘Atlantic Ocean 84.11 32298 © ga4a g219° Indian Ocean 73.43 284.34 3,872 7,485 Total 923.78 —1,90851 4,026 = Mediterranean seas Arctic# 12.28 1970 4.117 5,449 Austral-Asiatice 9.08, 11.37 1.252 7.440 ‘American 4.36 943 2164 7,680 European’ 3.02 438 1,450 5,092 Total 28.72 9888 1,354 = Intracontinental Mediterranean seas Hudson Bay 1.23 0.16 128 218 Red Sea 0.45 0.24 538, 2,604 Baltic Sea 039 0.02 55 459 Persian Gult 24 0.01 25 170 Total 231 043 184 = Marginal seas Bering Sea 226 337 1,491 4,098 Sea of Okhotsk 1.39 1.35 971 372 East China Sea 1.20 0.33 275 2719 ‘Sea of Japan 1.01 169 1,673 4,225 Gulf of California 04s, ont 733 3,127 North Sea 058 0.05 93 7250 Gut of St. Lawrence 024 0.03 125 549 Irish Sea 10 0.01 60 272 Remaining seas 0.90 018 470 - Total 7.23 7.09 979 - (Oceans, including adjacent seas Pacific Ocean 181.34 714.1 3.940 11,022 Atlantic Ocean 106.57 35081 3.293 g2ie Indian Ocean 74.12 28461 3,840 7.485" World ocean 362.03 1,949.93 3,729 11,0208 * Vitiaz Depth in the Mariana Trench, ® Milwaukee Depth in the Puerto Rico Trench, « Planet Depth in the Sunda Trench, Consisting of Arctic Ocean, Barents Sea, Canadian Archipelago, Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay. * Including Aegean Sea, * Including Black Sea, In the Skagerrak area. Source: Miler, FJ. and Sohn, M. L., Chemical Oceanography, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1992, 6. With permission 18 PHYSIOGRAPHY ‘fea vospn}y pue ‘keg uyjeg ‘obejedyory uepeuED “Beg suoreg ‘veeIO onary 40 B (0861 HOA MON “suo AON UYOR "pe PU jerouap “Te 18° “youialg wou} pardepe AjeUIBUD ‘UOISSIEd WIMP “OBEL "Td "UOIEL BOK 'S5aIq OO "pe HUE AydeBOUEIAD JeOIWEYD “4 ‘OVO 19g PEG Ne ‘5295 jua0e/pe ynou ‘uead0 yoke jo a0epNs aut Jo aBeIUEDI0d © SY « 000: 1000 6000 aeo0 SOV zt «loziz «GBD «eR Love) LES ehh ONL 1uee20 PHOM 9900 0 0 ° ° ° ° 9 ° ° ° © c00'001 sing uersied szv0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B50 © OzeYL_ BSE PPL Bag Paks zaoz 0 ° 0 1000 1Wel 16591 ero'se aszsz © EzOUL ONSEN (OLSE e890 UeIPUL sovo 0 ° ° ° ° ° ° o 0 0 © sro zeee6 eg onieg eso o 0 0 0 0 0 © ror0z «eye = ares eevee eueze paw ueodoina e02"t 0 0 0 1900 e60 zz © OpPEL «HL SLESL BIEL © peeve ani weouoUy see ° ° ° ° 0 0 «sere peez@l SLL zie © zwei ea ‘EW Hoy e06'ez 0 0 z00 1900 seco geez ©«ashze | Lees! OSB SEZ GMS SOL e390 2000 o ° 0 0 0 ° ° 0 © 9559 L6a'GzBre'Oz © S0L'Gy HOWE JO oszo 0 0 0 0 ) Ce Ce rd ueder jo Bas zee ° 0 ° ° ° ° 0 Ss00 geet Sev LL SOELE =p 0S BUIUD SER vee 0 ° 0 0 ° ° 0 ose = gore © enezzS BLY OE SuV9z SIOUYO 10 POS szao ° 0 ° o 0 o 0 «eee «eer cage = SUS Hv OY ag Buuog {889g UBaUeLOUPON, eos ° ° 0 B00 9400 seyt oz «=D SLZL ee} OL «SSSI omersy Jensm 616Sp «1000 GOO. e90 BLO ere vAPOZ BBE ELIZ 9H OSE STE e890 outed ueoo Hh OS OLS + re ez zt FeO ZOO. wary ues90, LOM (up eu0z wideg ‘sue900 ey) uy seuez uideg Z-€°L 192L 16 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE Ws CONTINENT SHORE: ISLAND ARG 4S Figure 1.3-1 Generalized structure of the ocean bottom. (From Millero, F. J., Chemical Oceanography, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996, 5. With permission.) 1d Pelagic Marine Environments Depth (m) Volume (%4) Pelagic Environments Epipelagic 0-200 3 Mesopelagic 200-1000 28 Bathypelagic 1000-2000 15 Abyssalpelagic 2000-6000 54 Hadaipelagic 6000

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