Department of Applied Science and Engineering

Environmental Risk Assessment (ENGI 9630)

Instructor Dr. FAISAL FAHD

Project Title

Environmental Risk Assessment of the Transshipment

Facility in Whiffen Head, NL

Submitted By

Mirza Muhammad Ammar Saeed (202294323)

Syed Kazmi (202198977)
Umer Anjum (202291950)
Moruf Olagoke (201894085),
Mohibulhaque Saiyed (202198948)

Winter Semester

Submission: 10th April 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Introduction ............................................................................................... 4

Transshipment Facility In Whiffen Head, NL ........................................... 6

Facility Location........................................................................................ 7

Methodology Of Transshipment Operation .............................................. 9

Case Study: .............................................................................................. 11

Step 1: Plan That Is Assessment. ........................................................ 13

Step 2: Analyze Hazards Identify And Describe Oil Spill Scenarios: . 14

Step 4: Analyze The Consequences Of Spill Scenarios. ..................... 15

Step 5: Characterization of the Risk ................................................... 21

Fate And Transport Of Oil Spill ............................................................... 21

WEATHERING CONDITIONS AND THEIR IMPACTS ................................ 27

Physical & Chemical Factors.................................................................. 28

Health impacts on the Ecological receptors:- ....................................... 34

Effects on the different body parts of the Ecological receptors .......... 34

Conclusion ............................................................................................... 38

References: ............................................................................................. 39
ABSTRACT

The proliferation of industrial growth in the recent decade caused a serious threat to our
environment, even our freshwater bodies are polluted by a number of organic and inorganic
contaminants these days. This issue has gained the strong attention of every nation.
Contaminants could be released into the ecological chain in the form of man-made chemicals,
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and plastics. That’s the reason our environment is facing acute and
chronic effects due to the emission of excessive amounts of these pollutants. These deadly
pollutants are continuously circulating from landfills to airways and eventually into ocean water.
Their transport and fate are necessary to understand and that’s the point of focus of engineers,
scientists, and global researchers. Crude Oil is considered the backbone of every industrial
process. The Ocean route is the most convenient and super-fast way of transporting crude oil
throughout every corner of the World. But oil spillage is a major issue in ocean water resulting in
hazardous health issues both to vital aquatic organisms and human life as well.
The Transshipment Terminal began operation in 1998 to handle the crude oil that would be
produced from Newfoundland’s offshore oil and gas developments. The facility consists of two
jetties that can accommodate shuttle tankers and storage capacity for over three million barrels
of oil. The facility receives regular shipments from four offshore fields via a dedicated fleet of
Suezmax shuttle tankers.
Whiffen Head is located on the isthmus of the Avalon Peninsula on the Placentia Bayside. It is
near the town of Arnold’s cove as well as the Come by Chance oil refinery. Placentia Bay not only
accommodates the oil and gas industry; it is also a rich fishing ground and tourism destination.
The goal of this project will be to conduct an environmental risk assessment of the transshipment
operations. The first stage will be to identify the hazards this facility/operation presents. The
most significant example of a hazard is the possibility of a crude spill from the shuttle tankers or
from the storage facility. Other considerable hazards are fuel spills from the shuttle tanks, leaks
into the ground from the storage facility, etc.
This will be followed by an exposure assessment that evaluates the possible receptors in the area
such as the nearby town of Arnold’s Cove, other towns around Placentia Bay and the local
ecosystem. The project will examine the fate and transport of oil, fuel or other toxic chemicals
from the vessels or facility into the environment as well as the effects it could have on the human
population and surrounding ecosystem. Probability estimates will be determined for the
identified risks. The above information will be combined to characterize the overall risk of
operating the transshipment terminal.

Introduction

Crude oil has been the world's primary energy source for decades, and its demand has
continued to increase with the growth of global population and economies. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), global oil demand has grown by an average of 1.3 million
barrels per day (b/d) since 2000, and it is projected to continue to grow until at least 2040 (IEA,
2021). This growth in demand for oil has led to the development of new oil fields and the
expansion of existing oil production facilities worldwide. While oil has played a critical role in
powering modern economies, its extraction, transportation, and use can also have harmful
effects on the environment.
Oil spills, leaks, and other accidents can have devastating effects on marine and terrestrial
ecosystems, causing long-term damage to wildlife and habitat. In addition, the burning of fossil
fuels, including oil, is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to
climate change and its associated impacts, such as rising sea levels and more frequent and
severe weather events. Crude oil spillage in ocean water was 3-6 million tons per year in 1980s
and 1990s which is now reduced to 1.4 million tons per year. The major causes of oil spillages
are urban discharges. tankers, coastal facilities etc.

It is important to carefully consider the environmental risks associated with the oil industry and
its various activities. One such activity is the construction and operation of transshipment
facilities, which are used to transfer cargo from larger vessels to smaller ones for delivery to
coastal communities. These facilities are often located in or near sensitive ecosystems and
communities, increasing the potential for environmental impacts. An Environmental Risk
Assessment (ERA) is an important tool for identifying and mitigating potential environmental
risks associated with transshipment facilities. This includes gathering information, analyzing
risks, developing mitigation strategies, and consulting with stakeholders to ensure that the
project is carried out in an environmentally responsible manner.
The transshipment facility in Whiffen Head, NL, is a major hub for the transportation of oil and
other commodities. The facility includes a deep-water pier, storage tanks, and loading and
unloading equipment for cargo ships and barges. The facility's operations have the potential to
cause significant environmental impacts on the surrounding area, including the discharge of
pollutants, noise pollution, and the potential for oil spills. A comprehensive environmental risk
assessment is necessary to evaluate the potential impacts of the facility's operations and to
develop appropriate risk management measures to mitigate these impacts. This report will
analyze the environmental risks associated with the Whiffen Head transshipment facility and
propose strategies for risk mitigation and management to ensure the sustainability of the local
ecosystem and communities.

Transshipment Facility In Whiffen Head, NL

The Whiffen Head transshipment terminal plays a vital role in the oil transportation infrastructure
of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has helped to increase the efficiency of oil transportation by
reducing the number of shuttle tankers required and enabling customized cargo sizes. The
terminal also supports the local economy by creating jobs and providing opportunities for local
businesses.
In 1996, Mobil Oil Canada, Chevron Canada Resources Limited, Petro-Canada, and members of
the Hibernia consortium signed an agreement with the Government of Newfoundland and
Labrador to construct and operate a transshipment terminal at Whiffen Head in Placentia Bay.
The terminal, owned by Newfoundland Transshipment Ltd and operated by International Matex
Tank Terminals (IMTT), was completed in October 1998 at a cost of over $100 million and
employed approximately 300 people during construction.
The transshipment terminal, consisting of two berths, is used to handle crude oil delivered from
the Hibernia and Terra Nova Fields. This process involves transferring crude oil from storage in
the Hibernia production platform to two specially designed shuttle tankers with a cargo capacity
of 850,000 barrels of oil each. These tankers carry the oil to the terminal at Whiffen Head, where
it is stored until it can be transferred to conventional tankers for transport to market. The
terminal enables cargo sizes to be customized to meet individual customer needs, expands
market opportunities beyond the range of two shuttle tankers, and reduces the number of
shuttle tankers required.

The conventional "second leg" tankers, which range in size from 35,000 to 155,000 dead weight
tons, are equipped with segregated ballast systems to eliminate the need for ballast water
treatment. Some of the oil from the Hibernia production platform is shipped directly to final
market destinations, bypassing the transshipment terminal

Facility Location

The transshipment terminal is situated on the eastern side of Placentia Bay, which is a
significant bay located on the southern coast of Newfoundland. The bay spans around 125 km
in length, and its opening or mouth is about 145 km wide. The bay is home to a small
population of 3289 people and supports a diverse range of marine life. The terminal's location
on the bay's eastern side provides a strategic advantage for shipping and receiving oil from the
Hibernia and Terra Nova Fields
Placentia Bay is a biologically diverse ecosystem that provides habitat for numerous marine
species. However, the presence of several industries in the area, including an oil refinery and an
offshore oil transshipment facility, has raised environmental concerns. Additionally, the area's
past industrial activities, such as the US Naval Station and the phosphorus plant, have left a
legacy of environmental contamination.
Methodology Of Transshipment Operation

Step Description

Objective Define the scope of the environmental risk assessment, identify potential
environmental impacts, and determine relevant laws and regulations. Engage with
stakeholders to understand concerns and interests.

Hazard Identify potential hazards associated with the facility's operations, such as oil spills,
identification air and water pollution, and noise pollution. Review operational plans and
procedures, conduct site visits and inspections, and review literature and data.

Exposure Determine potential pathways through which hazards could impact the environment
assessment and surrounding communities. Evaluate the potential for pollutants to enter air,
water, or soil, and assess potential exposure of local communities and ecosystems.

Risk Combine information from hazard identification and exposure assessment to

characterization estimate the magnitude and likelihood of potential environmental impacts. Use risk
matrices to quantify risks and prioritize risk management measures.

Risk Develop strategies and measures to mitigate and manage risks identified in risk
management characterization. Consider various risk management options, such as engineering
controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment. Develop
emergency response plans for environmental incidents.
Monitoring and Implement risk management measures and monitor their effectiveness over time.
review Conduct regular environmental monitoring and audits to ensure compliance with
regulations and policies. Evaluate ongoing effectiveness of risk management
measures.

Reporting Summarize results of environmental risk assessment and risk management

strategies in a report. Include methodology, results of hazard identification,
exposure assessment, and risk characterization, recommendations for risk
management measures, and plan for ongoing monitoring and review.

Scope and
Objective

Overall Hazard
risk Identificatio
evaluation n

Methodolog
y

Exposur
Risk
Management e
Assessment

Risk
Characterization
Case Study:

The case study is done on transshipment related activities related

to Newfoundland Terminal Limited (NTL). As of Dec 2021, 4815
vessels have been welcomed and over 3485.8 million barrels of oil
have been handled. Ships usually comes from over 325 KM to 2 of
its main jetties from were upstream product has been transferred
to 6 storage tanks on site; the site consist of 2 parts:

1. Onsite: There are Six Storage tanks available on site each

with capacity of 3300000 Barrel, 3 of them are insulated
and 3 non insulated. It also consists of Oil treatment and Fuel storage.

2. Jetty: There are 2 jetties which can load up to Max tank displacement 150000 Tons. Avg.
Discharge rate 80000 BBL/hr and Avg. Loading rate rate 50000 BBL/hr.

The Method used in this case study has been done under the guideline from “Arpel oil spill risk
assessment and management” and “Arpel oil spill trajectory modelling” approved by.

• Canadian international development agency

•
Environmental Services Association of Alberta.

The framework for conducting a risk assessment generally consists

of six steps:

1. Plan that is assessment.

2. Analyze hazards identify and describe oil spill scenarios.

3. Analyze the probability of spill scenarios.

4. Analyze the Consequences of spill scenarios.

5. Characterized the risks of spill scenarios.

6. Manage the risks.

Figure Source Arpel Oil skill assessment and management

 Scenario: An Oil Cargo ship was expected to carry
150,000 Barrels of Crude oil from Old Harry oil field
in the Saint Lawrence Gulf, NL to Transshipment
Facility in Whiffen Head, NL. But unfortunately, while
undergoing Loading due to a malfunction of a faulty
connector (Unknown at the time of assessment)
about10,000 Barrels of Raw crude was spilled in to
Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

Step 1: Plan That Is Assessment.

Objective:

Evaluate the risk that will be brought to the ecology of the region in the next 30 days.
Operations:
• Product: 10000 barrels of Raw Crude

• Equipment: Oil Rig, Cargo Ship.

• Location: Old Harry oil field in the Saint Lawrence Gulf, NL

Consequences: Ecology, Public health, safety, public perception, financial and insurance.
Organize a Team: a group a of member expertise in their own respective fields with current
operation, spill history risk assessment etc. for example.

It will consist of Ecologist/biologist, production engineers, operation person and research

scientists. This team will be led by risk manager who will be assisted an assistant.
Step 2: Analyze Hazards Identify And Describe Oil Spill Scenarios:
Analyzation of data will be based on the previous incidences. Based on the Spill volume,
Equipment source, facility type and spill cause look for historical data on similar scenarios and
get it as a reference

figure source: Arpel Oil skill assessment and management

Step 3: Analyze the probability of spill scenarios:
We know that the cargo company is transporting 150000 barrel of crude every day which
makes it annual transport of 54,750,000 barrel/annum.
From this step forward we will make quantitative and
qualitative analysis:

• Quantitative analysis: We will get he frequency of

data from the table shown in figure. The values are
adjusted to millions.

• 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑫𝒂𝒕𝒂 ×

𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝟓𝟒. 𝟕𝟓

𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟗
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝟕. 𝟗 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

• Qualitative analysis: it would be based on historical

data and expert opinion. Figure is taken from Arpel Oil skill
assessment and management
Determination of Probability value will largely depend upon Quantitative and Qualitative
analysis. As it is the second incident on the site after 250,000 Liters of petroleum spilled in
ocean by husky in 2018, it will impact on the final value. we will give it a Probability value of 4.

Step 4: Analyze The Consequences Of Spill Scenarios.

First of all, we will Identifying the major Pathways which will include:

a) Over the Surface water

b) Under the Surface water
c) Air
d) Biota
e) Sedimentation

Figure is taken from “Oil spill modeling: A Critical review on current Review on current trends, Perspectives, and
Challenges”.

Analyze Fate And Transport:

It would large depend upon the current (0.5 kots) and Air (15 Knots) so the values will be.

𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍 = (𝟑. 𝟓% 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅)𝟐 + (𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕)𝟐

𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝑲𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒔
In order to calculate fate and transport we need to consider all the factors the will play a role in
transferring the contamination. The equation use in this paper will consider all this factors:

figure source: “Oil spill modeling: A Critical review on current Review on current trends, Perspectives, and
Challenges.

Here,

𝝏𝑪
= 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝝏𝒕
→ = the 3D ocean current mean
𝑼

→ = diffusivity tensor
𝑲

The →, C and T will be colleted from site depending upon site. In order to calculate
𝑋

Concentration, we will refer to the following equation.

𝑴 𝒙𝟐
𝑪= 𝐞𝐱𝐩 (− )
√𝟒𝝅𝑫𝒕 𝟒𝑫𝒕

M = mass of substance released

D = diffusivity constant
X = distance
T = time
C (x,t) = concentration at Distance x given time t

The calculation will be as follows.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Volume is 10,000 Barrels = 158987m3
Density is 850kg at STP.
So,
𝒌𝒈
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎 ( ) ∗ 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟕𝒎³
𝒎𝟑
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝒈.

Cross sectional area = 500m²

M= mass/cross sectional area.
𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟓
𝑴=
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑴 = 𝟐𝟕, 𝟎𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟗 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐

• Concentration over time. (At x=0) (t=0.5hr)

𝑴
𝑪=
√𝟒𝝅𝑫𝒕
𝟐𝟕, 𝟎𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟗
𝑪=
√𝟒 ∗ 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎

𝑪 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟗 ∗ 𝟏𝟎

• Concentration over time (At x = 500m, t = 2 hr)

𝑴
𝑪=
√𝟒𝝅𝑫𝒕
𝟐𝟕, 𝟎𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟗
𝑪=
√𝟒 ∗ 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑪 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎

In order to calculate on large scale, we need to do further calculation on simulations like Open
oil, OSCAR, ERDAS etc. they get the data from.
 Oil Spill incident Probability Analysis Consequences Analysis Risk Level
10,000 Barrels of oil Second incident in 25 Year Resources nearby: marine life,
spilled in Ocean agricultural land, drinking water
sources, Atlantic Corridor
Value 4 7 11
• For Oil National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

• For Sea data Copernicus Marine Service

• For Wind Global Forecast System

The behavior of the system will vary you can see two scenarios Fall and Spring of the
contaminated site for 30 Days simulation. The data has been taken from David Suzuki foundation
of the exact same spot of old harry in Gulf of Saint Lawrence in spring and in winter.

Fall Winter
figure source: David Suzuki foundation
Step 5: Characterization of the Risk
The calculation of risk is totally based on the probability and consequences we can say;

𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒌 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔 = 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔 + 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒔

𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒌 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔 = 𝟒 + 𝟕
𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒌 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏

As we can see it is on the Medium – High on the probability/likelihood and Consequence/Severity

chart.

figure source: https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/establishing-an-

occupational/9781787781429/xhtml/Appendix_D.html

Fate And Transport Of Oil Spill

Oil spillage has become a point of concern for modern environmental scientists and researchers
due to its devasting effects on our surroundings, human life, and wildlife (Afenyo et al. , 2016).
Oil spillage load occurs due to accidents in water bodies which lead to polluting the oceanic
ecosystem and food web. Transport and fate are necessary to study and understand after an oil
spillage which is in actuality, very challenging work to do when the water body is covered by
ice. Generally, the fate and transport processes of oil spillage indicate the pattern of how oil will
move and interact with other environmental factors over time.
Since the oil is less dense than water and is not soluble in water, however, its properties are
interlinked with high solubility in aromatics and in acyclic-saturated hydrocarbons like alkanes.
Upon spillage on water, oil forms a slick when spread and that happens due to its surface
tension (Thuy Pham et al. , 2010). On the other hand, mousses are formed resulting in the
emulsification process, and finally, the process begins with evaporation, properties of the oil,
characteristics of the oil spill and environmental conditions play their role in dispersion and in
the emulsification (Abascal et al. , 2010).

Oil Spill Models For Open Waters

For the open-water oceans, oceanography (wave, wind & current) is the force. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) developed the Trajectory Analysis Planner
(TAP) to statistically analyze the output from an oil spill trajectory model.

Oil Spill Models For Ice-Covered Waters

The presence of ice retards the rate at which weathering processes occur and the spreading of
oil is limited by the ice floes, which act as natural barriers against the gravity viscous spreading
forces.
For ice-covered water, seasonal changes (e.g., the nature of ice & temperature) become the
driving force. The SINTEF Oil Weathering Model (OWM) is part of the Oil Spill Contingency and
Response (OSCAR) model system.
The fate and transport of the spilled oil depend on numerous factors including physical and
chemical terms. Some parameters are shown in the attached table and some of them are
written below:

• Properties of the oil:

Type of oil, the density of oil, the viscosity of oil, and oil/saltwater interfacial tension
(Lehr, 2001).
• Characteristics of the oil spill:
Mode of release {whether the oil spill is continuous (spill duration (hours/days) and rate
of release} or instantaneous {total spilled volume, source of release (surface, subsea)}.

• The environmental conditions:

Wind speed of marine atmosphere, salinity, the density of water, viscosity of water,
ambient pressure, and temperature, and most important the type of (first-year ice,
multi-year ice, land-fast ice, pack ice).

Figure Source: Elise et al. , 2006

Figure Source: Reed et al. , 1999

Surface Spreading
It is a self-initiating process of slick spreads, with gravity, inertia, viscosity, and surface tension.
It is well explained by Fay (1969) how these factors increase the spreading phase of oil. The
first phase is gravity-inertia as the slick is thick upon spreading. After that, the gravity-viscous
phase starts which continues the oil spreading rate until the thickness of the slick becomes
small. Finally, the last phase is viscous-surface tension where the spreading rate is not
controlled by gravity so interfacial tension act as a force for the spreading of oil over a time
period until the oil stops spreading as a result of the balance between gravitational and net
interfacial tension forces (Yapa & Chowdhury, 1991). Gravity-viscous phase is the most used
and important model to elaborate the oil spreading.

Three equations of spreading for each phase are described according to Fay (1969).

Where:
A = spill area; V = spill volume; ρ = water density; ρ0 = oil density; g = acceleration of gravity; μ =
dynamic viscosity of water (Pas); σ = oil/water interfacial tension; t = elapsed time.
Upon open surface, oil spreading start immediately due to wave, tide, wind, viscocity and oil
properties. The rate of change of spilled oil in oper water is described by
equation.

Where:
A = area; Vm = volume; K = constant (default value of 150-1).
Upon ice-covered water, numerous factors describes the oil spreading such as oil properties
(viscocity, oil-ice interfacial tension and most importantly the ice-topography and ice
concentration (Wilkinson et al. , 2007). An equation is given by Buist et al. (1987) for ice
concentration.

Where:
c = ice concentration (%); μoil = dynamic viscosity of oil (Pas); V = spill volume; ρ = water density
and g = acceleration of gravity.

Advection
Advection is the movement of the oil due to the influence of overlying winds and/or underlying
ocean currents. The advection or drift velocity can be calculated as (Afenyo et al. , 2015).

Where x is the coordinate of the center of mass of the oil, Ucurrent

is the depth-averaged current velocity and Uwind is the wind velocity 10 m above water surface.

Open:
In open seas the wind elongates the slick in the direction of prevailing winds and oil thickness
varies within the slick. However, the total slick area can be approximated as that of a circular
slick.

Ice:
In ice-infested waters, oil will mainly move with ice for ice concentrations above 30% and will
move freely as if in open waters for concentrations below that.
Natural dispersion
The process of oil mixing into the water column is mainly caused by breaking waves. Small oil
droplets with a diameter of less than 0.1 mm are driven into the water column by the
turbulence generated by tidal sea currents, wind-drift currents, and waves caused by wind.
Mackay et al. (1980) proposed a simpler approach to calculate the fraction of sea dispersed
per hour (Da), the fraction of dispersed oil not returning to the slick (Db), wind speed (W), oil
viscosity (μ), slick thickness (h), and oil-water interfacial tension (hst).

Encapsulates
Encapsulation is a phenomenon where oil gets trapped inside the ice, forming an "oil-ice
sandwich" (Evers et al. , 2004; Izumiyama et al. , 2004; Anon. , 2003). It occurs only in ice as
oil freezes and remains trapped in the ice due to its inability to evaporate when there is a
release under growing sea ice. Studies conducted by Fingas and Hollebone (2003) indicate
that oil may become partially encapsulated within four hours and fully encapsulated as quickly
as 24 hours after contact with the ice. However, in subarctic regions, encapsulation may not
occur before melting because of inadequate ice growth. The encapsulation process involves the
formation of an ice lip around the oil (and or gas) and ice growth from the lip to the center of
the oil pool.

Sedimentation
Sedimentation and sinking are often confused. Sedimentation is a phenomenon in which the oil
particles do adhesion with the sediments, which are in suspended form and eventually settle
down at the bottom of the sea, presence of clay enhances this process
(𝑆𝑡𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 & 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑎𝑦, 1984). Sinking is a mechanism by which oil masses denser than water are
transported to the bottom of the sea (Anon., 2003).
Studies by Payne et al. (1987) proposed Eqs. (24) and (25) to calculate total sedimentation rate
per unit area of slick and the mass lost per unit water volume per unit time, respectively
(Lehr, 2001).
where The water depth

where ε is the rate of energy dissipation, Ks depends on the type and size of suspended
material (Lehr, 2001).

WEATHERING CONDITIONS AND THEIR IMPACTS

Weathering Description Key Factors Mathematical

Process Formulation

Evaporation Removal of spilled oil by Temperature, wind FE = θ(W/K2V0) (T - T0

volatilization speed, spill area, initial - TGt)^(A+B(T/T0-1))AS
boiling point

Emulsification Mixing of water droplets into Percentage of resins and Y = Cf(1-e^(-

the oil medium, forming a asphaltenes acting as 0.0015Wt))
mousse natural surfactants, wind
speed, time
 Degradation Biodegradation of oil by Hydrocarbon type, No specific
microorganisms temperature, formulation,
evaporation rate degradation rate
varies widely

Photo- Oxidation of oil by exposure Solar radiation angle, k = CAcos(B)^(0.9) *

oxidation to solar radiation cloud cover, slick (1-C)
thickness

Dissolution Breakdown of soluble fraction Surface fraction covered ds/dt = KAs(S-SO)fsα

of oil into small particles, by oil, solubility in water,
forming a homogeneous time
mixture with water

Physical & Chemical Factors

Transshipment facility in Whiffed Head Placenta Bay. Picture from Trades NL.as NL
Oil from accidental discharges during transshipment, tank ruptures, and leakage from
underwater pipelines are known to adversely affect the marine habitat and community [1] The
situation is compounded and worse when spilled oil reaches the shoreline where it may harm
the ecosystem and socioeconomic features.

Oil spillage can be impacted by a variety of factors, including:

1. Human error: Accidents can happen due to mistakes made by individuals, such as
errors in judgment or miscommunication.

2. Equipment failure: Malfunctioning equipment, such as valves or pipes, can lead to oil
spills.

3. Natural disasters: Hurricanes, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other natural disasters can
cause oil spills.

4. Sabotage or terrorism: Deliberate acts of sabotage or terrorism can cause oil spills,
such as an attack on an oil vessel or pipeline.

5. Poor maintenance: Lack of proper maintenance of oil transportation infrastructure

can cause equipment to fail, resulting in spills.

6. Environmental factors: Weather conditions like high winds, heavy rain, or rough
seas can also cause oil spills.
7. Age and condition of infrastructure: Aging and poorly maintained infrastructure
can be more susceptible to spills.

8. Regulatory compliance: Failure to comply with regulations, safety guidelines, or

environmental standards can also lead to oil spills.

We will consider the chemical and physical factors impacting oil spillage.
Chemical factors
.

Dispersion is the process by which a substance, such as a liquid or gas, is mixed and spread
out in a fluid or air. This process is driven by various mechanisms, including diffusion, advection,
and turbulence.

Composition of the oil: The chemical composition of the oil, including its viscosity, density,
and volatility, affects its behavior when spilled. Lighter oils, such as gasoline, evaporate more
quickly than heavier oils, such as crude oil, which tend to form thicker slicks.

Weathering: The chemical and physical changes that occur to the spilled oil over time, such as
oxidation, evaporation, emulsification, and biodegradation, affect the behavior and fate of the
oil in the environment. The weathering process can make the oil more or less toxic and affect the
effectiveness of cleanup methods.

Dispersants: The use of chemical dispersants to break up oil slicks can impact the chemical
composition of the oil and its behavior in the environment. Dispersants can make the oil more
toxic and affect the rate and effectiveness of biodegradation.

Physical factors
1. Water currents: Water currents can influence the direction and spread of an oil spill,
carrying the oil to different areas, and affecting the way it interacts with the
environment.
.

2. Wind: Wind can also impact the direction and spread of an oil spill, particularly for
spills that occur near shorelines or in areas with high wind speeds.

3. Waves: The height and frequency of waves can affect the behavior of oil spills, causing
them to break up into smaller droplets or spread out over a wider area.
4. Temperature: Temperature can affect the viscosity and volatility of the spilled oil,
which can impact its behavior and interactions with the environment. For example,
colder temperatures can cause oil to become more viscous and less likely to evaporate.

5. Depth of water: The depth of the water can affect the behavior of spilled oil,
particularly in terms of whether it sinks or floats. Spills in shallow water are more likely
to impact shorelines, while spills in deep water can be more difficult to contain and
clean up.

6. Shoreline characteristics: The characteristics of the shoreline, such as its slope and
composition, can affect the way that spilled oil interacts with the environment and how
it spreads.

7. Presence of ice: The presence of ice can affect the behavior of spilled oil, particularly
in terms of how it interacts with the environment and how it can be contained and
cleaned up.
Characteristic changes of spilled oil through physical and chemical weathering processes when
it is transported to the shore.
The impact of oil spillage on the marine ecosystem and the environment can be severe and
long-lasting. Here are some of the potential impacts:

1. Harm to marine life: Oil spills can harm or kill marine life, including fish, birds, turtle,
and mammals. The oil can coat the animals' fur or feathers, making it difficult for them
to regulate their body temperature or move properly. Ingestion of oil can also be toxic
to marine animals and can lead to long-term health problems.

2. Damage to habitats: Oil spills can damage or destroy important habitats, such as
wetlands, reefs, and estuaries. The oil can smother plants and animals and disrupt the
ecological balance of the ecosystem. The effects can be long-lasting and can take years
or even decades to recover.

3. Economic impact: Oil spills can have significant economic impacts, particularly for
fishing and tourism industries that rely on healthy marine ecosystems. The costs of
cleanup and remediation efforts can also be substantial.

4. Contamination of water and sediments: The oil from spills can contaminate the
water and sediments in the affected area, making it unsafe for human consumption or
use. This can lead to long-term impacts on human health and the environment.

5. Impact on air quality: Oil spills can release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into
the air, which can impact air quality and human health. The fumes can also cause
irritation to the eyes, nose, and throat.

6. Long-term effects: Even after the initial cleanup efforts are complete, the effects of
oil spills can persist for years or even decades. This can include ongoing impacts on
marine life and habitats, as well as long-term economic impacts for affected
communities.
Health impacts on the Ecological receptors:-

Oil spills may harm animals and plants in two ways: the oil itself and the reaction or
cleanup procedures. Understanding both sorts of impacts can assist spill responders in
minimizing the overall damage to ecological communities and assisting them in
recovering much faster.
Because the chemical ingredients of spilled oil are harmful, they can kill living creatures.
This can impact organisms both internally through ingestion or inhalation of oil and
externally through skin and eye irritation. Oil can also suffocate certain small fish or
crustaceans and coat feathers and hair, decreasing the capacity of birds and animals to
maintain body temperatures.
Because most oils float, the organisms most harmed by oil are those located on the sea
surface or on coastlines if the oil gets ashore, such as sea otters and seagulls. Seabirds
are damaged and killed in larger numbers than other types of wildlife after most oil
spills. Oil may readily injure sea otters since their capacity to stay warm is dependent on
their fur staying clean. Other organisms, such as snails, mussels, and terrestrial
animals, may suffer if oil lingers on a beach for an extended period.

Effects on the different body parts of the Ecological

receptors

Feather and Skin

When oil comes into touch with a bird, it causes a physical change in the feather
structure. Feathers are formed of an interlocking system of barbs and barbules that, like
Velcro(r), keep cold water away from and warm air close to the skin. Natural oils
generated by the bird serve to condition the feathers and make them less brittle, but
they do not immediately aid in waterproofing. When feathers are oiled, they lose their
capacity to trap air and resist water. As a result, birds lose body heat and become
hypothermic. To compensate for the drop in body temperature, their metabolism speeds
up, resulting in a greater desire for food.

Organs of the Internal System

Because birds diligently preen themselves to maintain their insulating air layer, external
oiling nearly invariably results in some oil intake. When oil is consumed, it can directly
harm the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in ulcers, diarrhea, and a reduced ability to
absorb nutrients. If the oil's volatile components are breathed, they can cause
pneumonia, neurological damage, or chemical absorption that can lead to cancer. The
breakdown of oil components by the kidney and liver can also cause substantial harm to
those organs. Finally, oil (and the stress of being oiled) can cause substantial anaemia
and a shortage of blood cells that fight infection in birds.

Reproduction
Oil can have a significant impact on all stages of avian reproduction. Studies on the
impact of a single drop of oil on the eggs of many bird species have revealed
considerable mortality and developmental abnormalities in afflicted embryos. Other
studies have found an increase in hatchling abandonment as well as changes in adult
bird breeding activity.

Skin and hair/fur

External oiling has diverse effects on different types of marine animals. Sea otters and
fur seals, for example, rely on a thick haircoat to keep them warm and buoyant. Fur
traps a tiny layer of air next to the animal's skin, similar to how feathers work in birds.
This air barrier protects the body from the chilly ocean water surrounding it. When
exposed to oil, the hairs' alignment is disrupted, and the air layer is eliminated. Cold
saltwater can permeate through the infected fur and cause the animal to become
hypothermic quickly. Problems related with hypothermia affect marine mammals can
also be observed.

For the proffered location,

Placentia Bay is home to approximately 26 species of seabirds, 13 species of waterfowl,
10 species of shorebirds and seven significant species of raptors. All of these are
known to inhabit the bay either seasonally or on a permanent basis, with approximately
28 species being late spring/summer/early fall visitors and at least 15 species breeding
there.
The area is home to at least 14 groundfish species including Atlantic cod, lumpfish and
winter flounder; nine species of pelagic fish including mackerel, herring and capelin;
seven species of shellfish including snow crab, lobster and scallop. There are
approximately 14 marine mammals and one significant reptile that seasonally or
permanently inhabit Placentia Bay. The marine mammals and reptile consist of 10
whale species, three seal species, the river otter and the leatherback sea turtle.
(Integrated Management Planning (dfo-mpo.gc.ca)
There are mainly two broad categories of the effects on the Ecological receptors,

1. Short Term Effects: -

➢ High mortality rate - Sea birds and marine mammal mortality as a result of
oiling of plumage/fur, and death by drowning or starvation.
➢ The oil on the fur and feathers destroys the insulation value of the wildlife
and then causes them death by hypothermia.
➢ Ingestion of oil by the sea birds and mammals while trying to clean off
their fur and feathers

2. Long Term Effects: -

➢ Physical and chemical alteration of habitats.

➢ Reproductive impairment
➢ reduced incidence of breeding
➢ Smaller eggs in sea birds.
➢ Extinction of the species

Also, There are some grave threatening effects to the Human receptors also through
Bio- accumulation, Bio concentration of the fish products and can be Bio magnify to the
human receptors.

The illustration below provide the an example of the bioaccumulation of contaminants

via Lowe food chain to upper food chain.
Conclusion

Oil spill in transshipment have deep rooted impact on Ecological as well as human
receptors. We have discussed a hypothetical example of the oil spillage during the
cargo loading, 10000 barrels of oil has been spilled in the sea at Old Harry oil site,
located about 80 kms off the southwest tip of Newfoundland. We have used “Guidelines
oil spills risk assessment and management” ARPEL by Environmental, Health and
industrial safety committee of Canada. Moreover, the distribution and the output models
are generated through the software i.e. @RISK. The model generated based on the
times when Oil spill happens at different time. The concentration of the spills are
calculated through the diffusion equation with concentration coefficient with 0.5 hours
and 2 hours. Data for the spills and other information is assumed or taken from previous
case studies.
The model clearly shows the initial concentration of the spill which is higher around
(2.39*10^10). After some time at t= 2 hours, the concentration start to decreases.
fugacity-based food-web bioaccumulation model can be used for in- depth research to
know the potential exposure to the human receptors.
Though there are various technique to mitigate the oil that is spilled, it is necessary to
carry out the research to remade the long term effect on the Human as well as
Ecological receptors.

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