English Grammar 1

EACH PART WILL CONSIST OF A GROUP OF EXERCISES.
AT THE END OF THE BOOK,

TOEFL’S S&W WILL BE PROVIDED
Contents
Contents ................................................................................................................................... 1
List of Tables............................................................................................................................ 3
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... 4
Part 1: Grammatical Categories .......................................................................................... 5
NOUNS .................................................................................................................................. 6
Noun Classes ..................................................................................................................... 6
EXERCISE ............................................................................................................................... 9
VERBS ..................................................................................................................................11
Base Form ........................................................................................................................11
Verb Tense .......................................................................................................................15
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................25
PRONOUNS.........................................................................................................................29
Personal Pronouns ..........................................................................................................29
Interrogative Pronouns...................................................................................................31
Demonstrative Pronouns ...............................................................................................32
Indefinite and Quantified Pronouns ..............................................................................32
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................34
ADJECTIVES .........................................................................................................................36
“True” adjectives ...........................................................................................................36
Comparative and Superlative forms .........................................................................37
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................40
ADVERBS .............................................................................................................................42
Comparative and Superlative Adverbs .....................................................................43
Position in a sentence ..................................................................................................44
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................44
PREPOSITIONS ...................................................................................................................45
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................46
CONJUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................48
Coordinating conjunctions .............................................................................................48
Subordinating conjunctions ...........................................................................................49
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................49
DETERMINERS ....................................................................................................................51
ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

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EACH PART WILL CONSIST OF A GROUP OF EXERCISES. AT THE END OF THE BOOK,
Pre-Determiners ..............................................................................................................51
Central Determiners .......................................................................................................51
Post-Determiners ............................................................................................................55
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................55
Part 2: Phrases ......................................................................................................................57
THE NOUN PHRASE ...........................................................................................................58
Noun Phrase derived from Verbs .........................................................................................59
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................60
THE VERB PHRASE .............................................................................................................63
Phrasal Verbs ........................................................................................................................64
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................65
THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE ....................................................................................................66
Adjective Phrases vs Adjectival Phrases ................................................................................67
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................68
THE ADVERB PHRASE ........................................................................................................68
Adverb Phrases vs Adverbial Phrases ...................................................................................69
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................70
THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE ..........................................................................................71
EXERCISE .............................................................................................................................72
Part 3: Clauses .......................................................................................................................74
APPOSITIVE CLAUSES ........................................................................................................76
INDEPENDENT-DEPENDENT CLAUSES .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
RELATIVE CLAUSES ............................................................................................................80
IF CLAUSES ..........................................................................................................................81
NOUN CLAUSES .................................................................................................................81
VERB CLAUSES ....................................................................................................................81
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ..........................................................................................................81
ADVERB CLAUSES...............................................................................................................81
Part 4: Sentences ..................................................................................................................82
SIMPLE SENTENCES ...........................................................................................................82
COMPOUND SENTENCES ..................................................................................................82
COMPLEX SENTENCES .......................................................................................................82
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES ...............................................................................82

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SENTENCE STRUCTURES BY PURPOSE ............................................................................82
Declarative Sentences .....................................................................................................82
Interrogative Sentences ..................................................................................................82
Exclamatory Sentences ...................................................................................................82
Imperative Sentences .....................................................................................................82
Negative Sentences .........................................................................................................82
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES ...........................................................................................82
DEGREES OF COMPARISONS ............................................................................................82
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ..............................................................................................82
Real Conditions (Type 1) .................................................................................................82
Present Unreal Conditions (Type 2) ...............................................................................82
Pas Unreal Conditions (Type 3) ......................................................................................82
SENTENCES WITH INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS ....................................................82
List of Tables
Table 1. Four Principles of English Verb ...............................................................................11
Table 2. The Roles of Infinitive Verbs ....................................................................................12
Table 3. Verb "Be" in the Present Tense ...............................................................................12
Table 4. Verb "Be" in the Past Tense .....................................................................................12
Table 5. Verb "Be" in the Future Tense .................................................................................13
Table 6. Roles of Gerunds in Sentences ...............................................................................15
Table 7. Subject-Verb Agreement for Present Tense...........................................................16
Table 8. Rules of SV Agreement for Present Tense .............................................................16
Table 9. Subject-Verb Agreement for Past Tense ................................................................18
Table 10. SV Agreement for Past Tense Irregular Verbs .....................................................20
Table 11. The Use of Past Participle Verbs in Tenses ..........................................................21
Table 12. Personal Pronouns.................................................................................................29
Table 13. Interrogative Pronouns..........................................................................................31
Table 14. Indefinite and Quantified Pronouns .....................................................................32
Table 15. Adverb Categories ..................................................................................................43
Table 16. Preposition Categories ..........................................................................................46
Table 17. The Use of Definite and Indefinite Articles in Sentences ....................................52
Table 18. Word Classes to For Noun Phrases ......................................................................58
Table 19. Adjective Phrases in Sentences .............................................................................67
Table 20. Prepositional Phrases in Sentences......................................................................71

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List of Figures
Figure 1. The Use -er and more for Comparative Forms....................................................37
Figure 2. The Use -est and most for Superlative Forms .....................................................38
Figure 3. Comparative without Using than ..........................................................................40
Figure 4. Other Ways to Form Comparative .........................................................................40
Figure 5. S-Structure Hierarchy .............................................................................................57
Figure 6. V-Bar represented in Tree Diagram ......................................................................64

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Part 1: Grammatical Categories

In traditional grammar, grammatical categories are referred to as "parts of speech" or
"word classes." Words in language can be grouped into two types: open classes and
closed classes. Open classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These words
can freely enter the language and convey meaning on their own. They also have the ability
to form new words, regardless of their syntactical category. On the other hand, closed
classes are more limited and cannot create new words or change their forms. Pronouns,
determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and prepositions fall into the category of
closed classes. However, even though they have these limitations, they play important
roles in constructing phrases, clauses, and sentences based on their specific syntactical
functions.
They are characterized by their meanings (semantics or pragmatics), sounds
(phonology), and forms (morphology), which define the prototypes of sentence structure
(syntax) (Payne, 2011). These grammatical categories differ from relational categories,
such as subject, object, predicate, oblique, or chômeur, as proposed by traditional
grammarians. Linguistically, they can be further specified as "lexical categories" such as
NP, VP, ADVP, and so on. However, both grammatical and lexical categories play
significant roles in sentence construction, establishing relationships among words. For
example, a noun phrase (a group of words referring to a person or place), such as "the
boy," is commonly used to indicate the subject or object position in a sentence, while a
prepositional phrase with "the gun" demonstrates an instrumental oblique relation. The
term "relational grammar," primarily developed by David Perlmutter and Paul Postal in
the early 1970s (Blake: 1990), explores a different approach which we will not delve into
here. However, it will be briefly described to explain the usage of each word class in a
sentence. In the subsequent sections, we will explore grammatical categories such as
NOUNS, PRONOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, and
DETERMINERS.

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1.1 NOUNS
For the major grammatical categories, a noun is identified as the main element of a
sentence, along with a verb. Any words that express time-stable concepts can obviously
be approved as nouns (Payne, 1997). In general, nouns refer to a person, place, thing, or
idea. For example, the word trash will be said as a noun because, certainly, it can posit
either subject or object position in a syntactic structure.
(1) All this trash in the hallway is a disgrace! (Head of a subject NP)
(2) Please take out the trash. (Head of an object NP)
A noun can be identified merely by its form, like the word boy for example, but several
nouns are made of verbs or adjectives by the addition of certain suffixes to them as the
result of morphological derivation. Here are some examples:
educate, relate, invade, revise (verbs) education, relation, invasion, revision (nouns)
camp, speak, play, develop (verbs) camper, speaker, player, developer (nouns)
mental, normal, real, sane (adjectives) mentality, normality, reality, sanity (nouns)
happy, compact, sad, dark (adjectives) happiness, compactness, sadness, darkness (nouns)
Noun Classes
Nouns are proper or common. Proper nouns usually begin with a capital letter, and they
refer to the names of specific individuals, things, and places. Specific here means the
thing is special or there is only one. Meanwhile, common nouns are the names of classes
of persons, places, and things in general. Those two types of nouns are compared in the
following list:
Proper nouns Common nouns

Joko Widodo president
The New York Times newspaper
Changi Airport airport
Mount Kilimanjaro mountain
The Hague city
The Sims 4 console game
Besides, nouns can take abstract or concrete forms. Abstract nouns cannot be
perceived by our senses; they have no physical shapes, but they explain the quality or
state: honesty, belief, and happiness. In contrast, concrete nouns are easy to perceive since
their physical forms can be touched or seen directly: girl, kitchen, car.
Concrete nouns refer to countable nouns since they can take singular or plural
forms, such as fox—foxes, tree—trees, child—children, and man—men. In some ways, both
a singular and a plural noun are accompanied by determiners.

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a ten
one student many students
every those
Since the singular and plural forms of nouns are identical, the actual forms of nouns
(i.e., singular and plural) can be determined by the use of auxiliary verbs like is, are, was,
were, or by the use of an indefinite article like a, an, or some. For instances:
Singular: The mouse was caught by the cat

Plural: The mice were moving along through the drain
Singular: I saw an elephant in the zoo
Plural: I saw some elephants in the zoo
Article a or an is used in a different, identical environment. If the words are

introduced by consonant sounds, then their singular forms will be preceded by article a.
For instance, a dog, a cat, a Rockstar, a university, etc. Conversely, in article a, the first
heading, some words are initiated by vowel sounds like a, i, e, o, and a consonant h. For
example, an hour, an Englishman, an opener, an elephant, an American singer, etc.
Moreover, plural nouns are marked by the addition of the suffix -s or -es in the final
position of a word. Nouns like "dogs, " for example, are plural since the suffix "s" is present
the final letter. Such an example is regarded as regular plural, and its final plural forms
are expected easily just by adding -s or -es. In some cases, the addition of the plural
marker is followed by the change of the spelling of the word. For example, the change of
y in the word baby to ie + -s to become babies Here are some other examples:
Singular Plural
Family Families
Lady Ladies
Sky Skies
Story Stories
However, there is an exception for the nouns toy, key, subway, way, and tray. We
cannot write them as toies, keies, or waies in their plural form. In those words, the final
letter is represented by a combination of vowel and y letters, o+y, a+y, and e+y. These
combinations cannot be changed; thus, the plurality rule is simply by adding suffix -s like
in the following examples:

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Singular Plural
Boy Boys
Key Keys
Subway Subways
Way Ways
Tray Trays
Some words ending in f form their plural by changing the final letter f to v and
subsequently adding -es as suggested in the following examples:
Singular Plural
Half Halves
Knife Knives
Leaf Leaves
Loaf Loaves
Life Lives
Self Selves
Thief Thieves
Wolf Wolves
Some nouns form their plurality in irregular ways (irregular plurals). Here are
some words in English that form their plural by not using the suffix -s or -es as we
discussed previously:
Singular Plural
Foot Feet
Goose Geese
Louse Lice
Man Men
Woman Women
Mouse Mice
Tooth Teeth
Person People
Child Children
On the other hand, non-count or non-countable nouns can be counted by adding

predictable quantifiers to precede the nouns like information, furniture, or water. Non-
countable nouns are always treated as singular and are accompanied by some
determiners that do not suggest distinctions in number:

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much
your information
a lot of
Here are some examples of noncount nouns that you encounter frequently based on
each category.
1. Abstractions: beauty, charity, faith, hope, knowledge, justice, luck, and reliability
2. Food: butter, cheese, chicken, pepper, rice, salt
3. Liquid and gases: beer, blood, coffee, gasoline, water, air, oxygen
4. Materials: cement, glass, gold, paper, plastic, silk, wood, wool
5. Natural phenomena: electricity, gravity, matter, space
6. Weather words: fog, pollution, rain, snow, wind
However, many noncount nouns can be counted by adding predictable quantifiers to

precede the nouns. The final count nouns are regarded as something like “different kinds
of” or “in different forms of”. Here are some examples:
1. (a) Noncount: The price of gasoline is outrageous (liquid)
(b) Count: The station sells three gasolines. (Different kinds/forms of
gasoline)
2. (a) Noncount: I love cheese very much. (food)
(b) Count: This supermarket sells a variety of cheeses. (Different kinds
of cheese)
EXERCISE
A. Determine whether or not the underlined word is a noun. If it is a noun, write
Y for yes; if it is not a noun, write N for no.
1. Susan eats lunch. ____
2. The rabbit jumps. ____
3. Jake wants to run. ____
4. They live in Florida. ____
5. He reads a book. ____
6. She walks the dog. ____
7. Is the tree tall? ____
8. He writes a letter. ____
9. The glass is not full. ____
10. Ben cuts an apple. ____

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B. Construct two sentences for each of the following nouns. Use the noun in the
(a) sentence as a count noun and the noun in the (b) sentence as a non-count
noun.
1. beer 2. beauty
3. sound 4. sugar
5. paper 6. salt
7. experience 8. cake
9. work 10. power
C. Supply the plural form for each of the singular nouns listed below.
1. analysis 2. thief
3. criterion 4. deer
5. stimulus 6. ovum
7. phenomenon 8. hypothesis
9. basis 10. shelf

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1.2 VERBS
To form a simple sentence, a verb is the second essential requirement. Unlike nouns,
verbs vary in their expression depending on the time at which a sentence is stated. In
other words, verbs encompass the tense system of English. English verbs are generally
classified into two types: regular and irregular verbs. Regular verbs undergo inflection
without completely changing their base form. Inflection refers to a word-formation
process that involves adjusting the form of a word to suit its grammatical position in a
sentence, without altering its word category. On the other hand, irregular verbs do not
adhere to their established (basic) forms in their past or perfective forms. In some cases,
they differ from the base forms. This distinction is exemplified by the regular verb "walk"
and the irregular verb "write," as shown below:
Table 1. Four Principles of English Verb
FOUR PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH VERBS

Base form (V1) Past form (V2) Present Participle Past Participle (V3)
(V-ing)
walk walked walking walked
write wrote writing written
Base Form
The base forms of verbs are listed in the dictionary. Generally speaking, basic verb forms
are known as Verb 1. For example, the base form of wrote is write. The former is derived
from the latter. The process of derivation is commonly influenced by many factors, for
instance, tenses (past, present, future), aspects (perfective or imperfective), mood or
modal auxiliary (e.g., may or might, can or could), and voice (active and passive voice)
(Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 167).
The base forms of verbs are also known as nonfinite or infinitive verbs. A nonfinite
verb does not show a sense of time (tense). The most common and recognizable form of
the nonfinite verb is called to infinitive. For examples:
- I like to swim.
- He wants to go with us.
- She asked me to bring her a glass of juice.
- I want you to be my friend.
Infinitive article to can be accompanied by the verb be, but you cannot substitute be
by using am, is, are, was, or were:
- To be √
- To am Х
- To is Х

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- To are Х
- To were Х
- To was Х
In a sentence, an infinitive verb may take on different roles such as a subject, a direct
object (DO), a subject complement, an adjective (ADJ), or an adverb (ADV) (Swick, 2009),
as suggested in the following table.
Table 2. The Roles of Infinitive Verbs
Roles Examples
Infinitive as subject • To wait makes me angry.
• To dance beneath the moonlight with Jane is my
dream.
Infinitive as a direct object • Everyone wanted to participate.
• I always like to swim after a stressful day.
Infinitive as a subject • Jane’s dream was to fly.
complement • Her greatest joy is to dance.
Infinitive as adjective • They receive a message to surrender.
• The best book to help you understand the fairy tale.
Infinitive as adverb • Mary walked outside to breathe some fresh air.
• I intended to write a book during my sabbatical.
"Be" is one type of basic verb. It has different forms depending on the tenses
(present-tense, past-tense, or future-tense) used. Regularly, the verb "to be" has the
following forms in the present, past, and future tenses, respectively:
Table 3. Verb "Be" in the Present Tense
“Be” in the Present-Tense

Person Be
I Am
You (singular & plural) Are
He/she/it Is
We Are
They Are
Table 4. Verb "Be" in the Past Tense
“Be” in the Past-Tense

Person Be
I Was
You (singular & plural) Were
He/she/it Was
We Were
They Were

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Table 5. Verb "Be" in the Future Tense
“Be” in the Future-Tense

Person Be
I
You (singular & plural)
Will + basic verb
He/she/it
Will be
We
They
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Certain verbs can function as either transitive or intransitive, depending on the
presence or absence of an object in the sentence. For instance, in the sentence "We just
received your email," the verb "received" is transitive because the subject pronoun "we"
performs an action that affects the object "your email." This can be demonstrated by
asking the question "What do you receive?" where the interrogative serves as a
constituent of the object, representing the patient or receiver of the verb.
On the other hand, in contrast to transitive verbs, intransitive verbs do not act upon
something. In the sentence "I slept on the couch," the verb "slept" does not have a direct
object in the post-verbal position. Consequently, a question such as "What or who did
you sleep?" cannot be answered with "I slept on the couch." However, the noun phrase
"the couch" or the prepositional phrase "on the couch" is unaffected by the verb "sleep"
or "slept." Therefore, the verb "sleep" in this context is considered intransitive.
Transitive verbs and direct object

If a main verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence, then it is known as a
transitive verb. Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) state that a verb is called transitive from
the notion that the agent or the subject performs an action that affects the patient or the
object. One way of identifying a transitive verb is by asking a wh-question introduced by
who or what to the subject and the object. For example:
Anthony has been photographing light bulbs lately.
To analyze, let’s break that sentence through the questions as follows.
[1] What has Anthony been photographing lately? – Light bulbs (DO).
[2] Who has been photographing the light bulbs lately? – Anthony (S).
Another way to identify whether a verb is transitive or not is by turning an active

sentence into a passive sentence. The subject of a passive sentence is characterized by a

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receiver (R) or a patient (P) of the verb in an active sentence acted by the subject or the
agent (A). For example:
[ACTIVE] The doctor (S/A) had injected (V) the vaccine (DO/P).
[PASSIVE] The vaccine (DO/P) had been injected (V) by the doctor (A).
Intransitive verbs and adverbials

If a main verb does not require another element to complete it, the verb is intransitive.
An intransitive verb consists of one core argument, the preverbal noun phrase (NP) or
subject, which is sometimes accompanied by an adverbial phrase (ADVP). For examples:
▪ I have walked.
▪ The protestors were demonstrating noisily (ADVP) outside the White House
(ADVP).
▪ I entirely (ADVP) agree.
An intransitive verb, in active voice form cannot be transformed into passive voice
due to the lack of a direct object in the postverbal position. For example:
[ACTIVE] The protestors were demonstrating outside the White House.

[PASSIVE] *the White House were demonstrated by the protestors outside.
Besides, the what or who question does not apply to the objects of intransitive verbs.
For example,
[1] John is walking on the pitch.

[2] Who is walking? – John.
[3] *Who is walked? – the pitch.
[4] *What is being walked by John? – on the pitch.
Gerund
The blend of basic verbs comes together with the suffix -ing to form the English gerund.
Gerunds are verb forms that look like present participle or imperfective forms (e.g.,
working, reading, running, swimming, and so on). In other words, they refer to the particular
use of +ing verb forms that can appear as nouns: a subject, a direct object, a subject
complement, or an object of a preposition (Radford, 1997; Swick, 2009). For examples:

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Table 6. Roles of Gerunds in Sentences
Roles Examples
Gerund as subject Reading a book can improve my knowledge.
Gerund as direct object I like cooking fried rice.
Gerund as subject complement All we want is returning the ball.
Gerund as object of preposition Mary was punished for breaking the glass.
Modal Auxiliary / Helping Verbs

The word ‘auxiliary’ is formed from the Latin word "auxilium," meaning 'help'. Helping
verbs are used to connect or express the full meaning of the main verbs. They help the
main verbs to expand their meaning or to make a statement, ask a question, or give a
command. Here are some common helping verbs in English:
To be : am, are, is, was, were

To do : do, does, did
To have : have, has, had
The attachment of a helping verb goes to the result of verbal inflection in the
morphosyntactic phenomenon (Darmawan & Kaldina, 2022). Another term for helping
verbs is modal verbs. In addition to tense (past, present, future), aspects (perfective and
imperfective), and voices (active and passive), modal or mood plays an important role in
the sentence construction by reflecting a speaker’s commitment to a proposition (Aronoff
and Fudeman, 2011). May, must, can, should, etc. are some examples of English modal
auxiliary verbs. The emergence of a modal verb is accompanied by a verb in its basic form.
For example:
You may leave after completing the task.

She should attempt to not laugh at this moment.
The mood or modality can emphasize the state or intention of a sentence, whether
as an ordinary statement, just a question, or an imperative, for instance. However, an
auxiliary verb cannot be considered the main verb, and it cannot replace the position of
the main verb in a sentence.
Verb Tense
Present tense
The use of verbs in the forms of the present tense is derived from the base form (e.g.,
run, walk, read, write, and so on) without any inflections. However, the use of base forms
deals with the subject-verb agreement (i.e., the relationship between a verb and its
subject). This agreement is most easily recognized from the attachment of the suffix -s or

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-es to the third-person singular subjects (he, she, it) or other third-person pronouns. The
agreement does not occur for first-person singular I and plural pronouns we, they, and
you (i.e., the verb does not require the attachment of suffix -s or -es in the final position).
The subject-verb agreement for present tense forms is described in the following
examples:
Table 7. Subject-Verb Agreement for Present Tense
Subject Verb Examples

I Am I am going to school
You; They; We Are You are the next chairman;
We are the winner;
They are upset
He; She; It Is He is my English teacher;

She is dancing beautifully;
It is the cutest cat in the world
Table 8. Rules of SV Agreement for Present Tense
Subject Verb Examples

I Basic Verb I go to school
You; They; We Basic Verb You come to the office suddenly
We learn the subject
They get their own way
He; She; It Basic Verb + ies/-s He washes his car

She buys lots of peanuts
It hits the wall
The third-person singular suffixes -s and -es follow the same rules as the plural
endings on regular nouns. Recall that only third-person singular pronouns allow the
attachment of -s or -es in the final position of the verbs. If the verb ends in voiceless
consonants such as k, gh, t, p, l, d, w, n, and ck, then the suffix -s is added to the final
position of the verb. For examples:
Base form: 3rd-person singular present tense:

Back backs
Cough coughs
Cut cuts
Walk walks
Hop hops
Call calls
Read reads

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Run runs
Row rows
If the verb ends in a vowel, just the -s is added to the ending. For example:

See sees
Come comes
Give gives
Complete completes
Relate relates
If the verb ends in consonant letters such as x, z, ch, ss, sh, and a vowel o, then we
merely add -es. The same thing occurs on any verb ending with the combination of a
consonant and y, change the y to i, and add -es. For example:

Box boxes
Buzz buzzes
Catch catches
Clutch clutches
Wish wishes
Kiss kisses
Go goes
Cry cries
Deny denies
Fly flies
Reply replies
Try tries
However, if the final letter of a verb is ended by the combination of a vowel and y
(vowel + y), then just add an -s. For example:

Say says
Buy buys
Obey obeys
Play plays

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Past tense
In English, we are familiar with two different types of past-tense verb forms: regular and
irregular. The regular past tense is easier to remember from their -ed ending, whereas
the irregular one is mostly different from the base form.
Regular past tenses
The regular forms are formed by adding the suffix -ed or only -d if the words already end
in e to the base forms. For examples:
Base form Past-tense form

Kiss Kissed
Clutch Clutched
Pack Packed
Call Called
Play Played
Define Defined
Save Saved
Here is the form of past tense for all pronouns:
Table 9. Subject-Verb Agreement for Past Tense
Pronoun Past-tense form Example

I Tried
You Tried I/You/They/We/He/She/It tried to stop
They / We Tried the robber.
He / She / It Tried
If the base ends in a consonant + t or d, the suffix -ed is just added then. For example:

Faint Fainted
Mend Mended
Part Parted
Raid Raided
However, if the base form ends in a vowel + consonants p, t, b, and n, the past-tense
forms are constructed by duplicating the last consonant combined with suffix -ed. For
example:

Hop Hopped

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Rob Robbed
Rot Rotted
Sin Sinned
If the base form ends in a consonant + y, the y changes into i combined with -ed
ending. For example:

Try Tried
Supply Supplied
Rely Relied
Marry Married
Justify Justified
In contrast, if the base form ends in a vowel + y, the y does not change into i. Keep y
and add -ed. For example:

Annoy Annoyed
Enjoy Enjoyed
Obey Obeyed
Play Played
Employ Employed
Irregular past tenses

The irregular verbs preserve older ways of forming the past tense. In contrast with the
regular forms, an irregular verb is not merely formed by adding the suffix -ed to the final
position of the verb. However, the irregular past-tense verbs are totally different in
construction from their base forms. In some cases, for example, the past tense has a
similar form to the base. To memorize them, you need extra effort due to their complex
and random forms. For example:

Cut Cut
Send Sent
Write Wrote
Buy Bought
Think Thought

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The past tense of irregular verbs is more complex. Some verbs look identical in both
the present and past tenses; for example, cut (present) becomes cut (past). However,
some verbs are created by making a change in the base form; for example, buy (present)
becomes bought (past). The use of past tense for irregular verbs shared with pronouns is
suggested below.
Table 10. SV Agreement for Past Tense Irregular Verbs
Pronoun Past-tense form Example

I Bought
You Bought I/You/They/We/He/She/It bought a pair
They / We Bought of shoes.
He / She / It Bought
Future tense
When you talk about something that is planned or likely to happen in the future, you will
notice that either will or be going to shares it. The future-tense marker "will" is used to
make a prediction based on the person’s experience or opinion at the moment of
speaking. For the "be going to", a prediction is made based on some evidence that has
already been gathered. For example:
The company will hire a new persona director later this year.
I’m going to collect the children at eight.
The future tense, either using will or be going to, is often followed by a base verb.
However, it can be combined with a past participle or a present participle verb to describe
something that would have been done or is happening in the future. For example:
The plane will have landed by now. (past participle)

I will be watching the game on TV this afternoon. (present participle)
Perfective tenses (Past; Present; Future)

The past participle plays a role in constructing the perfect tense or passive sentences.
The concept of the perfect tense refers to something that is "completely or perfectly
done." According to Lester (2009), the main idea behind perfect tenses is that they enable
us to discuss actions or events that occur over a period of time leading up to a final limit
or specific event. The action or event is considered finished ("perfected") at or before that
limit or event.
The past participle has two categories: regular and irregular. Regular forms of past
participles are identical to the past tense of the verb, following the rules of spelling and
pronunciation by adding the suffix -ed to the verb. On the other hand, irregular past

20
participles are formed in various ways. They may have the same form as the past tense
in some cases, while in others, changes are made directly to the spelling. Past participle
verbs, in the perfect tense, are commonly used in conjunction with the auxiliary verb
"have." For example, "I have finished the sculpture."
Furthermore, a past participle can function as an adjective to modify nouns. It comes
before the noun it describes. For example:
• The broken chair

• Recorded voices
• The painted can
Moreover, a past participle can perform a passive sentence. For example:
Active voice Passive voice

She has written the lyric The lyric has been written by her
My mother brought my cell phone My cell phone was brought by my mother
The police arrest the robber The robber was arrested by the police
Moreover, a past participle appears in the form of present perfect, past perfect, and
future perfect tenses, for instance:
Table 11. The Use of Past Participle Verbs in Tenses
Regular past participle Irregular past participle

Present perfect He has completed the task She has written the lyric
Past perfect He had completed the task She had written the lyric
Future perfect He will have completed the task She will have written the lyric
Present perfect
The present perfect is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (has or have) followed by a
perfective verb (Verb 3). It is employed to convey the message that something is
completed at some point in the past that still has an impact that touches the present. The
present perfect has a contrastive meaning with the meaning of the simple past tense,
which no longer affects the present. For examples:
Past tense: My uncle lived in Singapore in 1980.

Present perfect: My uncle has lived in Singapore since 1980.
The first example signals that the speaker’s uncle no longer lives in Singapore,
whereas the second one explains that the speaker’s uncle is still living in Singapore today.

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Interestingly, a less obvious combination of the present perfect and the simple past
for a single event may have a direct impact on the present. For example:
Last year, John had an accident that has totally changed his life.
The accident, as explained in the first clause, is over, so it is reported in the past tense.
However, the consequences have not ended in the past but have continued on into the
present.
Past perfect
The past perfect tense is used to explain that an event occurred in the past and was
completed at a particular time (still past). To apply this tense, the past form of the auxiliary
verb have, had, is used and followed by a verb in the past participle form. For example:
Past perfect Past
My grandparents had lived in that house since they bought it ten years ago.
Before he died, he had taken out a life insurance policy.

Past Past perfect
Future perfect
Talking about the future perfect tense means that we are discussing an event that must
be completed or would have been completed prior to some time in the future. Basically,
the future can be expressed as an adverb of time, such as by noon, next two months, by
the dinner time, etc. The future perfect consists of the modal verb would or will followed
by a V3. For example:
The customers will have been standing in line for almost two hours by the noon.
Future perfect ADV of time
By the time you have gotten the message, I will already have left.
Present perfect Future perfect
ADV of time
Progressive tenses (Past; Present; Future)

The present participle is also known as imperfective verbs. It performs the progressive
(incomplete) event or appears as gerund, for example:
• I am singing. (Present progressive)

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• She was reading the magazine. (Past progressive)
• You will be driving. (Future progressive)
Regularly, present participle is formed by adding suffix -ing to the base form. For
example:
Base form Present participle form

Be Being
Do Doing
Go Going
Buy Buying
Think Thinking
The rules for forming the present participle are sometimes different from the base
form. It depends on whether the base forms are spelled or constructed. If the base form
ends in an e, the e is removed and replaced by -ing directly. For example:

Enlarge Enlarging
Lose Losing
Save Saving
Tame Taming
Use Using
If the base ends in a single consonant preceded by a short vowel, then the consonant
will double and be combined with the -ing ending. For example:

Hit Hitting
Hop Hopping
Rub Rubbing
Run Running
Swim Swimming
The key to using the progressive tense is that there is an action in progress that is
being described in the present, past, or future. The use of progressive tense is always
formed by the helping verb be.

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Present progressive
The present progressive is commonly used to talk about an event that is happening at
the present time. To use this, a V-ing must be followed by the present-tense helping verbs
be (am, is, or are). For example, my brothers are watching their favorite cartoon, or the doctor
is explaining the surgery method to the patient.
However, progress is not limited to the present moment. It means that it can refer to
an action or an event that occurs beyond the present moment. For example:
Mr. David is writing a novel. (Mr. David is in the progress of writing a new novel, but
it does not mean that he is writing prior to the time the speaker’s speaking)
We are living in New Jersey now. (The speakers had started to live in New Jersey at
a particular time in the past but they are still living there at the moment)
Not all verbs can be used in the present progressive. A group of verbs called stative
verbs cannot be used due to the lack of information about expressing an action. They
commonly express unchanging states or conditions. Certainly, a progressive is
characterized by an action verb. For example:
John is driving a car. (John is doing an action that is driving)

John is owning a car. (John’s state is having a car in his house)
Past progressive
To explain an action that was happening at a specific time in the past, we use the past
progressive. It consists of the past tense linking verb (was or were), followed by a verb in
the -ing version. For example:
By 9 AM. I was working at my desk.

During the afternoon, we were having drinks on the terrace.
The use of the past progressive can be accompanied by some other event explained
or expressed in the past tense as the subordinate or dependent clause. For example:
Past Prog Past tense
We were watching TV when the robber came in.
I couldn’t hear your voice; my son was crying when you called in.
Past Prog Past tense

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Future progressive
The future progressive explains some activities that will be carried out or in progress at a
specific period in the future. As a common future tense, the verb will be is combined with
a verb in the present participle form. For example:
I can’t join the meeting; I will be teaching tonight.

At noon, I will be flying to Houston.
As an independent clause, the future time can be defined as taking place during some
future time that is combined with a present-tense dependent clause. For example:
While you are in California, I will be working on my thesis.

Present tense Future Prog
He will be arranging more interviews while you enter the data.

Future Prog Present tense
EXERCISE
A. Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in parentheses. Use the
present tense.
1. He ______________ two brothers. (to have)
2. They ______________ sixteen years old. (to be)
3. I ______________ very tall. (to be)
4. Do we ______________ dinner at 6:00 p.m.? (to eat)
5. The picture ______________ blurry. (to be)
B. Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in parentheses. Use the
present continuous.
1. They ______________ in the park. (to walk)
2. Anna ______________ the package. (to send)
3. You ______________ with a pen. (to write)
4. He ______________ to music. (to listen)
5. I ______________ a picture. (to draw)
C. Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in parentheses. Use the past
tense.
1. Jake ______________ the box. (to open)
2. They ______________ excited. (to be)
3. She ______________ three laps. (to swim)

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4. We ______________ a goldfish. (to have)
5. You ______________ three hot dogs! (to eat)
D. Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in parentheses. Use the
perfect tense.
1. I ______________ in New York. (to live)
2. Susan ______________ the milk. (to spill)
3. They ______________ their mother. (to call)
4. He ______________ home. (to hurry)
5. We ______________ the museum. (to visit)
E. Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in parentheses. Use the
perfect tense.
1. You ______________ a steak. (to order)
2. She ______________ famous. (to be)
3. I ______________ my homework. (to do)
4. He ______________ money. (to earn)
5. We ______________ football. (to play)
F. Convert the following verbs into four principal forms for each of these
irregular verbs.
1. grow 6. do
2. put 7. go
3. drive 8. read
4. send 9. fall
5. break 10. throw
G. Convert the following words into verbs by adding suffixes. Some words may
take more than one verb suffix.
1. real 2. random
3. hyphen 4. liquid
5. ripe 6. example
7. margin 8. white
H. Find out any verbs in the passage below and cluster them into irregular and
regular verbs. (Source: The Athletic on Wimbledon are relaxing their all-white
dress code to ease the stress of women’s periods - The Athletic)

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Wimbledon are relaxing their all-white dress code to ease the stress of
women’s periods
Nancy Froston and Charlie Eccleshare

Jul 2, 2023
“I’m not sure if people can understand how nerve-racking it is when you’re having
your days (on your period),” says Poland’s grand-slam semi-finalist and world No
23 Magda Linette. “I don’t think many people can understand how stressful that
can be.”
Being on your period — the part of the menstrual cycle when a woman bleeds from
her vagina for a few days — can be harrowing enough for many of us, let alone
with the extra anxieties for those who participate in elite-level sport while wearing
light-coloured sportswear in front of TV audiences in the millions. But now one of
the world’s most storied sporting institutions is breaking from tradition, with a
subtle but landmark change at this year’s Wimbledon tennis tournament.
For the first time, the rules of the 2023 competition allow female players’
underwear to be a colour other than white as part of a change voted in last
November to help ease period anxiety for those taking part. This change applies
for the girls’ singles junior event, too.
The rules are still clear — “solid, mid/dark-coloured undershorts, provided they are
no longer than their shorts or skirt” are permitted — but it is a notable change to
the club’s all-white rule which previously applied to all clothing, including
underwear.
Anne Keothavong, a former British No 1 now on the board of the All-England Club,
which hosts Wimbledon, calls it a “a welcome change in terms of rules” with the
decision having been approved unanimously by the board after dialogue with
players.
It’s a significant step, and one that has been welcomed by the locker room.
The Athletic has spoken to multiple players who revealed how anxiety-provoking it
can be having to wear all-white underwear when on their period. Some said they
even went as far as coming up with signals with their support teams in the crowd
to indicate if they were “showing” — ie, if any patches of menstrual blood were on
display through their clothes.

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All agreed that tennis players have enough to worry about without these additional
stresses.

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1.3 PRONOUNS
Pronouns are one of the noun subclasses that are commonly used to replace or
substitute a noun as a whole phrase. As easily proven in the examples below.
The girl who was supposed to wrap it had broken up with her boyfriend.
The NP ‘The girl who was supposed to wrap it’ can be substituted by a third-person
singular She, thus it becomes She had broken up with her boyfriend. If it is said that
pronouns substitute individual nouns, then this may lead to the misconception and it can
cause the ungrammatical sentence, as seen below marked by an asterisk (*).
[1] The girl who was supposed to wrap it had broken up with her boyfriend.
[2] *The she who was supposed to wrap it had broken up with her boyfriend.
Of course, the same thing occurs to the object pronoun, e.g.:
[1] I love my children.

[2] *I love my them.
Pronouns in English can be divided into several subclasses, including personal,

interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite-quantified pronouns.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are well-known and regarded as subject-object pronouns. They
replace any identifiable noun phrases that have the same syntactic properties or the
same distributions, like the girl, my mother, etc. The personal pronouns are described as
follows:
Table 12. Personal Pronouns
Person Numbe Subject Object Possessive Possessive Reflexive

r Pronoun Pronoun without with object Pronoun
(Nominative (Accusative object (dependen
) ) (independen t genitive)
t genitive)
first- singular I me mine my myself
person
plural we us ours our ourselves
second singular you you yours your yourself
-person
plural you you yours your yourselves

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third- singular he him his his himself
person
she her hers her herself
it it its its itself
plural they them theirs their themselve
s
A personal pronoun is used to replace a noun phrase that describes people, places,
or things that act as either a subject or an object. The pronouns "it" and "they" (sometime)
refer to inanimate things. The following short story represents the use of pronouns in
spite of the repetition of the initial noun phrases.
[1] ‘Marjorie lost her false teeth. The dog had found Marjorie’s false teeth and buried
Marjorie’s false teeth. Marjorie could not find Marjorie’s false teeth anywhere,
but Marjorie dug up Marjorie’s false teeth two years later, while Marjorie was
digging in the garden.’
[2] ‘Marjorie lost her false teeth. The dog had found them and buried them. Marjorie
could not find them anywhere, but she dug them up two years later, while she was
digging in the garden.’
The personal pronouns have the genitive or possessive forms. Traditionally, the
genitive (i.e., possessive pronoun) is divided into dependent and independent genitives.
A possessive marker is also known as a subclass of determiners. For example:
Here is your book. (dependent genitive)

This book is yours. (independent genitive)
The sentence is considered ungrammatical if those two types of possessive pronouns

are paired in one phrase or one sentence. For examples:
*This book is yours book.
In addition to possessive pronouns, personal pronouns can be formed as reflexive

pronouns that are used to refer to the same person or thing as the subject does and to
give emphasis to a noun phrase. For examples:
You will hurt yourself.

She herself spoke to me.
He wrote to me himself.

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Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are a set of pronouns that have special functions in question
clauses. These pronouns are well-known asWH-pronouns," such as who, whom, whose,
what, where, when, etc. An alternative function of WH-pronouns is to introduce dependent
clauses or relative clauses (including that). For example:
[1] That is the teacher who taught me Chemistry.

[2] You may take whatever you wish.
[3] They will rebuild the wall that they have broken. (that relative clause)
Here is one set of interrogative pronouns distinctions:
Table 13. Interrogative Pronouns
Subjective case Objective case Genitive case

Personal who whom whose
which which whose
The following questions illustrate whom in an accusative (i.e., direct object) role, is
completed with each response:
[1] Whom is Stephen Baldwin supporting? – Stephen Baldwin is supporting his friend,
Jack.
[2] Whom have they appointed? – They have appointed the suspect.
The pronoun who is more common both for nominative (subject) and accusative
(object) functions. For examples:
[1] Who would like to answer that one? – She would like to answer that one.
[2] Who do you blame for not having gotten that? – I blame on her.
The genitive WH-pronoun whose describes ownership, like in the sentences below.
[1] Whose bike is that? – That bike is mine.

[2] Whose birthday is it tomorrow, Christopher? – It is my dad’s birthday.
Furthermore, to represent an inanimate thing, WH-pronouns appear in the forms of

what and which. They are recognized as generic non-human pronouns, for instance:
[1] What kind of stories do they seem to prefer? – They prefer the romantic one.
[2] Which part would you choose? – I have no idea which one to choose.

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To fully cover WH-pronouns, we need to talk about the when, why, and how pronouns.
Respectively, they refer to a phrase that has the semantic roles of TIME,
MANNER/MEANS/EXTENT, and REASON. For examples:
[1] When can you finish this task? – I can finish it by noon. (TIME)
[2] How will firms react to it? – They will react harshly to it. (MANNER)
[3] Why do we need two engineers? – To make it easier. (REASON)
Demonstrative Pronouns
There are four demonstrative pronouns that also function as determiners: this/that for
singular and these/those for plural. They can be used as pronouns because they can
replace a noun phrase by themselves. For example:
… the file is being downloaded. This will take two hours to complete.
The pronoun this in the quote refers back to an idea expressed in the previous noun
clause. Other demonstrative pronouns like that, these, and those can behave in the same
way depending on the phrases or clauses they refer to. Besides, they can be represented
as determiners such as:
[1] This letter is for you.

[2] That sign will be replaced by the newest one.
[3] These cakes are prepared for your party.
[4] Those boxes should’ve been moved by noon.
Indefinite and Quantified Pronouns

There is a set of English pronouns referring to the presence or absence of a quantity.
These are the following.
Table 14. Indefinite and Quantified Pronouns
Indefinite (referential) Indefinite (non-referential) Quantified

▪ Somebody ▪ Anybody ▪ Everybody / no body
▪ Someone ▪ Anyone ▪ Everyone / no one
▪ Something ▪ Anything ▪ Everything / nothing
▪ Somewhere ▪ Anywhere ▪ Everywhere / nowhere
▪ Someplace ▪ Anytime ▪ Every time / never
▪ Someday ▪ Anyway ▪ Every way / no way
▪ Sometime ▪ Anyhow
▪ Some how

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Here are some examples of indefinite and quantified pronouns:
[1] Somebody has hijacked your computer by inserting malicious software.

[2] No one was absent today.
[3] More will be arriving later.
[4] is there anybody at home?
Indefinite pronouns have the same syntactic properties and grammatical relations as
noun phrases do. Indeed, we might think that they substitute indefinite noun phrases.
The terms referential and non-referential are respectively referring to the acknowledged
participants and to the potential or hypothetical participants on the discourse stage.
However, the use of both of them depends on the context because some phrases or
clauses could be ambiguous to understand. For example:
I’m looking for a good book.
The NP of a good book is treated as indefinite. However, it could be assumed to be

referential or non-referential. The first possible case in which a good book could be
assumed to be referential is if the speaker mentioned the characteristics of the good book
in the subsequent text. The speaker might say it is dark blue and has a hard cover, so that
the hearer might have similar reference (i.e., background knowledge) to the speaker.
However, if the speaker did not mention any details of the book, then it would be
assumed to be non-referential. The hearer would have a hypothetical reference in mind
at the moment by guessing what a good book looked like.
For the sake of convenience, the distinction between referential and non-referential
could be best expressed by indefinite pronouns that begin with the quantifier some or
any, as shown by the following two clauses:
[1] I am looking for something.

[2] I am looking for anything.
Quantified pronouns refer to an identifiable set of potential referents. Their forms

are begun with either every or no, for example:
[1] I think everybody/nobody will come to her wedding anniversary party.

[2] Obviously, I am poor indeed in everything/nothing compared to you.
[3] My money always/never goes on the spouse.

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EXERCISE
A. Find out the antecedents of the underlined pronouns and possessive
determiners.
1. Scientists have discovered that pets have a therapeutic effect on their owners.
2. A dog, for instance, can improve the health of the people it comes in contact with.
3. In a recent study, the blood pressure of subjects was measured while they were
petting their pets.
4. In general, an individual’s blood pressure decreased while he was in the act of
petting his pet.
5. Since many of the elderly have experienced the loss of a spouse, it is particularly
important that they be allowed to have a pet.
6. This is a problem, since the elderly often live in flats whose landlords will not allow
their tenants to own pets.
7. Recently, however, a local landlord allowed her tenants to own pets on an
experimental basis.
8. This landlord found that when they were allowed to have pets, the elderly proved
to be very responsible pet owners.
B. Specify the person (first, second, or third), number (singular or plural), and case
(subjective or objective) of the italicized personal pronouns. If the pronoun
denotes alternative types of pronouns, state it!
1. Most of us don’t have the time to exercise for an hour each day.
2. We have our hearts in the right place, though.
3. I think ‘diet’ is a sinister word.
4. It sounds like deprivation.
5. But people who need to lose weight find that they need to lose only half the
weight if they exercise regularly.
6. The reason is that exercise helps you to replace fat with muscle.
7. My exercise class has helped me to change my attitude to body shape.
8. The instructor says that she objects to bony thinness.
9. To quote her, ‘Who wants to be all skin and bones?’
10. My husband approves of her view, and he is thinking of joining the class.
C. Indicate whether the underlined pronouns are personal, possessive, reflexive,

demonstrative, reciprocal, interrogative, relative, or indefinite.
1. Nobody has ever seen a unicorn.
2. I intend to collect beetles.
3. What do you want me to do?
4. He can resist everything except temptation.
5. She did it all by herself.

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6. There are some pressure groups that support only one party.
7. One cannot be too careful in the choice of one’s friends.
8. We are commanded to love one another.
9. The next turn is yours.
10. Is this war?
11. Who is it now?
12. I heard the story from somebody on whom I can rely.
D. Fill in each blank with the appropriate reflexive pronoun.

1. We congratulated ____________ on completing the job in good time.
2. I ____________ have arranged the meeting.
3. I wonder, Tom, whether you wouldn’t mind helping ____________.
4. I hope that you all enjoy ____________.
5. She did the entire job by ____________.
6. The surgeon needs to allow ____________ more time.
7. They can’t help ____________.
8. The dog hurt ____________ when it jumped over the barbed wire fence.

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1.4 ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that is used to modify or explain a noun. It describes the
characteristics or state of something. In this section, we will account for the use of
adjectives as noun modifiers. There is a term that we call "true" adjectives that refers to
the basic form of adjectives that have three distinctive features, namely: (1) noun
modifiers; (2) comparative and superlative forms; and (3) predicate adjectives. However,
a large number of adjectives are derived from nouns and verbs as the result of
morphological derivation by adding suffixes. For example:
Suffixes Adjectives
-able Disposable, suitable, fashionable, audible
-al Normal, cynical, racial, editorial
-ed Wooded, boarded, wretched, crooked
-ful Hopeful, playful, careful, forgetful
-ical Historical, political, economical, paradoxical
-ish Amateurish, darkish, foolish, childish
-ive Defective, communicative, attractive, affirmative
-less Hopeless, tactless, harmless, restless
Adjectives that have no suffixes, such as sad, young, happy, and true, are called true
adjectives. In the subsequent section, the terms of true adjectives are covered.
“True” adjectives
"True" adjectives are genuine adjectives created through morphological derivation. This
means they are formed by changing the word class based on their function. The true
adjectives have three distinctive features:
1. Nouns have modifiers; they immediately precede the nouns to form adjectival
phrases. For example, the slow cars moved into the right lane.
2. Comparison; comparative and superlative forms for example, slow (base), slower
(comparative), and slowest (superlative).
3. Predicate adjectives; predicates of linking verbs for example, the clock in the hall
is slow.
The first and third features are related to the classes of adjectives: attributive (attributing
the quality of the noun they modify) and predicative (complements of the verb). For
examples:
[1] It was a comfortable ride. Attributive

[2] The ride was comfortable. Predicative

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[3] I made the bed comfortable. Predicative
Comparative and Superlative forms

We use comparative or superlative adjectives to describe the extent of a quality. To do
this, we change the form of the basic adjectives (i.e., inflection) to provide further
information about the degree of an NP compared to another or other NP(s).
English comparative forms are identically marked with the suffix -er at the end of
short adjectives or more preceding long adjectives. On the other hand, the suffixes -
est and most are used to form superlative forms. For example:
Base form Comparative Superlative

Comfortable More comfortable Most comfortable
Gentle Gentler Gentlest
Happy Happier Happiest
The use of more... /...-er and most... /...est are associated with the word’s syllable. The
short adjectives like fun, big, simple, etc. are linked to the -er and -est markers, while more
and most precede long adjectives, for example, beautiful, comfortable, expensive, etc.
Figures 1 and 2 suggest this notion.
Figure 1. The Use -er and more for Comparative Forms

37
Figure 2. The Use -est and most for Superlative Forms
We normally use than in comparatives to introduce the thing that the subject is being
compared to. Use "less" as the opposite of "more" with a long adjective. For example: the
exam was less difficult than I expected; this beach is less beautiful than that one. The
superlative forms use the to explain the peculiarity of something that is compared. Use
"least" as the opposite of "most" with a long adjective. For example, the least important;
the least expensive.
However, a two-syllable adjective like polite poses a problem since it can exhibit both
-er and more for the comparative, or -est and most for the superlative, as seen below.
[1] Susan is politer than Alice. (C); Susan is the politest person in her class. (S)
[2] Susan is more polite than Alice. (C); Susan is the most polite person I know. (S)
To account for such a problem, here are some generalizations that can help us to
decide which type of comparative and superlative to use (adapted from Lester, 2009):
1. Two-syllable adjectives ending in -le or -y tend to use the -er or -est. For example:
Ending -le Comparative Superlative

able abler ablest
feeble feebler feeblest
gentle gentler gentlest
noble nobler noblest

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simple simpler simplest
Ending -y Comparative Superlative
tacky tackier tackiest
early earlier earliest
happy happier happiest
noisy noisier noisiest
pretty prettier prettiest
2. Several adjectives are derived from present and past participle verbs ending in -
ing and -ed respectively. Any adjectives (regardless of one or two or more syllables)
derived from verbs form the comparative and superlative with more and most. For
example:
Ending -ing Comparative Superlative

amusing more amusing most amusing
charming more charming most charming
discouraging more discouraging most discouraging
tempting more tempting most tempting
trusting more trusting most trusting
Ending -ed Comparative Superlative

exploited more exploited most exploited
recorded more recorded most recorded
respected more respected most respected
strained more strained most strained
startled more startled most startled
3. A few adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms as suggested

below:

bad worse worst
good better best
far further/farther furthest/farthest
Besides, adjectives can also describe similarities and differences between two nouns
without performing comparative or superlative. In this case, we use as … as to express
equality and inequality. For example:
[1] The apple is as big as the orang. (The same size)

39
[2] Jane is not as talkative as Mary. (Inequal state)
Sometimes, when we compare NPs, “than” is removed if the compared condition or
thing is not mentioned. It is not necessary to explicitly mention one or both nouns that
we’re comparing. Figure 3 and 4 suggest other ways to form comparative.
Figure 3. Comparative without Using than
Figure 4. Other Ways to Form Comparative
EXERCISE
A. Underline the descriptive adjective or adjectives in each sentence below.
1. The music is loud.
2. She waves the American flag.
3. The brown horse jumps.
4. The small cup is full.

40
5. He has an orange balloon.
6. The tired girl sleeps.
7. The water is cold.
8. She plays a sad song.
9. The colourful painting is beautiful.
B. Convert the following words into adjectives by adding suffixes and making any
consequent changes. Some words may have more than one adjective suffix.
1. style 6. monster
2. cycle 7. hair
3. wish 8. use
4. allergy 9. sex
5. care 10. confide
C. Give the comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives.
Base Comparative Superlative

1. sad
2. costly
3. valuable
4. likely
5. patient
6. improved
7. blue
8. bad
9. physical
10. strange
11. probable
12. available
13. developed
14. shady
15. fulfilling

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1.5 ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and affect entire clauses or
sentences rather than just individual words or phrases. They can describe times, degrees,
places, or manners of how something is done. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives,
such as slowly from slow. Additionally, Payne (2011) extends several types of adverbs
such as EPISTEMIC (i.e., possible some situation may be) and HEDGING (i.e., disclaimers
of responsibility). For example:
[1] He left for work five minutes later than he normally did. (MANNER)
[2] They just finished running the Boston marathon. (TIME)
[3] I can hardly hear. (DEGREE)
[4] Apparently, she got one step ahead of us. (EPISTEMIC)
[5] Here was the bike I wanted. (LOCATION)
[6] This woman sort of knows my situation. (HEDGING)
In the previous section, adjectives are possible to be derived from the present and
past participles of verbs. Since most adverbs are formed by adding suffix -ly to the
adjective forms, therefore the same rule applies to the adjectives originated from verbs.
For example:
Ending -ING
Adjectives Adverbs
amusing amusingly
interesting interestingly
pleasing pleasingly
frightening frighteningly
revealing revealingly
Ending -ED
Adjectives Adverbs
assured assuredly
learned learnedly
bemused bemusedly
marked markedly
reported reportedly
Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly. However, there are several adverbs that take
their basic forms without experiencing derivation or inflection from other word
categories. For example:

42
Table 15. Adverb Categories
Adverbs Category Example sentence

now, tomorrow, yesterday, TIME I will visit Malaysia later.
still, yet, later
always, usually, sometimes, FREQUENCY I always eat breakfast in
often, never bed.
everywhere, nowhere, here, PLACE Everywhere I go, my dog
there, forward, up, behind always follows me.
therefore, thus, hence PURPOSE We must therefore
conclude the results by
now.
moreover, therefore, CONJUNCTIVE Jane is terrible at math;
however, similarly however, she still works
on it.
north, eastwards, upwards, DIRECTION We headed eastwards.
forward
Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Like adjectives, adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms by adding suffixes
-er and -est to the short adjectives and using pre-modifiers more and most for the long
adjectives. However, comparative and superlative adverbs are still exclusively used to
modify verbs, not nouns. For example:
[1] Ending -er/-est

George finished fast.
George finished faster than Frank.
George finished the fastest of all the runners in his age group.
[2] Using pre-modifiers more/most

George spoke amusingly.
George spoke more amusingly than ever.
George spoke the most amusingly of all the presenters.
A few adverbs, like adjectives, have irregular forms of comparative and superlative,
as follows.

badly worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
well better best
much more most

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little less least
For examples:
[1] This weekend Ronaldo played better than the last week.
[2] His golf ball went the farthest from the tee.
Position in a sentence
Adverbs can appear immediately after the main verb (intransitive) following another
adverb, in the middle between the main verb and the helping verb, or between the main
verb and its object (transitive). However, in some cases, it is possible to place an adverb
at the beginning of a sentence or before the verb. For example:
[1] She ran very quickly. (AFTER THE VERB)

[2] Valentino Rossi was previously known as a world champion of MotoGP. (BETWEEN
MAIN AND HELPING VERBS)
[3] They played mostly techno music at the party. (BETWEEN THE MAIN VERB AND ITS
OBJECT)
[4] Personally, I hate being late. (BEGINNING OF SENTENCE)
[5] There is the rest of the team! (PRECEDING THE VERB)
EXERCISE
A. Convert the following words into adverbs by adding -ly or -ically and making any
consequent changes.
1. style 2. realistic
3. lazy 4. specific
5. recognizable 6. simple
7. public 8. tragic
B. Determine whether the underlined word is an adverb or an adjective. Write

ADV if it is an adverb; write ADJ if it is an adjective.
1. Shadow is a cute dog. ________
2. She is very happy. ________
3. We ask many questions. ________
4. Ben really likes to surf! ________
5. Where does he study? ________
6. He talks more loudly. ________
7. The directions are clear. ________
8. Susan is swimming now. ________

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C. Give the comparative and superlative forms of the following adverbs.
Adverbs Comparative Superlative
1. Fast
2. Long
3. Carefully
4. Horribly
5. Badly
6. Early
7. Quickly
8. Cheaply
9. Efficiently
10. Strangely
11. Low
12. High
13. Late
14. Wide
15. Recently
1.6 PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is commonly used to express the relationship between an NP and another
grammatical category, for example, a verb. When a preposition takes an object, it forms
a prepositional phrase (PP). For example, I saw Anna put her red shoes behind the
cupboard. A prepositional phrase can syntactically behave as an adverb to put forth the
extended meaning of a verb. In traditional grammar relationships, a PP is known as an
OBLIQUE.
Here are some common prepositions:
about before during over under

above behind for past until
across between from since up
after below in through with
against by inside till without
Prepositions can be broadly divided into several categories where each category can
be connected with verbs, with nouns, and with adjectives. See the following table.

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Table 16. Preposition Categories
Category Preposition Example Sentence

Time at, in, on, since, during, by, before, until, The advertising proposal will be
after, to finished before the due date.
Place in, at, on, next to, beside, between, behind, The glass was on the table until
in front of, below, under, above someone took it away.
Direction to, from, over, around, into, out of, towards, They drove across the country.
up, down
Agency by, with The book was written by him.
Instrument by, with, on They went to the isolated island
by boat.
Purpose for, through, because of, on account of, from They left early because of the
storm.
Connection of, to, with I think she would go with Anna.
Origin from, of We started our trip from Italy.
Some prepositions can go along with verbs such as wake up, have to, look after, etc.
This combination creates an extended or new meaning for the verbs called phrasal verbs
(these are discussed in more detail in Chapter 2). For example, the phrasal verb run out
consists of the verb run and the preposition out, which means that something is used
completely so that nothing is left. That phrase has a dissimilar meaning compared to run,
i.e., to move at a speed faster than a walk, never having both or all the feet on the ground
at the same time.
EXERCISE
A. Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
1. He runs _____________ the street.
2. She sleeps _____________ the bed.
3. He plays _____________ his friends.
4. Dinner is _____________ the table.
5. They eat lunch _____________ 12:00 p.m.
B. Indicate whether the underlined words are subordinators or prepositions by

putting “S” or “P” in the brackets that follow each word.
While ( ) he developed the theory of special relativity in ( ) about 1905, Albert
Einstein lived with ( ) a fellow student of physics who became his first wife. Some
researchers believe that ( ) his wife Mileva should get at least some of the credit
for ( ) the theory, since ( ) there are letters from ( ) Einstein to her that refer to ‘our
work’ and ‘our theory’. Furthermore, a Russian physicist who is now dead claimed
to have seen both names on ( ) the original manuscripts of four papers, but some

46
scholars discount his evidence because ( ) the original manuscripts have
disappeared. Although ( ) Mileva was certainly capable of understanding Einstein’s
work and perhaps of collaborating with ( ) him, the present evidence is too meagre
to upset the traditional view of Albert Einstein’s contribution to ( ) the theory of
special relativity, a view held since ( ) the publication of the theory.

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1.7 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or clauses to form complex
constructions, for example, the loser and the winner. COORDINATING and
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are the two main types of conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions
The most common coordinating conjunctions used are and, but, or, yet, for, so, and nor.
They conjoin two units (words, phrases, or clauses) that are of the same type or equal in
terms of their syntactic status. For example:
[1] The section on health and safety could be quite large. (NOUNS)
[2] I would prefer swimming or running. (GERUNDS)
[3] I am a big fan of playing sports but not watching them. (PHRASES)
[4] It was raining, so I took an umbrella. (SENTENCES)
However, if the two conjoined units are in different syntactic statuses or are not
equal, the final construction will be grammatically incorrect. For example:
[1] *The children had milk and to go out.

[2] *You asked my friend but coming up.
Coordinating conjunctions also have at least some complex forms that appear as
paired conjunctions: either... or, neither... nor, both... and, and not only... but also. They are
correspondingly used together to connect word to word, phrase to phrase, or clause to
clause. For example:
[1] Either Mark or Sue has the book.

[2] The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse.
[3] He is not only an excellent student but also an outstanding athlete.
[4] I know both where you went and what you did.
The conjoined units must be in parallel structures. In addition to, a sentence will be
incorrect if the wrong parts of the paired conjunctions are used together. For example:
[1] *He wants either to go by train or by plane.

(This sentence is incorrect because phrase to go by train is not parallel to the
peripheral phrase by plane. The correct form should be He wants either to go by
train or to go by plane or He wants either to go by train or by plane)

48
[2] *I want both this book or that one.
(This sentence is incorrect because the proper part of both is and, not or.
Therefore, the sentence is supposed to be corrected in the form I want both this
book and that one).
Subordinating conjunctions
This type of conjunction conjoins two units that may have dissimilar syntactic functions.
Subordinating conjunctions include: after, because, although, if, before, since, though,
unless, when, whether or not, etc. Sometimes they are used to introduce subordinate
clauses into independent clauses. The subordinating conjunctions always precede the
dependent clause. They can appear immediately after the independent clause (as the
boundary between independent and dependent clauses) or in the leftmost position of
the complex sentences (the punctuation is used to mark out both independent and
dependent clauses). For example, although it was raining, I did not take an umbrella; she
still ate the pizza even though she did not like pepperoni.
Also, subordinating conjunctions also conjoin non-clausal elements. For example:
[1] day after day, month after month

[2] The congress is seen as a sort of unfortunate if necessary check and control on
the presidency.
Here are common subordinating conjunctions used:
after even if rather than unless

although even though since until
as how so that what/when/where/why/who
as if if than whenever/wherever
because in order that that which
before once though while
EXERCISE
A. Complete each sentence with the appropriate conjunction. Choose one of the
following: and, but, or.
1. He enjoys reading _____________ running.
2. Will he dance with Susan _____________ Maria?
3. Anna has brown hair _____________ blue eyes.
4. He wants to swim, _____________ she wants to surf.
5. Ben _____________ Maria go to school together.
6. Does she like roses _____________ tulips?

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7. He likes football, _____________ he prefers soccer.
B. Examine the sentences below. Then explain the differences in the uses of the
coordinators (and, or) and the subordinator when.
1. The election was held last month, and the government was decisively defeated.
2. The election will be held in June or in July.
3. I intend to travel where I like and when I like.
4. I phoned her, I wrote to her, and I saw her in person.
5. The government was decisively defeated when the election was held last month.
6. When the election was held last month, the government was decisively defeated.

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1.8 DETERMINERS
Determiners always introduce nouns or noun phrases. They appear in the forms of
articles, possessives, demonstratives, and quantifiers. Determiners may also be
categorized as adjectives because they behave as nouns and modifiers as well. The
subclasses of determiners are defined as PRE-DETERMINERS, CENTRAL DETERMINERS,
and POST-DETERMINERS.
Pre-Determiners
Pre-determiners come before the central determiners. These include words such as
multipliers (double, twice, three times), fractions (half, one-third, etc.), or others like all, both,
such, and what. In the following examples, the pre-determiners are suggested in italicized
forms.
[1] double her fee; half a loaf.

[2] all the stations; both our children; such a joke; what a good idea.
Here are some examples of the use of pre-determiners in complete sentences

(adapted from Richard Nordquist, 2019 accessed from Predeterminer Definition and
Examples in English Grammar (thoughtco.com) and Payne, 2011):
[1] Half our life is spent trying to find something to do with the time we have rushed
through life trying to save.
[2] Both the children had a gentleness that kept them almost impersonal and certainly
quite unpunishable.
[3] Realizing the importance of the case, my men are rounding up twice the usual
number of suspects.
[4] Nearly all my friends were down the pit.
[5] Both my parents smoke.
[6] He raised both his arms.
[7] Half our sites are down.
[8] No, for you are twice his age.
[9] Individual coverage would cost more than three times his current $457 premium.
Central Determiners
The central determiners fall into several subcategories: definite and indefinite articles,
demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.
Article
There are two types of articles: the definite article the and the indefinite article a/an and
some. The definite article the is usually used to highlight the exclusivity of the noun it

51
modifies. In other words, it refers to a particular person, thing, or place. It is used with
both singular and plural nouns. For examples, the cause—the causes, the design—the
designs, the store—the stores, etc.
The indefinite articles a and an may only be used with singular nouns. The use of a
and an is quite exceptional because they deal with the sound of the preceding phoneme
of a word. The article an deals with the words that begin with a vowel sound, such as
ancient, American family, intruder, underlined word, etc. If a word begins with a consonant
sound, we use a as the article. For examples, consider a red tablecloth, a situation, a
stopped train, a kitchen cupboard, etc. To talk about some general things in plural forms,
we use the indefinite article some for statements and any to form questions or negatives.
For instance, some hotels, some banks, some children, etc. The following table explains the
application of both definite and indefinite articles in the form of complete sentences.
Table 17. The Use of Definite and Indefinite Articles in Sentences
Article Examples in sentences

The ▪ We went on a tour and the guide was excellent.
▪ There is a bus trip or a lecture. I’d prefer the bus trip.
▪ The Pope is visiting another country this week.
A ▪ I work in a library.
▪ We are trying to buy a house.
▪ Canada is a very cold country.
An ▪ Jim isn’t an artist.
▪ Do you want to come to an exhibition?
▪ I work in an office.
Some ▪ There are some cafes in the town.
▪ There are some banks on Main Street.
▪ Some children are playing in the park.
Any ▪ Are there any cafes in the town?
▪ There aren’t any children in the park.
▪ Are there any swimming pools?
Articles a and an, as suggested above, are easily predicted to come before a word
begins with a consonant and a vowel. However, what about the words uniform and hour?
In this case, the word uniform is spelled with the sound [y], a consonant sound, therefore
it uses Article a. The first letter h in the word hour is not pronounced. Because we
pronounce "our" with a vowel sound, "an" combined with the word "hour" becomes "an
hour." Remember that to use a or an, we need to pay attention to the initial sounds
of the words that come after the articles.

52
Demonstratives
Demonstratives are used to appoint NPs based on their distances and numbers.
Demonstratives may also behave as adjectives because they modify nouns or noun
phrases that come after them. There are four demonstratives: that or this for singular
things, and those or these for plural things. The demonstratives this and that are only used
with singular nouns. "This" for something close, and "that" for something farther away.
For example, this house is too big, or that house is too small. While plural demonstratives
these and those are used for things that are close and farther away, respectively, For
example, these cakes are delicious, or those sandwiches look better.
The four demonstratives can behave as pronouns to substitute words, phrases, or
clauses. For example.
[1] Look at this! It is adorable!

[2] I went to the farewell party last night. That was awesome.
[3] I think those will probably taste better with sauce.
[4] These are the only clothes I own.
Possessives
Earlier, we talked about personal pronouns having possessive forms, both dependent
and independent, that show ownership. A possessive marker is also known as a subclass
of determiners such as my, your, his, her, its, our, and their. Sometimes, the possessive
determiners are represented by the apostrophe with "s". The apostrophe comes before
the "s" if the noun is plural, whereas it comes after the "s" if the noun is in the plural form.
For example.
[1] Felix is my cat.

[2] Rachel is our daughter.
[3] The mother of Lizzie = Lizzie’s mother.
[4] The parrot of Juan and Beth = Juan and Beth’s parrot.
[5] Ginger is my parents’ cat.
[6] It depends on the students’ vote.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are commonly used to indicate the amount or quantity of nouns that they
modify or introduce. Much (of), many (of), a lot of, lots (of), every, each, whole, all (of), few,
little, less, and fewer are often used as quantifiers. Like other types of determiners, they
are syntactically formed along with nouns to suggest their quantity or amount. For
example, this book contains a large number of colorful pictures. More examples are
explained in the following sections.

53
Much (of), many (of), a lot of, lots (of), etc.
We often use a lot of and lots of, particularly in informal contexts, to express "a large
number of something". For example, a lot of people were involved in this project, and lots
of teenagers fail the exam. In formal contexts, such as academic writing, we prefer to use
much (of) and many (of). They are synonyms with some phrases such as a large /
considerable / substantial amount of (uncountable nouns) or a large / considerable
/ great / substantial number of (countable nouns). For example.
[1] Much debate has been heard about Thornton’s new book.
[2] There could be many explanations for this.
[3] Much of her fiction describes women in unhappy marriages.
[4] A large amount / much of the food was inedible.
[5] The book contains a large number / many of pictures.
To emphasize the large number we are talking about, we can use a good / a great
many with a plural noun. For example, she has a good / great many friends in New Zealand.
Additionally, we can generally use plenty of instead of a lot of or lots of followed with
both plural countable and uncountable nouns. For example, we took plenty of food and
drink on our walk through the hills.
All (of), whole, every, each

All (of) can be sometimes used before or after the noun it refers to. For example:
[1] His songs all sound much the same to me. / All of his songs sound much the same
to me.
[2] We all think Kushi’s working too hard. / All of us think Kushi’s working too hard.
To express negative sentences, the negative marker not precedes the determiner all
(of). However, not all (of) … has a different meaning from none of … where the first means
some of the things are existed, while the second one refers to not one of the things that
have existed. For example.
[1] Not all (of) the seats were taken. / The seats were not all taken.
[2] None of this means anything to me.
Moreover, the determiner whole can be used immediately before both singular and
plural nouns. For example.
[1] They were not able to stay for the whole concert.
[2] The whole building has recently been renovated.

54
[3] After the storm, whole towns were left without electricity.
Use every and each to introduce things as a whole thing or just a single thing that is
part of a group of things. For example.
[1] Almost every visitor stopped and stared.

[2] I go to the dentist every six months.
[3] I only had two suitcases, but each one weighed over 20 kilos.
[4] I asked many people and each gave the same answer.
Few, little, less, fewer

Few and little are often used by a noun to suggest ‘not enough’ referring to a group of
things or people which means ‘small’ quantity. For example:
[1] It’s one of the few shops in the city where you can buy food.
[2] We should use the little time we have available to discuss Jon’s proposal.
[3] I learned to play golf during my few days off during the summer.
[4] The results take little account of personal preference.
Both few and little are commonly used in formal speech and writing. However, in
more informal contexts, we use not many / much or only / just or a bit (of) as the
synonym of few and little:
[1] Sorry I haven’t finished; I haven’t had much time today.

[2] Want a bit of chocolate?
Post-Determiners
Post-determiners come after the central determiners. They can occur with or without
other determiners in the forms of cardinal numbers like one, two, three, etc., and ordinal
numbers like first, second, third, etc. Sometimes post-determiners can take the forms of
many, few, and little. For examples:
[1] The three rooms have been booked.

[2] Our first apartment has been demolished.
[3] The little money that I have has been robbed.
EXERCISE
A. Use an indefinite article (a/an or some) or the definite article the to complete the blank
space on each sentence.

55
1. Did you hear cat that was making all that noise last night?
2. We need to buy baseballs for the game tonight.
3. baseballs you got for the game are in Rob’s car.
4. question about compound interest rates seemed really difficult, didn’t it?
5. They wanted to establish new network for the office.
6. We need to pick topic that everyone will identify with.
7. engineer employed by a subcontractor filed a complaint.
B. In the following paragraphs, fill in the blank spaces with the definite article the or
indefinite article a/an for singular noun and some for plural nouns.
During 1the Christmas holidays, I flew to Los Angeles to visit with 2

friends. They picked me up at 3 airport in old car one of them was
leasing. Since 4 company my friend was working for required him to
have 5 car, he got reimbursed for most of his driving expenses. It
was 6 first car any of them had ever had. Not having 7 car in Los
Angeles is not really 8 option since there is no public transportation
system to speak of. As 9 result, 10 traffic is just awful.
They were renting 11 apartment in Santa Monica, 12

really nice town on 13 beach about twenty miles from 14
centre of city. 15 apartment building they lived in even had 15
swimming pool. We went in 16 pool every day. It was fine as
long as 17 pool was in 18 sun. From 19
apartment we could walk to most of 20 stores we needed. The only
thing that we had to take 21 car for was going to grocery store.
There was simply no place to buy groceries in 22 neighbourhood.
I had hoped to go swimming in 23 ocean, but I quickly discovered

that 24 water was too cold. My friends said that if I wanted to go
swimming, I would have to get 25 wet suit. There is 26 current of
icy-cold water that comes down 27 coast from Alaska. Even in 28
summer, 29 water is pretty cold.

56
Part 2: Phrases
In Part 1 we were mainly concerned with some parts of grammatical categories in terms
of word classes, and we distinguished them based on their function in the sentence. In
this part, we are focused on the extended forms of word classes that can function as
subjects, verbs, etc. in the sentence.
In grammar, a sentence is regarded to have a hierarchical constituent’s structure that
is built up by words, words grouped into phrases, and phrases into clauses or sentences.
The hierarchy can be represented in the S-Structure below:
Figure 5. S-Structure Hierarchy
Figure 5 has given the definition that the S (sentence) dominates all the other nodes
in the tree. We can figure out that a sentence is made of several words or phrases. A
phrase, for example the leftmost NP, comprises two different word classes (i.e., a
determiner the and a noun president). It is apparent that the NP the president is
corresponding to the Noun as it is appropriate to suggest a grammatical relation as the
subject.
Simply said that a phrase is composed with any group of two or more words that can
occupy the same grammatical relation in a sentence as a single word. For example, either
an adjective pleasant or an adjective phrase very pleasant can occupy the same position
in these sentences:
[1] It was a pleasant occasion.

It was a very pleasant occasion.
[2] The party was pleasant.
The party was very pleasant.
A phrase may contain another phrase from the same or different type within it to
construct different final phrase. For example:

57
[1] [S They were standing [PP [PP in the shade] [PP of a large oak tree]]].
[2] [S Mary could leave John [NP [NP some food] [PP in the fridge]]].
In the sections that follow we will be looking at the structures of the phrases: noun
phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverbial phrases, and prepositional
phrases.
2.1 THE NOUN PHRASE

The structure of the typical NP consists of a noun or a pronoun as the head accompanied
by some words from different categories as pre-modifiers or post-modifiers. Let’s begin
with the example below:
[1] the king of England.
There will surely be little doubt that the phrase the king of England is an NP. The head
king is modified by both a determiner the and a PP of England as the post-modifier. The
NP can function as a subject of a sentence, as in:
[2] The king of England opened the Parliament.
Well, since the phrase in 1 contains the Noun King, then we might assume that it is
the head of the phrase. The word England does not behave as the head of the NP because
it is distributed as a part of the PP of England. The determiner the acts as the premodifier
for the NP king of England. If so, then the structure rule for the NP like in 1 can be
generated such as: [NP = Determiner + NP].
The head of an NP is appointed by the noun being described or referred to in the
phrase. For examples, her older sister, a great big kiss, many a pleasant day, etc.
Sometimes, a pronoun can also be the head of an NP such as That’s a big one, I’d like those
red ones, have you anything new to tell me?, etc.
The following word classes can be together with nouns and pronouns to form noun
phrases:
Table 18. Word Classes to For Noun Phrases
Word classes NP examples

Adjectives Empty boxes, small green apples, a broken glass, a sudden blinding light, a tall
Spanish woman, etc.
determiners An orange, her new car, some people, the president, my job, etc.
predeterminers All the best seats were taken, half the fruit was bad, he is such a nice person, etc.

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quantifiers Many people consider him a hero, I have read several books on the subject, we’ve
had very little news of them lately, etc.
numerals These four books are all I need, the first three correct entries will win a prize, etc.
Noun phrases can take on complex structures. For instance, an NP is frequently

embedded within appositive phrases or clauses that appear before or after another NP
and convey the same meaning. In an appositive construction, an additional NP does not
function as the subject of the sentence. Here is an example to illustrate this concept:
[3] My friend, George, is attending the lecture.
In example (3), the subject of the sentence is the NP My friend, and George is
identified as an appositive phrase. George supplies extra information about the referent
of the phrase my friend. An appositive is not limited to following the subject; it can also
appear before the subject of the sentence, as clarified in [4].
[4] An excellent basketball player, Sarah rarely misses her basketball shots.
Noun Phrase derived from Verbs

Furthermore, it is possible to create an NP using two types of verbs: gerunds and
infinitives. A gerund, which is formed by using the present participle form of a verb, can
combine with its modifiers or complements to function as a noun phrase. The gerund
phrases listed below act as the subjects of the sentences.
[5] Working on this project takes all my waking hours.

Complaining about the poor service won’t do you any good.
My running twenty miles a week really helps me lose weight.
Working out every day at the gym takes a lot of self-discipline.
Lester (2009:82)
To ensure that gerund phrases, like those in (5), are recognized as noun phrases, we
can initially identify them by applying the third-person pronoun replacement test. The
gerund phrases underlined in (5) can be substituted with the pronoun "it" as examples:
[6] Working on this project takes all my waking hours. It takes all my waking hours.
My running twenty miles a week really helps me lose weight. It really helps me lose
weight.

59
Secondly, to prove the underlined phrase in (5) can be coordinated with another
similar gerund phrase, as shown below.
[7] Working out everyday at the gym and consuming muscle supplements in the morning
take a lot of self-discipline.
In addition to functioning as subjects, gerunds can perform various other roles within
a sentence, such as being the object of a verb, the object of a preposition, or the
complement of a linking verb. Here are several examples to illustrate these roles:
[8] I hate spending so much money on gasoline. (Object of a verb)

[9] We finally quit around seven after finishing the proposal. (Object of a preposition)
[10] She is driving the cab. (Complement of a linking verb)
When it comes to behaving as an NP, the utilization of infinitive forms is generally

comparable to gerunds. Similar to gerunds, an infinitive phrase can combine with its
modifiers or complement to function as an NP in roles such as subject, object, and
complement of a linking verb. Here are some examples to illustrate this similarity:
[11] To learn Chinese characters takes years. (Subject)

[12] We all need to finish this job as soon as we can. (Object)
[13] The idea is to arrange a surprise party for Susan next week. (Complement of a
linking verb)
Similar to gerund phrases, we can perform a replacement test using inanimate

pronouns like "it" or demonstrative pronouns like "this/that/these/those" to determine if
an infinitive phrase functions as a noun phrase. As demonstrated in (14), the infinitive
phrases (underlined) can be replaced with "it" or the demonstrative pronoun "this".
[14] To learn Chinese characters takes years. It takes years.

We all need to take few days out of work. We all need this.
EXERCISE
A. Please analyse the structure of the following noun phrases by deconstructing
them and identifying the categories of words that constitute each phrase.
1. three very large pigs
2. doctor’s signature
3. a huge mahogany table
4. their first year

60
5. an old iron dustbin
6. a large rhubarb tart
7. two empty cardboard boxes
8. another stupid mistake
9. what a brilliant plan!
10. such a gifted musician
B. Please identify whether each underlined noun phrase contains a pre-modifier,

a post-modifier, or both.
1. The umbrella originated in Mesopotamia over 3000 years ago.
2. It was an emblem of rank and distinction.
3. It protected Mesopotamians from the harsh sun.
4. For centuries, umbrellas served primarily as a protection from the sun.
5. The Greeks and Romans regarded the umbrella as effeminate and ridiculed
men who carried umbrellas.
6. On the other hand, Greek women of high rank favoured umbrellas.
7. Roman women began to oil their paper umbrellas to waterproof them.
8. In the mid-eighteenth century a British gentleman made umbrellas respectable
for men.
9. Coach drivers were afraid that the umbrella would threaten their livelihood if it
became a respectable means of shelter from the rain.
10. Eventually, men realized that it was cheaper to carry an umbrella than to take
a coach every time it rained.
C. Please enclose the noun phrases in each sentence below with brackets. It is
possible for some sentences to contain more than one noun phrase. If a noun
phrase includes another noun phrase within it, please enclose the embedded
noun phrase with additional brackets. For instance:
[Microwave cooking] is [an absolutely new method for [the preparation of [food]]].
1. Fire is not used in microwave cooking.

2. Electromagnetic energy agitates the water molecules in the food.
3. The agitation produces sufficient heat for cooking.
4. The electronic tube that produces microwave energy is called a magnetron.
5. The magnetron was in use a decade before the birth of the microwave oven.
6. Two scientists invented it during World War II.
7. The magnetron was essential to Britain’s radar defences.
8. The application of microwaves to the heating of food resulted from an accident.
9. An engineer was testing a magnetron tube.

61
10. He reached into his pocket for a chocolate bar.
D. Please determine if the sentences below are correct (C) or incorrect (I) by
identifying whether each sentence contains an appositive. If any sentences are
incorrect, please provide a brief explanation.
1. The son of the previous owner, the new owner is undertaking some fairly broad
changes in management policy.
2. Last semester, a friend, graduated cum laude from the university.
3. Valentine's Day, February 14, is a special holiday for sweethearts.
4. At long last, the chief executive officer, has decided to step down.
5. Tonight’s supper, leftovers from last night, did not taste any better tonight than
last night.
6. The only entrance to the closet, the door was kept locked at all times.
7. In the cold of winter, a wall heating unit, would not turn on.
8. The new tile pattern, yellow flowers on a white background, really brightens up
the room.
9. The high-powered computer the most powerful machine of its type, was finally
readied for use.
10. A longtime friend and confident, the psychologist was often invited over for
Sunday dinner.
E. Please underline the gerund phrases in the provided sentences. Verify your
responses by replacing each gerund phrase with the pronoun "it."
1. Putting the schedule on the website really made it much easier to plan our
meetings.
2. I vaguely recall hearing some discussion about that.
3. We need to talk about solving the quality control problems.
4. His weakness was trying to please everybody.
5. The consultants recommended cutting back on a few of our less important
projects.
6. Working such long hours put a terrible strain on all of us.
7. Getting it right the fi rst time is the best approach.
8. They are not happy about having to take such a late flight.
9. The problem is getting enough time to do everything.
10. We barely avoided sliding into the ditch.
F. Please underline the infinitive phrases in the provided sentences. Verify your
responses by replacing each gerund phrase with the pronoun "it."
1. Our original plan was to go to the play after having dinner in town.
2. We wanted to get an apartment somewhere in easy commuting distance.

62
3. To operate heavy equipment requires a special license.
4. They decided to enroll in a gym or health club.
5. The lawyer’s advice was to get out of the contract any way we could.
6. To teach math in middle schools requires a special kind of person.
7. Our assignment was to analyze the financial status of a small business.
8. To assume that you know what is going on may be a big mistake.
9. Our decision was to fight against the zoning change.
10. To permit such dangerous behavior is really asking for trouble.
2.2 THE VERB PHRASE

Previously, in Part 1, we dealt with the forms of verbs that are used to form the materials
of the tense system of English. Now we go broader to discuss English Verb Phrases, i.e.,
the expanded version of verbs that can be made up of other types of verbs or any
modifiers, objects, or complements. Let’s begin with example (15) as adopted from
Radford (1988:231):
[15] John may {be reading a book]
The bracketed words compose a Verb Phrase (further abbreviated: VP). To prove that
the bracketed phrase is assigned as a VP, we can do a simple replacement test by
substituting with sentences with different types of phrases:
[16] (a) John may [have written a letter]

(b) *John may [near from]
(c) *John may [his extremely]
(d) *John may [at the office]
Examples (16b-d) cannot substitute the bracketed phrase in (15) since grammatically
they violate the classic argument that a phrase can be replaced by another phrase within
the same category. Therefore, examples (16b-d) disrupt the given assumption by
attaching some phrases (after the AUX may) from different categories. In syntax term,
within the tree diagram we are using here, we can interpret a VP by positing a V-bar:

63
Figure 6. V-Bar represented in Tree Diagram
For the sake of convenience, to determine whether a phrase is a VP or not is by

looking at the head of the phrase (i.e., the word that determines the syntactic category of
the phrase). A VP contains a basic verb accompanied with any modals or auxiliary verbs
and their modifiers or complements. In the structure of a sentence, a VP posits the same
position as a verb does. The phrase may be reading a book in (15) is recognized as VP since
it contains the progressive verb reading. The following examples suggest you the
appearance of verb phrases in sentences.
[17] (a) John [walked] {N – V}

(b) John [is walking]
(c) John [has walked for fifteen minutes] {N – VP}
(d) John [preferred running than walking]
Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a specific type of verb phrase that consists of a basic verb
accompanied with one or two adverbs or prepositions. Some phrasal verbs have similar
or predictable meaning from the basic verb; however, some represent different
meanings. Example (18) present several examples of phrasal verbs in sentence:
[18] (a) Everybody tries to send up the Prime Minister.

(b) The plane is going to take off.
(c) I’d prefer to bottle it up instead of telling the truth.
(d) Why don’t you just go away?
(e) Your mother phoned while you were out. Would you call her back?
Sentences (18a-c) are unpredictable in meaning. For instance, the phrasal verb send
up means “to make someone or something seem stupid by copying him, her, or it in a
funny way”, it has different meaning from its basic verb send (to cause something to go
from one place to another, especially by post or email). Conversely, phrasal verbs in (18d-

64
e) have meanings that are predictable from the meanings of the words that form them.
The phrase go away can simply be understood as “leaving a place”.
Like other verbs, phrasal verbs may be transitive or intransitive as presented in (18c-
e) and (18a, b, d) respectively. Davidson (2003) suggests that the position of the direct
object of transitive phrasal verbs follows some important rules:
1. The direct object follows the prepositional phrasal verb, such as "I was looking at
those lovely flowers."
2. The direct object can be placed between the verb and adverb of the phrasal verb,
for example, "Put them back at once!"
3. The indirect object always comes before the adverb in a phrasal verb, like "Give
him back his book."
EXERCISE
A. Please indicate the tense (present or past) of the verbs that are underlined in
the sentences below. If needed, also identify the person and number of the
verbs.
1. The price of oil has dropped considerably in the past few years.
2. Prices continue to drop because oil-producing nations are refining too much
crude oil.
3. ‘I am in favor of higher prices,’ an OPEC member was recently quoted as saying.
4. ‘However, we are not in favor of lowering our production because of the many
debts we have.’
5. Unless OPEC nations lower their production quotas, prices will remain low.
B. Complete the following sentences by using the bracketed verbs.

1. I my mother. (have; visit)
2. She the dishes. (have; do)
3. They to bed. (have; go)
4. The police rioters. (do; arrest)
5. Mrs. Jones her keys somewhere. (have; lost)
6. You if you want. (can; go)
7. You off your bike. (might; fall)
8. We the train. (are; catch)
9. Several trees down in the storm. (have; blow)
10. The tiles off the roof. (may; blow)
C. Create a sentence for each verb listed below, using the specified tense and
aspect (or aspects).
1. enjoy – present perfect
2. find – past perfect

65
3. refuse – present progressive
4. convince – past progressive
5. go – present perfect progressive
D. Recall that verbs are classified as finite and nonfinite. Examine the underlined
verbs in each of the following sentences and identify whether they are finite or
nonfinite.
1. The V-2 was a big step towards a spaceliner.
2. It could reach space.
3. But there was still a major breakthrough to be made: reaching orbit.
4. The main obstacle to this was the amount of fuel required.
5. Most of the work from the engine was used to accelerate the V-2 to high speed.
6. To reach orbit an object must accelerate to a speed of about 17,500 miles per
hour (called satellite speed or orbital velocity) in a horizontal direction.
7. It is far easier to launch a spacecraft to reach satellite height than satellite
speed.
8. If you threw a ball upwards from the ground at 4000 miles per hour, it would
reach a maximum height of 100 miles before falling back to Earth about six
minutes later.
9. This is less than a quarter of the speed needed to sustain a satellite in orbit.
10. It requires less than one-sixteenth of the energy (which is proportional to the
speed squared).
2.3 THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE

An adjective phrase (AP) is a group of words that act like an adjective in a sentence. It
includes an adjective and other words that give more details about a noun or pronoun.
Adjective phrases describe qualities or characteristics of the noun they modify. Here are
some examples of adjective phrases:
[19] (a) The tall and majestic tree

(b) A deliciously fragrant bouquet of flowers
(c) An incredibly talented musician
(d) The old wooden house by the river
(e) A beautifully written poem
In examples (19a–e), the italicized words are adjective phrases that provide additional
information about the nouns they describe. An adjective phrase can take the place of a
single adjective in a sentence. For instance, the single adjective "unbelievable" in "her
behaviour was unbelievable" can be replaced with the adjective phrase "absolutely
unbelievable," as in "her behaviour was absolutely unbelievable." An adjective phrase is

66
used to modify or clarify the information or condition of a noun it is connected to. It is
commonly created by combining two different adjectives and sometimes an adverb to
emphasize or weaken the intensity of a noun, as shown in examples (19b, c, e). Like basic
adjectives, adjective phrases have two main functions: noun modifiers and subject/object
complements.
To identify an adjective phrase in a sentence, you have to remember that an AP is the
same as a single adjective, modifying or describing a noun or a noun phrase. We can
employ a simple substitution test to find out if a sentence contains an adjective phrase.
[20] (a) An [incredibly talented] musician.

(b) *An [incredibly talent] musician. (The adverb incredibly does not explain the
noun)
For the sake of convenience, here are a few examples of how to identify adjective
phrases in sentences:
Table 19. Adjective Phrases in Sentences
Sentences The Adjective Phrase

The big, red balloon floated in the sky. “big, red” modifies the noun “balloon”
The cat with the fluffy tail slept on the cushion. “with the fluffy tail” describes the noun “cat”
The results were good enough. “good enough” is the S-complement of NP “the
results”
Pat the fruit completely dry with some kitchen “completely dry” is the O-complement of NP
paper. “the fruit”
Adjective Phrases vs Adjectival Phrases

These terms are often seen as the same, but they are actually distinct. An adjective phrase
has an adjective as its main part, whereas an adjectival phrase does not. An adjectival
phrase can be any type of phrase (like an adjective phrase, noun phrase, prepositional
phrase, etc.) that acts as an adjective in a sentence, regardless of whether it includes an
adjective as its main element or not. Here are some examples:
[21] (a) The dog was extremely protective of the baby. (Adjective phrase)
(b) We had a five-hour delay at the airport. (Adjectival phrase)
(c) Can’t you find something more sensible to do? (Adjective phrase)
(d) I must have reliable, up-to-date information. (Adjectival phrase)
Adjectives do not serve as the main words in examples (20b) and (20d), making them
adjectival phrases. However, examples (20a) and (20c) include the adjectives "protective"
and "sensible" as main words, respectively modifying the noun phrases "dog" and
"something.

67
EXERCISE
A. Point out each adjective phrase.
1. Fragrant homemade bread is becoming common in many American homes.
2. In a recent sample, 30 per cent of the subscribers to a woman’s magazine said
that they baked bread.
3. The first bread was patted by hand.
4. The early Egyptians added yeast and made conical, triangular, or spiral loaves as
well as large, flat, open-centred disks.
5. Bakers later devised tools to produce more highly refined flour.
B. Point out the adjectival phrases in the following sentences, and add hyphens
where necessary.
1. There was something strangely familiar about the man.
2. This is the all in one solution to all your decorating problems.
3. She glanced at gim with an oh my goodness look on her face.
4. Meeting the president was a never to be forgotten experience.
5. A first past the post voting system means that the candidate who gets the most
votes wins.
C. Determine the purpose of each underlined phrase that describes an adjective

by writing the correct abbreviation in the brackets next to it.:
PrM (pre-modifier in NP)
PM (post-modifier in NP)
sC (subject complement)
oC (object complement)
1. The former ( ) champion is now very ill ( ).

2. He has a rare ( ) viral ( ) infection.
3. The drugs he takes make him sick ( ).
4. His body looks no different than it looked before ( ).
5. His doctor has arranged preliminary ( ) tests for heart surgery.
2.4 THE ADVERB PHRASE

An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It typically
consists of an adverb along with any modifiers, complements, or other words that
provide additional information about the verb, adjective, or other adverb being modified.
For examples: He ran very quickly; She spoke quite softly; They ate dinner together; and the
car drove dangerously fast. In these examples, "very quickly," "quite softly," "together,"
"dangerously fast," and "tirelessly all day" are all adverb phrases that modify the verb or
provide more details about the action, manner, place, time, or frequency. Adverb phrases

68
can answer questions such as how, when, where, to what extent, or under what
conditions.
As the name suggests, this phrase carries an adverb as its head. An adverb phrase,
like a single adverb, is served to modify, mostly, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. Adverb
phrases (henceforth abbreviated as ADVPs) can modify adjectives to indicate the degree
of the adjective. For example:
[22] He is extremely intelligent. (“extremely” describes the degree of “intelligent”)

In case of describing adverbs, an ADVP provides additional information about the
adverb being explained. For example:
[23] They arrived quite late. (“quite” adds more information of “late”)
Adverb phrases can modify verbs by providing information about how an action is
performed. For example:
[24] She danced gracefully. (“gracefully” explains how someone danced)
Overall, adverb phrases function to provide more precise information about actions,
describe the intensity of qualities, specify conditions, or provide additional details in a
sentence. They help to convey a clearer meaning and add depth to the overall message.
Adverb Phrases vs Adverbial Phrases

The terms "adverb phrase" and "adverbial phrase" are often used interchangeably,
but they have slightly different meanings depending on the context. To understand these
distinctions, it helps to remember the difference between adjective phrases and
adjectival phrases.
In general, both terms refer to groups of words that function as adverbs in sentences,
providing additional information about verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or entire clauses.
However, it is beneficial to treat them separately. Similar to an adjective phrase, an
adverb phrase includes an adverb as the main word, along with any modifiers or
complements. For example, in the sentence "She ran very quickly," the adverb phrase
"very quickly" modifies the verb "ran."
On the other hand, an adverbial phrase has a broader definition. It refers to a group
of words or a phrase that acts as an adverbial, conveying information about the manner,
time, place, frequency, condition, or other circumstances of an action or event. An
adverbial phrase can be an adverb phrase, but it can also consist of other types of
phrases, such as prepositional phrases or noun phrases. For instance, in the sentence
"He worked during the night," the adverbial phrase "during the night" is derived from a
prepositional phrase and indicates the time of the action.

69
In summary, while an adverbial phrase encompasses a wider range of phrases that
provide adverbial information, an adverb phrase specifically refers to a group of words
that function as an adverb.
EXERCISE
A. Use the modifying adverbs stated in the brackets to answer the following
questions with adverb phrases.
Example:
Question : How well do you know Ali? (quite)
Answer : I know Ali quite well.
1. How soon do you think you’ll be finished? (fairly)

2. Did your mother recover quickly after her accident? (remarkably)
3. Do we need to finish this soon? (pretty)
4. Did he do the job well? (enough)
5. How quickly should I have reacted? (much more)
B. Underline each adverb phrase.

1. Disposing of nuclear waste is a problem that has recently gained much attention.
2. Authorities are having difficulties finding locations where nuclear waste can be
disposed of safely.
3. There is always the danger of the waste leaking very gradually from the
containers in which it is stored.
4. Because of this danger, many people have protested quite vehemently against
the dumping of any waste in their communities.
5. In the past, authorities have not responded quickly enough to problems at
nuclear waste sites.
C. Determine the purpose of each underlined phrase that describes an adverb by
writing the correct abbreviation in the brackets next to it.:
A (adverbial)
M Adj (modifier of adjective)
M Adv (modifier of adverb)
1. Small forks first ( ) appeared in eleventh-century Tuscany.

2. They were widely ( ) condemned at the time.
3. It was in late eighteenth-century France that forks suddenly ( ) became
fashionable.
4. Spoons are thousands of years older than forks and began as thin, slightly ( )
concave pieces of wood.
5. Knives were used far ( ) earlier than spoons.

70
2.5 THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and typically
ends with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase called the object of the preposition. The
prepositional phrase provides additional information about the object or another
element in the sentence. A preposition is considered as the head of a prepositional
phrase. Here are some examples of prepositional phrases and their usage in sentences.
Table 20. Prepositional Phrases in Sentences
Sentences The Prepositional Phrase

Who’s that talking to George? to George
They managed it between them. between them
Shona was playing with her new puppies. with her new puppies
In 1965 I was still at school. in 1965; at school
Prepositional phrases can be functioned as adverbials and as complements (both

subject-complements and object-complement):
1. As adverbials, prepositional phrases are used as adverbs of place, adverbs of
time, adverbs of purpose, adverbs of directions, and adverbs of manner. For
examples:
• The cat was on the table.

• In Scotland it sometimes snows in summer.
• I paint with great enthusiasm but with little skill.
• In all fairness, I don’t think we can blame her for what happened.
• In the first place, you don’t know how to dive. For another thing, you can’t
afford it.
2. Prepositional phrases as subject-complements:
• Your work is of great value.

• His opinion is of little interest to me.
3. Prepositional phrases as object-complements:
• We considered the information of little importance.

• He found the work boring and beneath his dignity.

71
Furthermore, Prepositional phrases serve three primary purposes:
1. They can modify a noun after it (post-modifier of a noun). For examples: I took
several courses in history; The local council is subsidizing the installation of energy-
saving devices.
2. They can modify an adjective after it (post-modifier of an adjective). For
examples: We were not aware of his drinking problem; I was happy with my marks
last term.
3. They can function as adverbials. For examples: After the storm, the sky brightened;
In my opinion, people behave differently in crowds.
It is possible for two or more prepositional phrases to appear together without

depending on each other. Here is an example of a sentence with three separate
prepositional phrases, each functioning independently as an adverbial:
I read stories to the children (A) at home (A) in the evening (A).
Additionally, one prepositional phrase can be nested (i.e., embedded) within another,
such as the prepositional phrase modifying the noun "variations":
There were variations in the degree of bitterness of taste.
The nesting can be illustrated as follows:
prepositional phrase in the degree of bitterness of taste

noun phrase the degree of bitterness of taste
prepositional phrase of bitterness of taste
noun phrase bitterness of taste
prepositional phrase of taste
EXERCISE
A. Point out the prepositional phrases in the following sentences, then state the
head and the complement of each prepositional phrase.
1. In the corner, on a blanket, lay a huge black cat.
2. In Britain such a thing would never have happened.
3. On behalf of my family, I would like to thank you all for your good wishes.
4. She pulled out a box from under the bed.
5. We got the car started without much trouble.

72
B. Point out each prepositional phrase in the following sentences. Each sentence
may possess more than one prepositional phrase (embedded prepositional
phrase).
1. It may come as a surprise to you that massage is mentioned in ancient Hindu
Chinese writings.
2. It is a natural therapy for aches and pains in the muscles.
3. The Swedish technique of massage emphasizes improving circulation by
manipulation.
4. Its value is recognized by many doctors.
5. Some doctors refer to massage as manipulative medicine.
6. Non-professionals can learn to give a massage, but they should be careful about
applying massage to severe muscle spasms.
7. The general rule is that what feels good to you will feel good to others.
8. A warm room, a comfortable table, and a bottle of oil are the main requirements.
9. The amount of pressure you can apply depends on the pain threshold of the
person on the table.
10. You can become addicted to massages.
C. Determine the purpose of each underlined phrase that describes an adverb by

writing the correct abbreviation in the brackets next to it.
pN (post-modifier of a noun)
pAdj (post-modifier of an adjective)
A (adverbial)
1. Politicians in the United States must raise large sums of money ( ) if they want to
get elected.
2. A candidate can no longer win with little campaign money ( ).
3. Candidates are keenly aware of the need for huge financial contributions ( ).
4. They need the money to employ staff and for the frequent advertisement they
run on television ( ).
5. In recent campaigns ( ), television advertisements have been quite belligerent.

73

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EACH PART WILL CONSIST OF A GROUP OF EXERCISES.

AT THE END OF THE BOOK,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Part 1: Grammatical Categories

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Proper nouns Common nouns

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Singular: The mouse was caught by the cat

Article a or an is used in a different, identical environment. If the words are

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

On the other hand, non-count or non-countable nouns can be counted by adding

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

However, many noncount nouns can be counted by adding predictable quantifiers to

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Table 1. Four Principles of English Verb

FOUR PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH VERBS

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Table 3. Verb "Be" in the Present Tense

“Be” in the Present-Tense

Table 4. Verb "Be" in the Past Tense

“Be” in the Past-Tense

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

“Be” in the Future-Tense

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs and direct object

Anthony has been photographing light bulbs lately.

To analyze, let’s break that sentence through the questions as follows.

Another way to identify whether a verb is transitive or not is by turning an active

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Intransitive verbs and adverbials

[ACTIVE] The protestors were demonstrating outside the White House.

[1] John is walking on the pitch.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Modal Auxiliary / Helping Verbs

To be : am, are, is, was, were

You may leave after completing the task.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Subject Verb Examples

He; She; It Is He is my English teacher;

Table 8. Rules of SV Agreement for Present Tense

Subject Verb Examples

He; She; It Basic Verb + ies/-s He washes his car

Base form: 3rd-person singular present tense:

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Base form: 3rd-person singular present tense:

Base form: 3rd-person singular present tense:

Base form: 3rd-person singular present tense:

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Base form Past-tense form

Here is the form of past tense for all pronouns:

Table 9. Subject-Verb Agreement for Past Tense

Pronoun Past-tense form Example

Base form Past-tense form

Base form Past-tense form

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES

Base form Past-tense form

Base form Past-tense form

Irregular past tenses

Base form Past-tense form

ENGLISH GRAMMAR COURSEBOOK 1: WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES