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org/EF Article

Perovskite-CIGS Monolithic Tandem Solar Cells with 29.7%

Efficiency: A Numerical Study
Nikhil Shrivastav, Savita Kashyap, Jaya Madan,* Ali K. Al-Mousoi, Mustafa K. A. Mohammed,*
M. Khalid Hossain, Rahul Pandey,* and Jeyakumar Ramanujam

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ABSTRACT: Tandem solar cells have higher efficiency than single-junction devices
owing to their wide photon absorption range. A wide band gap (Eg) absorber absorbs the
higher-energy photons in the top cell. In contrast, a comparatively low band gap absorber
material is utilized in the bottom cell to absorb the filtered low-energy photons.
Consequently, thermalization and transparent energy losses are overshadowed by the top
subcell (Topsc) and the bottom subcell (Bottomsc), respectively. However, to achieve the
best efficiency from a tandem design, the choice of active material in the Topsc and the
Bottomsc plays an important role. Therefore, in this proposed study, a tandem solar cell
comprising a perovskite (Eg 1.68 eV)-based top cell and a copper indium gallium
selenide (CIGS, Eg 1.1 eV)-based Bottomsc has been designed and analyzed. A state-of-
the-art Me-4PACz ([4-(3,6-dimethyl-9H-carbazol-9-yl)butyl] phosphonic acid) hole
transport layer (HTL) in the perovskite solar cell reported in the previous literature has
been considered for the top cell, whereas a calibrated CIGS-based Bottomsc with 16.50%
efficiency is designed. Both the Topsc and the Bottomsc are examined for the tandem configuration using filtered spectra and current-
matching techniques. In perovskite/CIGS tandem design, an ideal tunnel recombination junction uses Me-4PACz and ITO layers.
In a tandem configuration with matched current density at an absorber thickness of 347 nm for Topsc and 2.0 μm for Bottomsc, the
device delivered an open-circuit voltage (VOC), current density (JSC), and fill factor (FF) of 1.92 V, 20.04 mA/cm2, and 77%,
respectively, resulting in an overall power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 29.7%. The results reported in this work would be
beneficial for the development of perovskite-CIGS-based monolithic tandem solar cells in the future.

1. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing costs associated with commercialized crystalline
silicon (c-Si)-based technology is the main hindrance to the
widespread adoption of photovoltaic (PV) cells. Conventional
c-Si wafer-based PV devices require high-quality materials and
an expensive manufacturing process that increases the per-watt
cost of electricity. Therefore, researchers started exploring non-
Si-based thin-film PV cells owing to their potential in the PV
market. Low-cost, high-efficiency, simple fabrication techni-
ques, and device architecture are the primary requirements for
large-scale PV applications.1−8 However, inevitable charge
carrier thermalization and nonabsorption photon losses are the
main problems in single-junction devices. Therefore, to
diminish these issues, tandem solar cells (TSCs) are employed
in the PV industry to increase the efficiency by reducing the
abovementioned losses, proving to be a promising ap-
proach.1,9−13 In the TSC architecture, two or more solar
cells are stacked one over the other to ensure efficient
spectrum utilization to minimize thermalization and non-
absorbed photon losses simultaneously. The cells are placed in
descending order of band gaps. Higher band gap subcells use
the lower wavelength photons and allow the optical coupling of
higher wavelength photons to the low band gap subcells. The
theoretical efficiency limit for a two-junction (two-terminal
and four-terminal) TSC with a band gap of both subcells is
given in Figure 1.
Various types of semiconductor materials such as perov-
skites, CIGS, amorphous silicon (a-Si:H), and polycrystalline
cadmium telluride (CdTe) are used as absorbers for high-
efficiency tandem devices.15−22 The configuration of TSCs is
further divided mainly into two different categories, two-
terminal monolithic and four-terminal mechanically stacked. In
a mechanically stacked configuration, the cells are fabricated
separately with individual collecting electrodes and are further
connected electrically with the help of an external circuit. This
configuration restricts electrode selection for the Topsc. Three
transparent electrodes are required to ensure sufficient optical
Received: November 23, 2022
Revised: January 21, 2023
Published: February 7, 2023

© 2023 American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c03973

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Figure 1. Efficiency limit for two-junction TSCs with respect to the Topsc and Bottomsc energy band gap under the AM 1.5G spectrum.
Reproduced with permission from ref 14. Copyright 2007 John Wiley and Sons.

Table 1. Electrical Parameters Used during Simulations25,26,30,32−41a

top cell bottom cell
properties TL1 TL2 TL3 TL4 TL5 BL1 BL2 BL3 BL4
band gap (eV) 3.5 3.6 1.7 1.67 3.3 3.6 3.2 2.4 1.1
electron affinity (eV) 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 2.8 4.1 4.4 4.4 4.5
dielectric constant 10 9 6 10 10 10 9 10 13.6
conduction band effective density 1 × 1019 2.2 × 1019 1 × 1019 1 × 1019 1 × 1019 2.2 × 1019 3.1 × 1018 2 × 1018 2.2 × 1018
(/cm3)
valence band effective density 1 × 1019 1.8 × 1019 1 × 1019 1 × 1019 1 × 1019 1.8 × 1019 1.7 × 1019 1.8 × 1019 1.8 × 1019
(/cm3)
electron mobility (cm2/Vs) 1 × 10−2 100 50 20 6 50 100 100 100
hole mobility (cm2/Vs) 1 × 10−3 25 50 2 24 75 31 25 25
donor doping density (ND /cm3) 1 × 1018 1 × 1018 1 × 1018 1 × 1016 0 1 × 1019 1 × 1019 1 × 107 0
acceptor doping density (NA /cm3) 0 0 0 0 1 × 1018 0 0 0 2 × 1016
a
Here, top layers TL1, TL2, TL3, TL4, and TL5 and bottom layers BL1, BL2, BL3, and BL4 refer to IZO, SnO2, C60, perovskite, and Me-4PACz
and ITO, ZnO, CdS, and CIGS, respectively.

coupling in the Topsc and the Bottomsc.23 In the second
configuration, which is monolithic, the entire device is
designed utilizing layer-by-layer deposition, and a tunnel
recombination junction or current-matching layer for the
current matching between both subcells facilitates the
structure. Therefore, monolithic TSCs require fewer electro-
des, fewer auxiliary electronics, and fewer interconnections like
transparent conducting layers and electric wires.23
Monolithic perovskite/silicon TSCs have been reported with
experimental efficiency between 21.4 and 29.15%.23−26 Si-
based tandem designs were used to enhance efficiency in the
PV industry.26−28 However, Si-based tandem devices require
high-quality thick Si wafers resulting in higher costs. The
production cost is reduced using an alternate tandem design
involving a CIGS-based cell over glass as the bottom cell
(instead of Si) and a perovskite-based cell as the top cell. A
two-terminal perovskite/CIGS TSC with 10.9% efficiency was
reported in 2015.14 Using a semitransparent n-i-p structure, a
PCE of 18.6% was obtained.23 Fu et al.24 demonstrated a
perovskite-CIGS tandem device with 20.5% efficiency. Later in
2017, Wu et al.9 reported monolithic perovskite/Si-based
TSCs with 22% efficiency. Earlier in 2020, Al-Ashouri et al.26
3084
reported a monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem with a
validated 29.15% efficiency. Recently, different materials and
techniques have been employed to improve the device’s
performance, whereas mechanically stacked perovskite/CIGS-
based TSC with 23.9% efficiency was reported to reduce
oxygen sensitivity. Efficiency data show that perovskite/CIGS
tandem devices require further attention to improve efficiency
by reducing electrical and optical losses. Despite various
experimental and theoretical studies for the perovskite-CIGS
TSCs, perovskites with a high-quality Me-4PACz layer as the
HTL26 in the top cell have not been utilized till now in the
literature. Therefore, in this research, while designing the
perovskite-CIGS tandem device, the Me-4PACz layer as the
HTL is considered for perovskite Topsc to ensure enhanced
hole extraction from the Topsc.
The focus of the proposed work is to design low-cost,
tunable band gap, and highly efficient tandem devices. Here,
we have considered two different absorber materials to utilize
the power spectrum efficiently: perovskite (1.68 eV) for the
top cell and CIGS (1.1 eV) for the bottom cell. All of the
numerical studies are done with SCAPS-1D software, and the
results are inferred in terms of PV parameters such as current
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c03973
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Energy & Fuels
density−voltage (J−V) and external quantum efficiency (EQE)
curves. Initially, a calibrated perovskite top cell is considered
from our previous work,25 and the CIGS (1.1 eV) bottom cell
is designed/simulated and also calibrated in the standalone
configuration according to the published literature.29 After-
ward, the tandem solar device is designed by integrating both
subcells depending upon the current-matched conditions
between both subcells. The thickness variation of both subcells
is determined to optimize tandem device performance. Details
of the device simulation are described in Section 2, followed by
results and discussion in Section 3.
2. DEVICE STRUCTURE AND SIMULATION
METHODOLOGY
One-dimensional SCAPS-1D software program designs and
simulates the two-terminal monolithically stacked perovskite/
CIGS tandem device. Here, two distinct materials, such as
perovskite with a Eg of 1.68 eV and CIGS of 1.1 eV, are used
for numerical studies. The perovskite-based top cell consists of
IZO (60 nm)/SnO2 (20 nm)/C60 (20 nm)/perovskite (350
nm)/Me-4PACz (1 nm) as reported in refs 25, 26 and bottom
cell comprises of ITO (60 nm)/ZnO (50 nm)/CdS (50 nm)/
CIGS (0.5 to 5000 nm). In the Topsc, the perovskite layer acts
as an absorber to absorb the high-energy photons. Similarly,
the Bottomsc uses the CIGS layer to absorb the low-energy
photons. Both subcells are connected through an intermediate
layer of ITO (60 nm) to provide the current matching for the
tandem configurations. An ideal tunnel recombination junction
(TRJ) layer is considered, which ignores optoelectronic losses
such as parasitic absorption and resistive losses associated with
recombination junction. Further, in the bottom cell, ZnO (50
nm) is used as an electron transport layer, and the CdS layer
acts as a buffer layer to increase the absorption of light in the
visible region. All of the electrical properties for simulations are
mentioned in Table 1, and all of the properties for
consideration of interface defects are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Properties For All of the Interface Defects for Top
and Bottom Cells35,42,43
bottom cell
interface
top cell interface defects defects
IZO/ SnO2/ C60/ ITO/ ZnO/ CdS/
properties SnO2 C60 perovskite ZnO CdS CIGS
type of defect neutral
capture cross section 1 × 10−19 1 × 10−15
electrons and holes
(cm2)
energy level (eV) 0.6
reference for defect beyond the maximum Ev
energy level (Et)
total density (1/cm2) 10
Optical properties for top and bottom subcells have been
obtained from previous studies.21,26,36,37 The schematic
diagram for the proposed device for standalone and tandem
simulations is provided in Figure 2a−d. The standalone
configuration for the Topsc and the Bottomsc is depicted in
Figure 2a,b, where the standard AM 1.5G spectrum has been
utilized for the simulations. The strategy for the simulation of
series-connected monolithic TSCs by utilizing a filtered
spectrum and current-matching approach is shown in Figure
2c,d.
pubs.acs.org/EF Article
Initially, CIGS-based solar cells’ calibration in the standalone
condition is performed according to the published liter-
ature.29,30 After that, an analysis of the tandem configuration
was done by employing both subcells. In TSCs, the AM 1.5G is
utilized to simulate the Topsc and the Bottomsc using the
filtered spectrum obtained from the Topsc. The filtered
spectrum for variation in top cell thickness is calculated
using the given equation31
ÄÅ 5 ÉÑ
ÅÅÅ ÑÑÑ
T ( ) = T0( )expÅÅÅ ( k( )·tk)ÑÑÑ
ÅÅ ÑÑ
ÅÇ k = 1 ÑÖ
where k is 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 for the five different layers of the top
cell, α is the absorption coefficient of respective materials of a
top cell, and t is the material thickness.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The ongoing section is divided into two different subsections.
Section 3.1 presents the calibration, optimization, and detailed
standalone CIGS-based Bottomsc analysis. Further, Section 3.2
describes the analysis of tandem device performance by
utilizing the perovskite Topsc and CIGS Bottomsc.
3.1. Calibration and Analysis of the CIGS Bottom Cell
under the Standalone Configuration. The calibration and
analysis of CIGS-based bottom cells have been performed
under the standalone configuration as per published exper-
imental data.29 Here, the CIGS layer-based absorber layer is
used to absorb the incoming photons. The CIGS bottom cell is
calibrated at 2.3 μm, and the corresponding simulated PV
parameters and J−V curve of the calibrated device have been
attained and given in Figure 3a. The simulated J−V trend
agrees with experimental data.29 Further, the EQE for the
calibrated CIGS bottom cell is also attained and depicted in
Figure 3b. From Figure 3b, it is noticed that the EQE trend is
decreasing owing to front-surface recombination at a lower
wavelength, and the reduction at a higher wavelength is due to
low diffusion length, less absorption, and rear-surface
recombination losses. Therefore, a maximum EQE response,
in the range of 90−80%, has been observed between 400 nm
and 900 nm. Afterward, the calibrated and simulated
performance was compared for the CIGS bottom cell and
shown in Table 3.
After calibrating the bottom cell, the CIGS absorber layer
thickness is varied from 0.5 to 5 μm and the J−V, EQE, and PV
parameters are obtained as shown in Figures 4a,b and 5. The
J−V curve shows an increase in current density due to higher
photon absorption up to a 2.3 μm thick absorber layer.
Thereafter, a saturation of current density was observed for the
thickness beyond 2.3 μm. VOC increases as the thickness is
increased from 0.5 to 2.3 μm and shows saturation thereafter.
Increasing the absorber thickness produced more electron−
hole pair generation due to increased light absorption in the
absorber. It further resulted in the better splitting of quasi-
Fermi levels in the absorber layer, which improved the JSC and
VOC. After 2.3 μm, saturation in absorption yields saturation in
both VOC and JSC. The optical performance in terms of EQE is
also studied while increasing the thickness. The high-energy
(low wavelength) photons are generally absorbed at the surface
of the absorber layer, while the low-energy (high wavelength)
photons penetrate deep inside to get absorbed. Thus, the
impact of thickness is only visible for high-wavelength photons,
while the absorption of low-wavelength photons is insignif-
icantly impacted by thickness variation.
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Figure 2. (a) Top cell and (b) bottom cell under the standalone configuration. (c) Strategy for tandem simulation using SCAPS-1D and (d)
schematic view of a two-terminal perovskite-CIGS-based tandem device, where the top cell is illuminated by the standard AM 1.5 spectrum and
filtered spectrum produced by the Topsc is transmitted to the Bottomsc for complete device simulations.

Figure 3. (a) J−V curve of the calibrated CIGS bottom cell under light conditions as per experimental data.29 (b) EQE curve.

Table 3. Comparison of Calibrated and Simulated PV with an increase of thickness from 0.5 to 2.3 μm, as shown in
Parameters of the CIGS Bottom Cell under the Standalone Figure 4b. After that, a marginal improvement in EQE was
Configuration obtained beyond 2.3 μm thickness due to absorption
saturation in the absorber layer.
PV parameters JSC (mA/cm2) VOC (V) FF (%) PCE (%)
Figure 5 depicts the impact of different thickness variations
calibrated 33.51 0.66 74.20 16.50
of the CIGS layer on PV parameters. It shows an increase in
simulated 35.98 0.64 70.51 16.26
JSC from 33.99 to 35.98 mA/cm2 and an increase in VOC from
0.628 to 0.641 V. After that, no significant change was
From the results, it is noticed that a large number of photons observed. A marginal improvement in fill factor (FF) was
are absorbed in the absorber layer, resulting in higher EQE obtained from 70.24 to 70.51%. The overall impact of JSC, VOC,

Figure 4. Impact of different CIGS thicknesses from 0.5 to 5 μm on (a) EQE and (b) J−V of the bottom cell under the standalone configuration.

3086 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c03973
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Figure 5. Influence of different thickness variations from 0.5 to 2.5
μm on CIGS bottom cell PV parameters.
and FF has been observed in PCE, where the increase in
efficiency is obtained from 15.0 to 16.26% with the increase of
thickness from 0.5 to 2.3 μm, and it saturates beyond 2.3 μm as
that of JSC and VOC. Therefore, the optimized PV parameters of
JSC = 35.98 mA/cm2, VOC = 0.64 V, FF = 70.51%, and PCE =
16.26% have been achieved at an optimized absorber thickness
of 2.3 μm.
3.2. Analysis of Two-Terminal Stacked Perovskite/
CIGS Tandem Solar Cells. After the calibration and
optimization of CIGS bottom cells, we represent the analysis
of two-terminal stacked perovskite/CIGS-based TSCs. In a
tandem device, both subcells are connected in series via a
tunnel recombination junction (TRJ) layer to satisfy the
current-matching condition mentioned in refs 44, 45.
However, the TRJ layer is not supported by SCAPS-1D
software in this work. Therefore, this work utilizes a widely
adopted filtered spectrum and a current-matching approach to
make the tandem J−V curve.10,31,46−49 For current matching,
thickness variation of the bottom cell is done from 0.5 to 5 μm
along with thickness variation of the top cell from 50 to 1000
nm. Simultaneously, JSC values corresponding to the top and
bottom cell thickness are obtained from the current-matching
curve, as depicted in Figure 5. It is noteworthy that the JSC
values for the top cell are obtained under the standard AM
1.5G spectrum, and for the bottom cell, JSC is obtained by
simulating the Bottomsc under the filtered spectrum by the
Topsc. It has been observed that there is an improvement in
current-matched JSC up to the first four current-matching
points (Figure 6) and it becomes constant after that.
Therefore, only four current-matching points in terms of
top/bottom cell thickness have been considered, such as 282
nm/0.5 μm, 318 nm/1.0 μm, 334 nm/1.5 μm, and 347 nm/2.0
μm.
Further, individual J−V curves for top, bottom, and tandem
cells have been obtained with the help of the scripting feature
of SCAPS-1D.25 The first four current-matching points are
chosen to obtain the J−V curves, as given in Figure 7a−d. The
obtained results represent that the voltage drop across the TSC
is the sum of the voltage drop across both subcells individually.
All of the devices showed similar JSC, which validates the
successful current-matching scenario as given in Figure 7a−d.
Furthermore, output parameters of the tandem cell at four
pubs.acs.org/EF Article
Figure 6. Short-circuit current density at the different bottom and top
cell thicknesses for current matching.
different current-matching points corresponding to both
subcell thickness are also obtained and given in Figure 8.
The results show an increase in tandem device performance via
increasing the optimized current-matching points. Quantita-
tively, an increase in JSC from 19.38 → 19.9 → 20.09 → 20.18
mA/cm2 is achieved while increasing the top/bottom cell
thickness from 282 nm/0.5 μm → 318 nm/1 μm → 334 nm/
1.5 μm → 347 nm/2 μm. Similarly, VOC increases from 1.89 →
1.89 → 1.90 → 1.92 V at the same thickness variations.
Further, the impact of all four thicknesses has been studied on
FF, which also increases from 73.57 → 76.02 → 76.8 →
77.14%. From all results, it has been observed that the
maximum PCE of 29.72% has been achieved at the top/
bottom cell thickness of 347 nm/2.0 μm. In summary, a
29.72% efficiency perovskite/CIGS tandem device with JSC =
20.04 mA/cm2, VOC = 1.92 V, and FF = 77% is obtained.
After optimizing both subcells’ thickness per current-
matching conditions, individual J−V curves of the top cell
(under AM 1.5G), the bottom cell (under AM 1.5G, and
filtered spectrum by the top cell), and TSC are obtained and
present in Figure 9. It is perceived from Figure 9 that the Topsc
delivers less current than the Bottomsc in the standalone
configuration and acts as a current-limiting cell. Therefore, the
final JSC of the tandem device is equal to the JSC of the current-
limiting top cell, i.e., 20.04 mA/cm2, and VOC is 1.92 V, which
is the sum of a voltage drop across the top/bottom cell. All of
the optimized PV parameters of all simulated devices are
tabulated in Table 4.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, a monolithic two-terminal perovskite/CIGS-
based TSC with 29.72% efficiency is designed and simulated
using SCAPS-1D software. A calibrated perovskite top cell (Eg
of 1.67 eV) has been invoked from the previous literature,
while a CIGS-based Bottomsc (Eg of 1.1 eV) is analyzed,
calibrated, and optimized under standalone conditions. The
calibrated Bottomsc showed 16.26% conversion efficiency at an
absorber layer thickness of 2.3 μm. Further, both subcells are
coupled in series to make the TSC with the filtered spectrum
and the current-matching approach. The AM 1.5G spectrum is
used for the Topsc, and the Bottomsc is simulated using the
filtered spectrum obtained by the Topsc. The tandem device
under consideration showed JSC = 20.04 mA/cm2, VOC = 1.92
V, FF = 77%, and PCE = 29.72% at optimized thicknesses of
347 nm and 2.0 μm in the Topsc and the Bottomsc,
respectively. The main limitation of the adopted filtered
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Figure 7. Illuminated J−V curves of the top, bottom, and tandem solar device at a different optimized current-matching thickness of the Topsc and
the Bottomsc: (a) 282 nm/0.5 μm, (b) 318 nm/1 μm, (c) 334 nm/1.5 μm, and (d) 347 nm/2 μm.

Figure 9. Illuminated J−V curves of the Topsc and the Bottomsc in the
standalone, tandem, and the bottom cell under a filtered spectrum.
Figure 8. Improved PV parameters of TSCs at an optimized Topsc Table 4. Optimized Performance of the Topsc and the
and Bottomsc thickness of 347 nm and 2.0 μm, respectively. The
maximum device performance is obtained at the optimized current-
Bottomsc in the Standalone Configuration and the Tandem
matching thickness of 347 nm (top cell)/2.0 μm (bottom cell). Configuration
VOC JSC PCE
device (V) (mA/cm2) FF (%) (%)
topsc (perovskite thickness 347 nm) 1.28 20.04 79.87 20.58
spectrum approach is that it ignores the interfacial reflection bottomsc (CIGS thickness 2.0 μm) 0.64 35.90 70.52 16.20
losses and interference effects. The transfer matrix method bottomsc under filtered light 0.62 20.00 69.48 8.61
spectrum by topsc (perovskite
(TMM) can be used in the future to calculate a more accurate 347 nm)
filtered spectrum. The reported research work may open the perovskite-CIGS monolithic TSC | 1.92 20.04 77.00 29.72
top (perovskite 347 nm)/bottom
path for further advancement in low-cost and high-efficiency (CIGS thickness 2 μm)

perovskite-CIGS tandem devices.

3088 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c03973
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Energy & Fuels
■ ASSOCIATED CONTENT
Data Availability Statement
Data will be available upon reasonable request from the
corresponding author R.P.
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Authors
Jaya Madan − VLSI Centre of Excellence, Chitkara University
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Rajpura, Punjab 140401, India; Email: jaya.madan@
chitkara.edu.in
Mustafa K. A. Mohammed − Radiological Techniques
Department, Al-Mustaqbal University College, Hillah,
Babylon 51001, Iraq; orcid.org/0000-0002-1850-6355;
Email: mustafa.kareem@uomus.edu.iq
Rahul Pandey − VLSI Centre of Excellence, Chitkara
University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara
University, Rajpura, Punjab 140401, India; orcid.org/
0000-0001-7766-3572; Email: rahul.pandey@
chitkara.edu.in
Authors
Nikhil Shrivastav − VLSI Centre of Excellence, Chitkara
University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara
University, Rajpura, Punjab 140401, India
Savita Kashyap − VLSI Centre of Excellence, Chitkara
University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara
University, Rajpura, Punjab 140401, India
Ali K. Al-Mousoi − Department of Radiology and
Ultrasonography Techniques, College of Medical Techniques,
Al-Farahidi University, Baghdad 10011, Iraq; orcid.org/
0000-0002-7771-3581
M. Khalid Hossain − Institute of Electronics, Atomic Energy
Research Establishment, Bangladesh Atomic Energy
Commission, Dhaka 1349, Bangladesh
Jeyakumar Ramanujam − Materials and Devices Division,
CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi 110 012,
India
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c03973
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
This article does not contain any studies with human
participants or animals performed by the authors.
We comply with ethical standards.
All the authors gave consent to publish.
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