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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Received on 9th June 2011
Revised on 15th September 2011
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439

ISSN 1751-8687

Algorithm for single phase-to-ground fault digital

distance relay
Lj.M. Popović
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11020 Belgrade, Serbia
E-mail: ljubivoje@beotel.net

Abstract: The value of the potential that appears at the fault location during a ground fault at a high-voltage overhead line
depends on many different factors and cannot be considered as an a priori known quantity. Owing to this, the influence of
this quantity on the current and voltage measured at one of the line terminals is also unknown so the fault distance cannot be
exactly calculated, and as a final consequence, the relay may operate undesirably. It could happen especially in the case of
the relatively short lines such as those in sub-transmission systems. The development of the proposed algorithm is based on
the complete transmission line model under ground-fault conditions that include ground-fault current component coming from
the remote end. The proposed algorithm has been tested using the simulated current data. Sample test results have also been
presented in this study.

1 Introduction technique [5] utilises conventional power line

Protection distance relays (DIRs) detect faults at high-voltage
overhead lines and initiate tripping of appropriate circuit
breakers to isolate the faulted zone from the rest of the
power system reliably and as fast as possible. Fault
detection and locations methods that have been proposed
and implemented so far can be broadly classified as those
using the power frequency phasors in the past fault duration
[1 – 10], using differential equation of the line and
estimating the line parameters [11 – 13] and using travelling
waves including travelling wave protection systems [14 –
17]. The problem is successfully overcome if synchronised
measurements are available at each line terminal [18].
Unfortunately, some lines are not equipped with the
protective devices at both terminals, and the existing system
upgrade may not be economically justified.
Most of the distant relay algorithms are based on the
computation of the post-fault, fundamental frequency voltages
and currents measured at one of the transmission line
terminals. However, these algorithms need some simplifying
assumptions to permit fault distance calculations. For example,
the algorithm proposed in [1] completely disregarded potential
appearing at the fault place. Since potential at the fault place
can be significant (several kV), the distant relay may see the
fault in another protective zone and causes a non-selective
tripping of the adjacent circuit section.
In recent decades rapid developments in microelectronics
technology have enabled substantial progress with research
in the area of power transmission line protection leading to
a new concept in the area of transmission lines protection.
One of them is the so-called non-communication protection
that implies unit protection of transmission lines without the
need for communication links. The first such protection
communication line traps and high-voltage capacitors of
capacitor voltage transformers (CVTs). The line traps
confine the fault-generated high-frequency transient signals
to the protection zone, where they are then captured by the
high-frequency voltage detectors. However, this technique
requires line traps at both ends of the protected line, which
unavoidably increases the costs and limits the application of
this technique. The non-communication is achieved by the
detection of whether or not the system is in a balanced
operation, to identify the breaker operation at remote end of
the protection section, from which the fault position (inside
or outside of the protected section) can be determined [19].
However, this technique also has limited application. It
cannot be applied in cases of radial sub-transmission
systems where the circuit breakers are installed only at the
beginning of the lines. Another approach for overcoming
the problem is based on a specific improvement of the
conventional algorithm for calculating zone-2 setting [8].
Also, an attempt to achieve this goal is described in [6].
Recent papers [9, 10] suggest the usage of fault resistance
estimation in distance relaying.
The algorithm presented in this paper uses a priori
determined (calculated or measured) value of grounding
impedance at the border between zone-1 and zone-2 and the
results of an a priori made ground-fault current analysis. It
enables the operation of distant relay without causing
coordination problems characteristic in the cases of
relatively short radial sub-transmission systems. Also, the
proposed algorithm considers particular fault type, so-called
‘line-to ground with broken conductor fault’, which is not
the case with algorithms given in [9, 10].
This paper is a logical continuation of the investigation
presented in publications [2 – 4, 20]. The proposed

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algorithm calculates the distance to the fault location by using
fundamental frequency voltage and current from one terminal
of the transmission line. The technique necessary for
obtaining corresponding phasors for these magnitudes at the
moment of the fault is described in detail in [7].
2 Basic problem description
Let us assume one transmission and one distribution network
with directly grounded neutrals and connected by the single
circuit line. DIR detects the faults and initiates tripping of
the circuit breaker to isolate fault.
For single-line-ground fault occurring anywhere along the
line, the electrical circuits established during the fault may be
schematically presented as shown in Fig. 1.
The notation used in the given circuit has the following
meaning:
TN (DN) – transmission (distribution) network
F – fault place
d – distance to the fault place expressed in relation to the total
line length
Vf – potential at the fault place
If – total ground-fault current, or current through the fault
place
Ia , Ib – currents coming to the fault place from the
transmission and distribution network
Zf – fault impedance
Z – impedance of the faulted phase conductor.
The total ground-fault current is, according to the given
circuit, determined by the following relation
If = Ia + Ib = (Ia′ + Il ) + (Ib′ − Il ) (1)
where Ia′ , Ib′ are the components of ground-fault current
coming from the transmission and distribution network and
Il is the load current at the moment of a ground fault.
It is necessary to determine the fault place on the basis of
the quantities measurable on the left line terminal (voltage
Ua and current Ia). The single phase-to-ground fault DIR,
based on the conventional method [1], measures the
impedance to the fault location using the following algorithm
Ua
Za = (2)
Ia − (z0 − z)I0 z−1
where Ua is the relay place phase voltage, Ia is the relay place
phase current, I0 is the relay place zero-sequence current and
z, z0 are the positive- and zero-sequence line impedance per
unit length.
The impedance to the fault location can be expressed as a
multiple of positive line impedance and a line length to the
fault location. Thus, the distance to the fault location is
Fig. 1 Faulted power system
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determined by the following relation
Ua
Za = (3)
ZIa − (z0 − z)I0
However, in practice, the grounding impedance at fault place
is not negligible and is a complex function of the distance to
the fault location [2, 3, 20, 21]. Owing to this, at the fault
location, potential Vf appears with a value proportional to
the total fault current If for a certain value of the
transmission line reduction factor and for a certain value of
the fault impedance, Zf [3]. Since the fault current from the
remote end of line Ib contributes to the creation of this
potential, the DIR sees apparent impedance, which is larger
than the real impedance, (dZ + Zf ). Thus, it can be said that
this current introduces a certain deviation in the
measurement data for determination of the fault location (Va
and Ia).
For a more accurate estimation of the fault location, it is
necessary to investigate the influence of the unknown (not
available by measurements) quantities on the data obtained
by measurements. In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the
grounding impedance at fault place represents only one part
of the loop impedance measured at the relay location or in
the local station. However, in practice, this is the equivalent
impedance of the spontaneously formed and very complex
electrical circuit.
At the faulted tower, the ground-fault current leaves the
phase conductor and continues its flow through many
different paths. Owing to inductive coupling between the
phase conductors and the ground wire(s), a part of this
current circulates only through metal paths (in the line,
through the ground wire(s) and in the station, through the
grounding connections). The remaining part of the fault
current returns conductively to the power system, through
the earth via ground wire(s), through a large number of
towers and through the grounding grid of all substations
with grounded neutral point(s).
3 Apparent fault impedance
We will start our consideration by assuming that the
substations at the line terminals are the only substations
with grounded neutral(s) in the whole power system. This
means that the total ground-fault current If returns to the
power system only through the grounded neutral(s) of these
two substations (A and B in Fig. 2).
The real physical model of the transmission line under the
conditions of the ground fault at an arbitrary tower is
schematically presented in Fig. 2.
By forming the presented transmission line model, the
following idealisations and simplifications of the real
physical model were used
Fig. 2 Transmission line with ground fault
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† tower footing resistances are mutually equal and any
mutual interference to their own ground current is negligible,
† impedances of the ground wire(s) between the two
adjacent towers are mutually equal.
In order to obtain better insight into the problem, we will
consider only the elements representing the ground-fault
current return paths through the earth as shown in Fig. 3.
The notation used in the given circuits has the following
meaning:
r – reduction factor of the line
ZA(ZB) – impedance of the grounding system of the
substation A (B) which does not include the grounding
effects of the ground wire(s) of the line under consideration
Zs – self-impedance of the ground wire(s), per span
′
Zm – mutual impedance between the ground wire(s) and the
faulted phase conductor with common earth return, per span
Rt – average tower footing resistance
n – number of spans to the fault place, counted from
substation A
N – total number of spans
G – remote ground
The reduction factor of the line is determined by
Z′
 
r = 1− m (4)
Zs
′ determined by pre-calculation or by pre-measurement.
Impedances Zs and Z m can be either calculated by using
formulae based on Carson’s theory of the ground-fault
current return path [21], or measured.
Since a transmission line is usually transposed, the value of
the reduction factor varies from tower to tower. However,
these variations are limited between the values
corresponding to the closest and the farthest positions of the
phase conductor with respect to the ground wire(s).
By using the superposition principle, the potentials at
points 0 and n are determined as the sum of the potentials
that currents rI a′ , rIf and rI b′ (parts of currents If , I a′ and I b′ )
flowing through the earth, separately produce at these
places, or
V0 = V0 (rIa′ ) + V0 (rIf ) + V0 (rIb′ ) (5)
Vn = Vn (rIa′ ) + Vn (rIf ) + Vn (rIb′ ) (6)
On the basis of (5) and (6), the voltage drop on the ground-
fault current return paths can be expressed as
Un0 = Vn (rIa′ ) + Vn (rIf ) + Vn (rIb′ ) − V0 (rIa′ ) − V0 (rIf ) − V0 (rIb′ )
(7)
In practical conditions, the relations between the considered
quantities are such (ZA ≃ ZB ≪ Zn and I a′ , If ) that the
Fig. 3 Ground-fault current return paths through the earth
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potentials Vn(rI a′ ), Vn(rI b′ ), V0(rI a′ ), V0(rI b′ ) and V0(rIf ) can be
disregarded. Then we obtain
Un0 ≃ Vf = Vn (rIf ) = rIf Zn (8)
where Zn is the grounding impedance of the transmission line
ground wire at the fault place.
Impedance Zn can be determined by measurement at the
moment immediately before putting the line into operation,
or estimated by calculations [21].
Finally, the apparent (measured) impedance for the ground-
fault current return paths can be, according to Figs. 1 and 3,
expressed as
Vf
Zf a ≃ = grZn (9)
Ia
where
Ib I ′ − Il
g=1+ = 1 + b′ (10)
Ia Ia + Il
Many of the quantitative analyses already performed show
that the reduction factor r represents a complex number
with a negligible imaginary part. Its value varies along the
line in a very narrow range of values [21] and can be
When the line is not transposed, this factor has the same
value along the whole line length, but different for each of
the phase conductors because of their different specious
positions in relation to the ground wire(s).
The variations of the effective value of impedance Zn along
the line are considered in [4], whereas a quantitative analysis
of the real and the imaginary parts of this impedance is
performed in [3].
Finally, it should be said that the potential of the faulted
phase conductor at fault location Vf (Fig. 1) for certain
value of current Ia depends on the following factors: r, g
and Zn , or Zn + Ra , in the case when a fault is followed by
arc [11]. Their values for concrete transmission line depend
on the fault location and cannot be exactly determined if
the fault location is unknown.
4 Algorithm derivation
4.1 Impedance at a fault location equals Zn , or,
for arcing faults Zn + Ra
According to the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the measured
voltage, Ua , is the sum of the voltage drop in the line to the
fault place and the potential, Vf . Thus, by using (9) the
following is obtained
Ua
Zm = = dZ + grZf (11)
Ia
The notation used in the above equation has the following
meaning:
Zm is the impedance determined on the basis of the
measured quantities Ua and Ia and Z is the line impedance
determined, in accordance with [1], by the following
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expression
I0
Z = Z1 + (Z0 − Z1 )
Ia
where Z1 is the positive-sequence impedance of the entire line
and Z0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the entire line.
Impedances Z1 and Z0 can be obtained by measurement at
the moment immediately before putting the line into
operation. Thus, it can be said that impedance Z is an a
priori known line parameter.
By dividing the complex equation (11) into its real and
imaginary parts, the following two equations are obtained
Re{Zm } = dR + Re{grZf }, V
Im{Zm } = dX + Im{grZf }, V
Then, by dividing (13) with the real part of impedance Z, and
(14) with the imaginary part of this impedance, we obtain
Re{grZf }
dr = d +
R
Im{grZf }
di = d +
X
In these equations dr and di represent relative distances to the
fault location obtained by using the known Zm and Z, and by
totally ignoring the potential at the fault location (Zf ¼ 0).
These two distances are mutually different (dr = di), since,
according to the quantitative analysis [2, 3, 20], the real and
the imaginary parts of the impedances Z and Zf are
generally not proportional (R/X = Rf/Xf ). Also, because the
ratio between Re{grZf} and Im{grZf} changes from tower to
tower [3], it is realistic to assume that the proportion R/
X ¼ Re{grZf}/Im{grZf} in an actual case does not exist.
The product of g, r and Zf is an unknown quantity at the
moment of a ground fault. Nevertheless, there is something
about it that is known. The real and the imaginary parts of
this product are mutually connected by
Im{grZf } = Re{grZf } tan wf
In the given expression, wf denotes the angle between the
potential of the faulted phase conductor at fault place and
current Ia . It can be presented as
wf = wg + wr + wn
where wg is the phase angle of the coefficient g, wr is the
phase angle of the reduction factor r and wn is the phase
angle of the impedance Zn .
Finally, on the basis of (15) – (17), the following algorithm
is obtained
Xdi − Rdr tan wf
d=
X − R tan wf
or, in somewhat simpler form
Xm − Rm tan wf
d=
X − R tan wf
The effects of the numerous line and power system
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parameters including those that are, because of simpler
presentation of the real electrical circuit, disregarded in the
previous consideration are expressed only through R, X, Rm ,
(12) Xm and wf . Line parameters R and X represent a priori
known, whereas Rm and Xm represent input data that will be
obtained through the data acquisition system for each
ground fault appearing on the transmission line.
Unfortunately, the value of wf cannot be a priori known, or
obtained through the data acquisition system. However,
having in mind the task of the DIRs in a power system, the
following question arises: whether the exact location of
each fault along the line is essential for its correct
operation? The answer is negative since it suffices only that
the DIR exactly differentiates the faults occurring on zone-1
(13) from those occurring in zone-2. This goal can be achieved
with an algorithm highly accurate only for faults occurring
(14) on the border between zone-1 and zone-2 and in its vicinity.
On the basis of the quantitative analysis given in Section 5
for a concrete line, we can adopt one value for angle wf
exactly corresponding to only one of the possible power
system configurations and only to the faults on the border
between zone-1 and zone-2. In this way, all other power
(15) system configurations and all other faults along the line are
also involved, but with a certain approximation. According
to this, the algorithm (20) can be modified into
(16)
d = c1 Xm − c2 Rm (21)
Coefficients c1 and c2 represent a priori determined
parameters that can be calculated by
1
c1 = (22)
X − cR
c
c2 = (23)
X − cR
where c is the tan wf (L1), wf (L1) is the angle wf determined
for the fault at the distance L1 and adopted on the basis of
ground-fault current analysis performed for different
(17) possible power system configurations and L1 is the distance
corresponding to the foreseen end of the zone-1.
The adopted value of wf should satisfy criteria that the DIR
correctly operates for any power system configuration.
(18) 4.2 High resistance at the fault location
In some relatively rare cases the ground fault on a
transmission line appears as a consequence of accidental
contact between the phase conductor and the earth (directly,
or through some object standing on the earth, e.g. falling
down of the phase conductor). Thus, instead of impedance
Zf (Figs. 1 and 2) we have a grounding resistance of the
phase conductor at the fault place. The value of this
(19) resistance depends on many local factors and circumstances,
and varies within a very wide range from case to case.
Owing to this, the value of this resistance cannot be known
in advance. However, something about this resistance is
well known. This resistance is so large (usually above
50 V) that its value is significantly larger than the real part
(20)
of impedance Zm that can be obtained in the previous case.
On the basis of this and Figs. 1 and 3, for the identification
of this type of ground fault, the following criteria can be
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established † distribution network: Z1B ¼ 0, Z2B ¼ 0, Z0B ¼ j27 V;
† grounding impedances: ZA ≃ 0 and ZB ≃ 0.
Re{Zm } . R + Ra + |ZB | (24)
Line parameters:
dr = di (25)

The main characteristic of this type of ground fault is in the
following: the fault currents appearing because of these
ground faults are relatively small. As a consequence, these
currents cannot provoke any damages to the electrical
equipment even if they last significantly longer. Owing to
this, these ground faults could be treated as faults that occur
in the zone-2 independent of where they actually occurred.
Finally, open-circuit faults representing another type of fault
are also involved through the proposed algorithm.
5 Quantitative analysis of essential
parameters
As has been shown, angle wf consists of three separately
defined angles (18). Thus, the value of this angle can be
estimated through consideration of each of these angles
separately.
The value of the phase angle of impedance Zn(wn) in different
practical conditions is separately considered in [3]. The reason
for this is, in fact, that the values of tower footing resistance
may vary within a wide range from tower to tower, depending
on the type of soil, the ageing of the metal in the soil and the
season of the year. The quantitative analysis performed in [3]
shows the following: the different variations in the value of
the tower footing resistance, even at their extreme values,
have no significant influence on the value of the angle, wn .
Another important observation is that the so-called ‘end
effects’ influencing the effective value of grounding
impedance [2, 20], also influence the phase angle of this
impedance. However, these two influences produce effects on
the accuracy of the algorithm (20) that almost completely
cancel each other out and can practically be disregarded [3].
The most important observation based on the mentioned
quantitative analysis is: this angle can be considered as
approximately constant along the whole line length.
Having in mind the purpose of the derived algorithm it is
sufficient if the value of angle wn is obtained by
measurements (or by calculations) performed at only a
single tower located at the foreseen border between zone-1
and zone-2. Through the value of this angle, the influence
of the arc at fault location can also be taken into account. It
can be done by using the following relation
Rn + Ra
wn = arctan (26)
Xn
† phase conductor: Z1 ¼ (0.1199 + j0.4086) V/km and
Z0 ¼ (0.3242 + j1.2614) V/km in the case of steel ground
wire and Z0 ¼ (0.3005 + j0.9864) V/km in the case of
ACSR ground wire;
† total line length: 5 and 2.5 km;
† average tower footing resistance: Rt ¼ 20 V;
† average span length: 250 m;
† load current is disregarded, or: Il ¼ 0.0 [in accordance with
(10), for a radial sub-transmission systems this is the worst
case from the standpoint of algorithm accuracy];
† arc resistance: Ra ¼ 0.2 V
a. steel ground wire;
† self-impedance of ground wire, ZS ¼ (0.8750 + j0.3046)
V per span;
† reduction factor of the line with steel ground wire,
r ¼ 0.963 2 j0.065
b. ACSR ground wire;
† self-impedance of ground wire, ZS ¼ (0.0896 + j0.1820) V
per span;
† reduction factor of the line with ACSR ground wire,
r ¼ 0.669 2 j0.091.
The values of the equivalent impedances substituting
the transmission and distribution network correspond to
the prevailing power system operation conditions. The
necessary calculations are performed by using the analytical
procedure presented in [21].
The calculation results obtained by using the given relevant
data in the case of a line with steel ground wire are presented
in Tables 1 and 2.
On the basis of the results presented in the given tables, it is
evident that the value of angle wg changes along the line
within a very narrow range of values. The remarkable
changes of the power system configuration expressed
through the value of the reactance X0A or X0B also have no
greater influence on the value of this angle at any fault
location along the line.
It is also important to note that these variations are smaller
when the line is shorter. On the basis of the given data, it is
Table 1 Values of angle wg along the line of 5 km in gradients (8)
X0A , V X0B , V d
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

The value of the phase angle of the reduction factor can be 2.1 27 0.23 20.43 21.17 22.01 22.97 24.08
treated as constant along the entire line length [20]. 6.3 27 0.62 20.04 20.78 21.62 22.58 23.69
Generally, the value of wg varies along the line and depends 2.1 54 0.08 20.35 20.82 21.32 21.85 22.43
on power system configuration at the moment the fault occurs.
The power system situation where this parameter has abrupt
changes is caused by different faults mainly short circuits that Table 2 Values of angle wg along the line of 2.5 km in gradients (8)
can be appeared at any time and anywhere in a power
system. The variations of this parameter we will consider in X0A , V X0B , V d
the case of the 110 kV line shown in Fig. 1. The necessary
relevant data are as follows: 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

2.1 27 0.15 20.26 20.75 21.24 21.82 22.35

Power system: 6.3 27 0.41 0.02 20.49 20.97 21.55 22.10
† transmission network: Z1A ¼ j4.3 V, Z2A ¼ j4.3 V, 2.1 54 0.05 20.20 20.47 20.74 21.04 21.16
Z0A ¼ j2.1 V;

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not difficult to show that the value of angle wg in the case of the Table 5 Steel ground wire and faults with arc
lines with ACSR ground wire also changes in the similar limits.
Line length 2.5 km, or N ¼ 10

6 Testing algorithm Rt , V ds grZf , V Zm , V d

20 0.60 2.4162 + j0.2635 2.6982 + j1.3028 0.5996

The proposed algorithm for ground-fault detection was tested
0.70 2.2843 + j0.2412 0.6133 + j1.4537 0.6949
using computer simulations. The faults were simulated in the
0.80 1.9697 + j0.2154 2.3457 + j1.6005 0.8000
case of the 110 kV line with data that are given in the previous
0.90 1.3156 + j0.1067 1.7386 + j1.6657 0.8779
section.
1.00 1.2540 2 j0.0104 0.7240 + j1.7217 0.9773
The adopted values of the average span length and average
tower footing resistance ensure a high participation of the
fault impedance in the value of measured impedance, Zm .
Thus, the influence of variations in the value of wf on the
accuracy of the proposed algorithm should be highly Table 6 ACSR ground wire and faults with arc
manifested through the results of testing. Due to this, the Line length 2.5 km, or N ¼ 10
adopted testing conditions are certainly more severe than
ones that can be encountered in practice. Rt , V ds grZfa , V Zm , V d
The necessary values of the parameters, wn and wg , are
20 0.60 0.4668 + j0.2809 0.7369 + j1.1827 0.6457
adopted to be equal to the corresponding values of these
0.70 0.4444 + j0.2470 0.7596 + j1.2991 0.7277
angles obtained for the fault on the distance that is equal to
0.80 0.4230 + j0.2012 0.7832 + j1.4036 0.8000
80% of the total line length. Certainly, such selection should
0.90 0.3411 + j0.1110 0.7463 + j1.4637 0.8603
ensure the highest degree of accuracy where such accuracy is
1.00 0.2489 2 j0.0100 0.6992 + j1.4930 0.9003
most desirable. This is at the foreseen end of zone-1, or at
the foreseen beginning of zone-2. Then, the results of the
numerical simulations were used as inputs for the proposed
algorithm. Afterwards the outputs of the algorithms were
tested by comparison with the corresponding distances of Table 7 Calculated fault distance; line length 5 km
simulated ground faults, ds . Even more important calculation X0A , V
results are presented in Tables 3–6.
The influence of the changes in the configuration of the Steel ground wire
transmission and distribution network on the algorithm 27 0.6899 0.7492 0.8058 0.8632 0.9178
accuracy has been separately considered. For this purpose it ACSR ground wire
was assumed that the reactance, X0A , has three times greater 27 0.7018 0.7499 0.7977 0.8402 0.8770
value, and, in the other case, that the resistance Z0B has two
times greater value. These changes cause variations in the
calculated fault distances for the faults simulated at towers
number 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 (longer line), as well as at
the towers number: 6, 7, 8, 9 and at the line end (shorter Table 8 Calculated fault distance; line length 5 km
line), as is shown in Tables 7 – 10. X0B , V
As can be seen, a high degree of accuracy is obtained for all
considered lines and for all the considered fault locations. Steel ground wire
54 0.6933 0.7596 0.8132 0.8693 0.9458
ACSR ground wire
Table 3 Steel ground wire and faults with arc 54 0.7046 0.7535 0.8025 0.8467 0.8862

Line length 5 km, or N ¼ 20

Rt , V ds grZf , V Zm , V d
Table 9 Calculated fault distance; line length 2.5 km
20 0.70 2.7976 + j0.2132 3.4556 + j2.6382 0.6857
0.75 2.7079 + j0.2314 3.4129 + j2.8296 0.7436 X0B , V
0.80 2.5787 + j0.2409 3.3307 + j3.0124 0.8000 Steel ground wire
0.85 2.3465 + j0.2433 3.1455 + j3.1880 0.8571 27 0.6069 0.7012 0.8229 0.8792 0.9178
0.90 1.9540 + j0.2235 2.8000 + j3.3414 0.9121 ACSR ground wire
27 0.6539 0.7317 0.8020 0.8672 0.8890

Table 4 ACSR ground wire and faults with arc

Line length 5 km, or N ¼ 20

Table 10 Calculated fault distance; line length 2.5 km
Rt , V ds grZf , V Zm , V d
X0B , V
20 0.70 0.6740 + j0.3949 1.3040 + j2.4991 0.7045
0.75 0.6321 + j0.3680 1.3075 + j2.6225 0.7532 Steel ground wire
0.80 0.5786 + j0.3295 1.2990 + j2.7931 0.8000 54 0.6114 0.7091 0.8148 0.8693 0.9458
0.85 0.5132 + j0.2770 1.2786 + j2.9878 0.9063 ACSR ground wire
0.90 0.4365 + j0.2060 1.2469 + j3.0674 0.9455 54 0.6463 0.7289 0.8046 0.8682 0.9132

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 226– 232 231
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012
www.ietdl.org
Also, according to the results in Tables 3 – 6, the highest
degree of accuracy is obtained for a fault distance, d ¼ 0.8,
where it is most desirable.
When configuration of the power system is changed in such
way that its equivalent reactance, X0A , or X0B , become
significantly larger, zone-1 becomes slightly larger. In the
considered numerical examples, this increase is, according
to Tables 7 –10, smaller than one line span. Thus, it is not
difficult to conclude that the correct DIR operation in the
considered cases is achieved by adopting the value of angle
wg that corresponds to the prevailing power system
operation conditions. However, in cases when these
variations are so great that correct DIR operation is
jeopardised, the other value of angle wg should be found
and adopted for calculations c1 and c2 . This value should
be such that the mentioned variations do not exceed the
foreseen limits. It can be determined on the basis of the
preliminary ground-fault current analysis and is placed
between the value that corresponds to the prevailing power
system conditions and the value that corresponds to the
power system conditions, when the equivalent power
system impedances obtain their maximal anticipated values.
In this manner, correct digital DIR operation will be
ensured for any possible power system configuration.
The effect of approximation made in the given numerical
example, ZA ≃ 0, is certainly negligible (actual values of
ZA are between 0.05 and 0.5 V). This impedance reduces
the relative participation of the fault impedance, Zf , in the
value of the measured impedance, Zm (Figs. 2 and 3). This
means that higher accuracy of the proposed algorithm will
be obtained in practical conditions. Under the unrealistic
assumption that this impedance is so large that the value of
V0 is equal to Vf (Fig. 3), the influence of the unknown
impedance, Zf , on the algorithm accuracy would be
completely cancelled. The situation would be identical to
the idealised situation when this impedance is completely
disregarded. However, the influence of the grounding
impedance ZB is completely different. For correct DIR
operation, this impedance should be sufficiently small, or
should, on the basis of (21), satisfy the following criteria
c1 X − L1 max
|ZB | ≤ − R − Ra (27)
c2
where L1max is the maximal possible reach of zone-1.
For the considered lines of the length of 2.5 km, these
criteria are satisfied when |ZB| is smaller than 2.5 and
0.33 V for the steel and ACRS ground wire, respectively.
In the case of longer lines, the relative participation of the
fault impedance in the value of the measured impedance is
smaller (Zm ≫ Zf ) for faults in the vicinity of the end of
zone-1, and in accordance with this, higher accuracy in
application of algorithm (21) can be expected.
The demonstrated high accuracy can be explained by the
following fact: The proposed algorithm takes into account
all parameters necessary to characterise the return current
paths of a single phase-to-ground fault at an overhead line.
As is already mentioned, a DIR of such accuracy is
specially required in cases of relatively short lines that are
encountered sub-transmission systems.
7 Conclusions
This paper presents a novel DIR algorithm capable of
computing correctly the distance to the ground fault for the
232
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012
faults on the border between zone-1 and zone-2 and in its
vicinity. For application of the proposed algorithm one
preliminary ground-fault current analysis is necessary. A
demonstrated high degree of accuracy in determination of
ground-fault location enables a reliable and sensitive relay
operation. In the case of relatively short lines this quality
means the elimination of the coordination problem and the
need for synchronous measurements or long-distance data
transfer.
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IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 226 –232
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439