LESSON 8.

Photosynthesis and the Role of

Pigments
• Pigments in plants do not just serve
the purpose of giving vivid colors.
They have their own importance
related to food production.
Photosynthetic Pigments
For instance, a red apple can be perceived as
• Autotrophs produce their own food red because the pigments in the apple’s skin
by harnessing the energy from the absorb the other colors, leaving only the red
sun. They perform this in their portion of the spectrum to be reflected. The
chloroplasts. photoreceptors of our eyes then detect
these reflected color.

Variegation in the leaves of some plants

reduces their capacity for photosynthetic
activity. However, in the wild, this results in
an advantage that they become less likely
eaten by herbivores.

• The characteristic color of plants Principal Pigment

allows them to become the primary
producers in ecosystems by
harnessing solar energy to produce
high-energy organic molecules.
• Pigments
- organic molecules
- selectively absorb light of specific
wavelengths
- built in the thylakoid
Membranes
• Wavelength of Light The chloroplast is a cell organelle in most
- Wavelengths of light that are not autotrophs that can convert solar energy
absorbed are reflected. into reusable chemical energy.
- Reflected light gives each pigment
its characteristic color. Chlorophyll a
• site for photosynthesis
• found in the chloroplast
converts solar energy to chemical energy
• consists of a porphyrin ring with a
central magnesium core
• present only in green algae and
higher plants
• breaks down faster than the other
pigments
• Chlorophyll b is also present in higher
plants and green algae, such as
Volvox.

The structure of chlorophyll a is similar

to the other type of chlorophyll, the
chlorophyll b. They differ in only one
functional group (in red), CHO being
present in chl b.
The molecular structure of
How can one distinguish the accessory chlorophyll b (left) is very much like
pigments from the principal pigment? that of the chlorophyll a. They differ
in only one functional group, with a
Accessory Pigments methyl group present in chlorophyll
a and aldehyde group in chlorophyll
b.

Accessory pigments chlorophyll c and d

are present in brown algae (left,
Sargassum sp.) and red algae (right,
The chloroplast is a cell organelle in Gracilaria sp.), respectively.
most autotrophs that can convert solar
energy into reusable chemical energy. Carotenoids
Carotenoids
Chlorophyll b are evident
• absorbs mainly blue and orange in autumn
light but reflects olive green leaves in
• does not participate directly in light temperate
reactions regions.
 LET’S SUM IT UP
Carotenoids are evident in many of our
fruits and vegetables, such as ripe bell
peppers.
Carotenoids
• divided into carotenes and
xanthophylls
• Carotenes include alpha- carotene,
beta-carotene, and lycopene
• Xanthophyll includes lutein and
fucoxanthin
Phycobilins
Aside from chlorophyll a, the prokaryotic
and “alga-like” cyanobacteria also have
phycobilins that aids them during
photosynthesis.
Phycobilins
● found in red algae and cyanobacteria
● water-soluble, present in the aqueous
cytoplasm or stroma of chloroplasts
➢ Photosynthesis is the process in
which plants harness solar energy
and use it to synthesize high- energy
organic compounds in the form of
sugars.
➢ The process of photosynthesis in
plants and algae occurs in the
membrane-bound organelle called
chloroplasts.
➢ Pigments are organic molecules that
selectively absorb light of specific
wavelengths and are built into the
thylakoid membranes of the
chloroplasts.
➢ Photosynthetic pigments can be
classified into primary and accessory
pigments based on their contribution
to light energy harvesting during
photosynthesis.
➢ Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment
during photosynthesis. It is also the
universal pigment in all
photosynthetic organisms. It
participates directly in light reactions
and is the most common green
photosynthetic pigment in plants,
algae, some protists, and
cyanobacteria. This pigment absorbs
mainly blue, violet, and red light, thus
it appears green to us.
➢ Chlorophyll b, an accessory pigment,
absorbs mainly blue and orange light
but reflects olive green. Although
chlorophyll b does not participate
directly in light reactions, it conveys
absorbed energy to chlorophyll a to
work in the light reactions.
➢ Other types of chlorophyll exist,
particularly chlorophylls c and d.
 These accessory pigments are found
in brown and red algae,
respectively.
➢ Carotenoids are accessory pigments
consisting of various shades of yellow
and orange. These pigments absorb
mainly violet, blue, and green light.
This pigment is important in
photoprotection. These pigments
also convey light energy harvest from
other bands of the visible light from
the sun.
➢ Phycobilins are also accessory
pigments in red algae and
cyanobacteria that either give red or
blue coloration. They are especially
important for deep- sea red algae as
they can utilize the blue light that can
penetrate into deeper waters.
Aside from the primary and
accessory classification of
photosynthetic pigments, they can
also be classified into chlorophyll,
carotenoids, and phycobilins.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Identify the terms being described by the
following statements.
1. This biological process primarily takes
place in the leaves, and it harnesses solar
energy to produce an organic by- product.
2. These organic molecules selectively absorb
light of specific wavelengths, and they are
built into the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts.
3. This pigment participates directly in light
reactions which absorbs mainly blue, violet,
and red colors of visible light.
4. This pigment absorbs mainly blue and
orange light but does not participate directly
in light reactions, but rather it conveys
absorbed energy to chlorophyll a for use in
the photosynthetic pathway.
Determine the possible consequences should
the following events take place.
1. A farmer accidentally treated his plant with
a substance that degrades chlorophyll.
2. Chlorophyll degradation fails to occur in
preparation for winter.
3.The chloroplast gene that synthesizes
chlorophyll a becomes mutated.
LESSON 8.2

Light-Dependent Reactions
➢ Light is also considered a
renewable source of energy that The photosynthetic pathway in
humans can benefit from. autotrophs can be summarized by
having carbon dioxide and water on
➢ Sun is the primary source of
the reactants side, and with light
light energy on our planet.
energy input, sugar (in the form of
➢ Plants utilize all the colors of
glucose) and oxygen molecules are
light except green when they produced.
photosynthesize. This reflection
of light makes the color of plants
green. How do light-dependent reactions
How do light-dependent reactions occur during photosynthesis?
occur during photosynthesis?
Light Dependent Reactions

Overview of Photosynthesis

The light-dependent reactions (or simply

The photosynthetic process showing light reactions) are named so because they
its reactants and products only occur when solar energy is available.

Photosynthesis
➢ converts solar energy to chemical
energy
➢ autotrophs
➢ occurs in the chloroplasts
 How do electrons move and produce
ATP during light- dependent
reactions?

Electron Flow in Light-Dependent Reactions

Pigment molecule capture kinetic energy

from photons and store it as potential energy
in the chemical bonds of two molecules, ATP
and NADPH.

Light-dependent reactions involve the

striking of light to P680 and P700, which
results in a series of electron flow that drives
the synthesis of ATP and NADPH.

The chlorophyll replaces its “lost” electrons

by splitting water molecules.

Light striking photosystem II excites electrons

(gain energy).

The splitting of water molecules yield oxygen

as a waste product.
 The diffusion of H+ will rotate the ATP
The “excited” electrons are ejected from the
synthase, which drives the production of ATP
chlorophyll a reaction center and grabbed by
molecules.
the first protein in the electron transport
chain that links the two photosystems.

Photosystem I functions as much as

photosystem II does.
The two electrons are replaced by electrons
from water molecules that donate two
electrons when it splits into oxygen gas (O2)
and two protons (H+).

The reactive chlorophyll molecule ejects

electrons to an electron carrier molecule in
the second electron transport chain in the
thylakoid membrane.
As the electrons continue to move in the
electron transport chain, their energy is used
to pump protons (H+) from the stroma across
the membrane into the thylakoid lumen or
space.

LET’S SUM UP
The boosted electrons in photosystem I are
then replaced with electrons passing down
from the first electron transport chain from
photosystem II.
The second electron transport chain passes
the electrons to a molecule of NADP+,
reducing it to NADPH.
How does the noncyclic pathway of light-
dependent reactions differ from the cyclic
pathway?
Noncyclic Pathway
➢ It begins when the energy being
passed among light- harvesting
complexes reaches photosystem II.
➢ When a photosystem absorbs energy,
electrons are ejected in pairs.
➢ Ejected electrons immediately enter
an electron transport chain in the
thylakoid membrane.
➢ The noncyclic pathway is the
standard mechanism of light-
dependent reactions.
➢ The light-dependent reactions only
occur when solar energy is available.
This process happens on the
thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts
which converts solar energy into
chemical energy.
➢ A photosystem consists of a number
of light- harvesting complexes (LHC)
surrounding a reaction- center
complex. An LHC contains various
pigment molecules bound to
proteins.
➢ Photosynthesis begins in the pigment
molecules of photosystem II, which
absorb light energy and transfer it to
a chlorophyll a reaction center. This
center then excites two electrons.
➢ As electrons move in the electron
transport chain, their energy is used
to pump protons (H+) across the
membrane into the thylakoid space.
The thylakoid space will then have a
high concentration of H+ and a lower
concentration in the stroma; thus, an
H+ gradient is established.
➢ The H+ will diffuse through a protein
in the thylakoid membrane called ATP
synthase. The diffusion of H+ will
rotate the ATP synthase to produce
ATP.
➢ The second electron transport chain
passes the electrons from
photosystem I to a molecule of
NADP+, forming the reduced NADPH.
This NADPH is the electron carrier
 that will reduce CO2in the next phase,
while ATP will provide the energy.
➢ The noncyclic pathway is the linear
Identify
mechanism of electron transport
described
from photosystem II to photosystem
statements.
I, including the electron transport
chains. This is the standard
mechanism of light- dependent
reactions. Ultimately, it produces
NADPH and ATP molecules.
➢ The cyclic pathway involves only the
photosystem I and the electron
transport proteins. The electron
chain in this pathway uses the
electron’s energy to move H+ into the
thylakoid compartment. The resulting
H+ gradient drives ATP formation,
just as it does in the noncyclic
pathway.
➢ Cyclic photophosphorylation is
important to create ATP while
maintaining NADPH in the right
proportion.
Check your Understanding
the terms being
by the following
1. This process involves the
breakdown or decomposition of a
molecule by using light energy.
2. This photosynthetic pathway
involves two photosystems
working together to synthesize
ATP.
3. This photosynthetic pathway
involves only the photosystem I
and the electron transport chain.
Compute for the following as they
relate to light-dependent reactions.
Hint: Use the ratios of the molecules
between the input and output of light
reaction.
1. How many oxygen molecules are
formed from six water molecules?
2. How many ATP molecules are
formed from 36 ADP molecules?
3. How many inorganic phosphate
molecules are needed to produce 45
ATP molecules?
Lesson 8.3
Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin
Cycle)
How does the Calvin cycle occur
during photosynthesis in plants?

The light-independent reactions run

on the ATP and NADPH molecules
generated from light-dependent
The chloroplast is the site for both reactions.
light-dependent and light-
independent reactions. Light
reactions take place in the thylakoids
while Calvin Cycle takes place in the
stroma.
Light-Independent Reactions

Carbon dioxide comes from the

atmosphere via the stomata of
leaves.

The light-independent reactions

(Calvin cycle) are named so because
energy from photons is not directly
required for the chemical reactions to
proceed.

The light-independent reactions
ultimately produce glucose, a sugar,
in the fluid-filled stroma of
chloroplasts.
How are the three main phases of the
Calvin cycle different from each
other?
Phase 1
➢ is termed as carbon fixation
because the process involves
incorporating carbon atoms
from an inorganic source into
an organic molecule.
➢ The enzyme RuBisCo
catalyzes the reaction
between the carbon dioxide
and the five-carbon sugar
RuBP.
➢ results in the formation of an
unstable six-carbon molecule,
which spontaneously splits
into two 3-PGA.
Phase 2
➢ is termed as reduction
because the process involves
the gain of electrons from the
NADPH (reduced).
➢ ATP and electrons donated
from NADPH reduce
molecules of 3-PGA into G3P.
➢ After the reduction process,
one phosphate group and
electrons are transferred to
the PGA, thus, also forming
ADP and NADP+. These will
return to light-dependent
reactions for them to be
reenergized.
Phase 3
➢ is termed as regeneration because
the process involves regenerating
RuBP.
➢ For every three CO2 molecules fixed,
one G3P molecule leaves the cycle as
a product which contributes to the
formation of glucose.
➢ During the Calvin cycle, an input of
three CO2 molecules will produce six
G3P molecules. One of those G3P
molecules will be used to create
glucose.
➢ Since six CO2 molecules are needed
in photosynthesis, the products
shown above will be doubled. Take
note that two G3P molecules (total of
six carbons) are needed to make
glucose (likewise, a total of six
carbons).
➢ The remaining ten G3P molecules
(total of 30 carbons), from six CO2
molecules that are fixed, will be
regenerated to six RuBP (likewise, a
total of 30 carbons).
 How does the Calvin cycle produce
glucose molecules?
LET’S SUM UP
➢ The second stage of photosynthesis is
known as the Calvin cycle, which
occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplast.
➢ Carbon fixation is the process of
incorporating carbon atoms from an
inorganic source into an organic
molecule.
➢ During carbon fixation, the enzyme
RuBisCo catalyzes the reaction
between ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP) and CO2 to produce 3-
phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
➢ A series of two chemical reactions use
the energy from ATP and electrons
donated from NADPH to reduce
molecules of 3-PGA into
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).
➢ For every three carbon dioxide
molecules fixed, one G3P molecule
leaves the cycle as a product.
➢ A series of chemical reactions must
use energy from the ATP to rearrange
the atoms in the five G3P molecules
into three molecules of RuBP.
➢ Overall, to produce one molecule of
glucose, a total of 18 ATP and 12
NADPH molecules are needed while
still replenishing the Calvin cycle with
RuBP.
Identify the terms being described by
the following statements.
1. This phase of light-independent
reactions includes the reaction
between phosphoglycerate and
NADPH.
2. This phase aims to resynthesize
RuBP to prepare for succeeding
carbon fixation reactions.
3. This molecule is produced after
the reaction of PGA with ATP and
NADPH.
Answer the following questions.
Briefly show your solutions.
1. How many NADPH molecules are
required to produce four
molecules of glucose?
2. How many glucose molecules can
be produced from 90 ATP
molecules?
3. How many glucose molecules can
be produced from 72 NADPH
molecules?