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Nutrients in Plants
Class Biology

Chloroplast
double membraned

size: 2μm by 5μm

Structure
The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle with a chloroplast envelope
consisting of an outer and inner membrane

Intermembrane space is a narrow space in between the envelope

Within the chloroplast lies a membranous system in the form of flattened,

interconnected sacs called thylakoids

chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids

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 Thylakoids are usually stacked together

each stack is called a granum (plural: grana)

The fluid outside the thylakoids is the stroma, which contains the chloroplast
DNA, ribosomes and many enzymes

Functions
Chloroplasts are sites of photosynthesis

Stroma contains enzymes needed for light independent reactions

Thylakoids contain chlorophyll and other pigments needed for light dependent
reactions of photosynthesis

Glucose synthesized during photosynthesis is converted to the insoluble starch

and stored in the chloroplasts as starch grains

It is then converted to sucrose to be carried to the storage organs of a plant

sucrose (non-reducing sugar) → more stable

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 Absorption and action spectrum
Visible light is a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and provides
energy for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

The absorption spectrum of a pigment is a record of the relative absorbance of

light of different wavelengths absorbed by a photosynthetic pigment

The action spectrum is a record of the rate of photosynthesis occurring at each

wavelength of light

Why do plants have so

many pigments?

Wider range of light to be

absorbed

Increases efficiency of
photosynthesis

larger range of wave

lengths to be
absorbed

There is a close similarity between the absorption spectra of the major

photosynthetic pigments and the action spectrum for photosynthesis

Chlorophyll absorbed light from the red (650nm) and blue/violet (400-500nm)
wavelength and does not absorb much green (500-550nm) wavelength

Carotenoids absorb light only from the blue/violet wavelength

This indicates that these pigments are responsible for the absorption of light in
photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

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 ❤️ Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants containing
chlorophyll absorb light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the
formation of carbohydrates (glucose) from carbon dioxide and water.

The sun is the ultimate source of energy

The process of photosynthesis converts light energy from the sun into chemical
energy

Photosynthesis provides food and energy to animals and humans

Equation

The raw materials of photosynthesis: carbon dioxide and water.

Carbon dioxide molecules enter the stomata on the leaves via diffusion

Water molecules are absorbed at the roots, and are transported up the stem
towards the leaves (via xylem)

water molecules cannot be directly absorbed at the leaves

The conditions of photosynthesis: light and chlorophyll

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the
formation of carbohydrates

The end products of photosynthesis: oxygen and glucose

Stages of photosynthesis

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 Light dependents stage
Light dependent stage of photosynthesis occurs in the thylakoids of chloroplasts. where light
energy is absorbed by chlorophyll.

Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted to chemical energy

Light energy is used to split water molecules to form hydrogen ions and oxygen
gas in photolysis of water

All oxygen (end product) produced during photosynthesis comes from water

Light independent state

Light independents stage of photosynthesis occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts, where carbon
fixation occurs.

H+ ions from the light dependent stage are used to reduce carbon dioxide into
carbohydrate (glucose)

This occurs via a series of enzymatic reaction

Glucose
Glucose made by plants has multiple fates:

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 1. It serves as a raw material of respiration

Mitochondria in plant cells can use glucose as the raw material of respiration
to release energy

Energy can be used for plant growth and repair of warn-out parts of the plant

2. Excess glucose can be stored as starch

In chloroplast (as starch grains) or storage organs (tubers, potato)

3. Glucose can be converted into sucrose, where it is transported to other parts of

the plant in the phloem

Translocation

4. Glucose can react with mineral ions absorbed from the soil to form amino acids

which are then used in the synthesis of proteins

5. Glucose can be converted to fats

Forms the phospholipid bilayer

The Leaf
External leaf structure
The leaf is an organ on a plant that specialises in carrying out photosynthesis.

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 Lamina (leaf blade)
Flat and thin

allow light to reach all cells for photosynthesis

allow quick diffusion of carbon dioxide into the cells of the leaves due to the
short distance needed of it to travel to the mesophyll cells for photosynthesis

Large surface area

allow more sunlight to be absorbed for photosynthesis

Petiole (leaf stalk)

Positions leaf away from the stem

spread out leaves so that they can be exposed to maximum amount of

sunlight

Network of veins (including midrib)

consists of vascular bundles, made up of xylem and phloem

xylem: transport water to the leaves, which is raw material of photosynthesis

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 phloem: transports sugar (in the form of sucrose) away from the leaves to
other parts of the plant

Internal leaf structure

Upper epidermis
Provides mechanical protection to the leaves

Does not contain chloroplasts

They are transparent, allowing sunlight to pass through easily into the cell layers
below it

It is coated with a layer of waxy and waterproof cuticle

reduces evaporation from the surface of the leaf, thus reducing water loss

Palisade mesophyll
Consists of columnar shaped cells, closely packed together

Cells contain a large number of chloroplast to ensure maximal absorption of

sunlight

majority of photosynthesis takes place in this layer

Spongy mesophyll

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 Consists of irregularly shaped cells, with numerous intercellular air spaces
surrounding them

Intercellular air space allow quick diffusion of gases (e.g. carbon dioxide) into all
photosynthetic cells

cells are covered in a thin later of water, which allows carbon dioxide to
dissolve and diffuse easily into cells

Chloroplast are present in spongy mesophyll cells, but fewer in number than
palisade mesophyll cell

Lower epidermis
Provides mechanical protection to the leaf

Lower epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts

Guard cells are bean-shaped cells located in the lower epidermis

containing chloroplast

control the opening and closing of the stoma (plural: stomata)

Stomata
Stomata are the site of gaseous exchange in plants

Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in, and oxygen to diffuse out of the leaf (during
photosynthesis)

It is an opening created by the shape of a pair of guard cells

each guard cell has an uneven cell wall

the cell wall next to the pore is thicker than the outer cell wall

this causes the guard cell to curve when turgid, pulling the stoma open

Transpiration: the loss of water vapour through the stomata of leaves

At high light intensities (during photosynthesis), the water potential of the guard
cells is more negative as potassium ions are being pumped into the guard cell

potassium ions from surrounding cells

Osmosis occurs and water moves from the surrounding lower epidermal cells (region
of less negative water potential) into the guard cells (region of more negative water

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 potential), across a partially permeable cell membrane of guard cells. The entry of
water into the guard cells causes the cells to become turgid and the stoma opens.

At low light intensities, the water potential of the guard cells is less negative as
potassium ions leave the guard cells

Osmosis occurs and water moves from the guard cells (region of less negative water
potential) out into the surrounding lower epidermal cells (region of more negative
water potential) across a partially permeable cell membrane of guard cells. The exit
of water from the guard cells makes them flaccid and the stoma closes.

Starch test of leaves

Excess glucose is stored in the form of starch in leaves, thus the presence of starch
in a leaf can indicate that photosynthesis has occurred.

As most leaves are green in colour, which makes it difficult for the colour
changes of the iodine solution in the starch test to be observed, the leaf is first
decolourised before the starch test is conducted

Procedure
Steps Purpose of steps

Leaf is placed in a boiling beaker of This kills the leaf and stops all enzymatic reactions,
water including photosynthesis

Leaf is then placed in a boiling tube

Ethanol will decolourise the leaf, and the leaf will
filled with ethanol and placed in a hot
change from green to white. Ethanol (alcohol) is
water bath (not boiling water bath as
used as chlorophyll is soluble in alcohol.
ethanol is flammable)

This soften the leaf that became brittle after being

Leaf is placed in hot water placed in ethanol → it becomes more permeable to
iodine solution

To the leaf, add a few drops of iodine This is the starch test, which tests for the presence
solution or absence of starch

If iodine solution remains brown, starch is absent in the leaf (photosynthesis did
not occur)

If iodine solution changes from brown to blue-black, starch is present in the leaf
(photosynthesis occurred in the leaf)

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 Case study 1: Is sunlight necessary?

1. Destarch a potted plant by placing it in the dark for 2 days

Destarching removes the starch stored in the plant, to ensure that if the plant
is later tested positive for starch, it is due to photosynthesis that occurred
during the experimental period

2. Sandwich a leaf, which is still attached to the plant, between two pieces of black
paper

The black paper serves to block out sunlight, creating an area with no
sunlight reaching the leaf

3. Place the leaf in strong sunlight

4. After a few hours, remove the leaf and test for starch

Conclusion
Conditions Results Conclusion

Covered by black Starch is absent, photosynthesis

Iodine solution remains brown
paper did not occurred

Iodine solution changes from Starch is present, photosynthesis

Exposed to sunlight
brown to blue-black occurred

Case study 2: Is chlorophyll necessary?

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 1. Destarch a plant with variegated leaves by placing it in the dark for two days

Plants with variegated leaves contain areas on its leaves with no chlorophyll
(usually observed as white portion on leaves) and areas with chlorophyll
present (observed as green areas on leaves)

2. Expose the plant to strong sunlight for a few hours

3. After a few hours, remove the lead and test it for starch

Conclusion
Conditions Results Conclusion

Chlorophyll Iodine solution changes from Starch is present, photosynthesis

present brown to blue-black occurred

Chlorophyll Iodine solution remains Starch is absent, photosynthesis did not

absent brown occur

Case study 3: Is carbon dioxide necessary?

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 1. Destarch two potted plants by placing them in the dark for two days

2. Enclose the pots in polythene bags. Secure the bags to the plant stems

This prevents carbon dioxide gas released by bacteria respiration in the soil
from being released into the experimental setup

3. Place one pot in the bell jar as shown in the experiment set-up. The plant does
not have a supply of carbon dioxide from the air. Leave the whole setup in
sunlight for a few hours.

Soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide, preventing it from entering the

experimental set up

Potassium hydroxide absorb and remove carbon dioxide from the

experimental set up

Sodium hydroxide NaOH can also be used in place of potassium hydroxide

4. Set up a (positive) control using pebbles and water in place of soda lime and
sodium hydroxide respectively. Leave the control setup in strong sunlight for a
few hours.

5. Carbon dioxide gas is present in this experimental set up

6. Expose set ups A and B to strong sunlight for a few hours

7. After a few hours, remove the leaves from both setups and test it for starch

Conclusion

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 Conditions Results Conclusion

Set up A (absence of Starch is absent,

Iodine solution remains brown
carbon dioxide) photosynthesis did not occur

Set up B (presence of Iodine solution changes from Starch is present,

carbon dioxide) brown to blue-black photosynthesis occurred

Case study 4: What gas is produced?

1. Set up some hydrilla as shown in the figure

The support on the funnel keeps it away from the bottom of the beaker,
allowing sodium hydrogen carbonate solution to enter the filter funnel and
reach the hydrilla

No air should be trapped in the test tube, to ensure that all gas collected at
the end of the experiment is formed during photosynthesis

2. Dissolve 2-10g of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the water in the beaker

Sodium hydrogen carbonate provides carbon dioxide for the hydrilla, which is
one of the raw materials of photosynthesis

3. Place the apparatus in strong sunlight for a few hours

Observation: gas bubbles will form at the leaves when placed in sunlight.
The gas bubbles will rise up to the test tube and displace the water
downwards

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 4. When test tube is half-filled with gas, removed the tube by placing a thumb over
it mouth

Conclusion
Test Observation/results Conclusion

Glowing splinter placed in the Oxygen gas is

Glowing slinter relights
presence of the gas present

Bubble the gas through a solution Limewater solution remains Carbon dioxide is
of limewater colourless and clear absent

Oxygen gas is the end product of photosynthesis, and will relight a glowing splint

Carbon dioxide gas is not the end product of photosynthesis and it is absent in
the test tube

The rate of oxygen gas production can be used to estimate the rate of
photosynthesis

If the experimental setup was carried out in darkness, photosynthesis would not
have occurred, only respiration

The gas collected would be carbon dioxide instead, and will form a white
precipitate in a solution of limewater when it is bubble through

Limiting factors
A limiting factor is a variable that directly affects a process if its quantity is changed.

Light intensity

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 In region P (low light intensity), the rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with
increasing light intensity

light intensity is the limiting factor of photosynthesis

In region Q, the rate of photosynthesis does not increase with increasing light
intensity

some factor other than light intensity is becoming the limiting factor

In region R (high light intensity), the rate of photosynthesis remains constant as

light intensity increases

light intensity is no longer a limiting factor

light saturation occurs

S is the light saturation point

T is the maximum rate of photosynthesis attainable under the conditions of the

experiment

rate of photosynthesis can only increase if other factors are changed

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 Carbon dioxide concentration

Carbon dioxide is required for the light independent reactions of photosynthesis

The carbon dioxide concentration of an experiment set up can be adjusted by

dissolving different amounts of sodium bicarbonate in water for the water plant

As carbon dioxide concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis increases

Temperature
The process of photosynthesis is catalysed by various enzymes; thus the rate of
photosynthesis is affected by changes in temperature

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 At low temperature, temperature is a limiting factor of photosynthesis

enzymes molecules that carry out photosynthesis are inactive at low

temperatures

An increase in temperature causes the activity of enzymes to increase, due to

increased kinetic energy of enzymes and substrates

this results in an increase in the rate of photosynthesis (more products

formed per unit time)

The increase in photosynthesis is observed until the optimal temperatures of the

enzymes are reached.

the optimal temperature of an enzyme is the temperature where the

maximum rate of reaction occurs

At temperature above optimal temperature, the rate of photosynthesis starts to

decrease

enzymes that carry out photosynthesis are denatured at higher temperatures

bonds within enzyme molecules are disrupted, thus disrupting the 3

dimensional conformation of the enzymes

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 substrates can no longer fit into the active site, leading to no products formed

complete denaturation of all enzymes results in the rate of photosynthesis

being zero

Photosynthesis has an optimum temperature that varies with plant species

in most terrestrial plants of temperate regions, the optimum temperature is

about 20-30°C

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