PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF SCIENTIFIC REPORT

Preparing and presenting a scientific report can be a daunting task, but with proper planning and organization, it

can be a rewarding experience. Here are some steps to follow:

i. Plan and organize: Before starting to write the report, plan the structure and content. Identify the

purpose, scope, and audience of the report, and outline the main sections and sub-sections. Make sure to

have all the necessary data, figures, and tables ready.

ii. Write the report: Start by writing the introduction, which should provide background information and

state the purpose of the report. Then, describe the methods used to collect and analyze the data, followed

by the results and findings. Next, discuss the implications and significance of the findings, and provide

recommendations or conclusions. Finally, include a list of references and any appendices as needed.

iii. Edit and revise: Once the report is written, read it carefully and revise for clarity, conciseness, and

coherence. Make sure that the report follows a logical sequence and that each section flows smoothly

into the next.

iv. Format the report: Use a clear and readable font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, and make sure

to use consistent formatting throughout the report. Include headings and subheadings to organize the

content, and use bullet points or numbered lists to break up long paragraphs. Make sure to follow any

specific formatting guidelines provided by the target journal or audience.

v. Include visual aids: Use graphs, charts, and tables to illustrate the data and findings, and make sure they

are clearly labeled and easy to read. Consider using color to highlight key points, but make sure to also

provide a black and white version for printing purposes.

vi. Proofread and finalize: Read the report again for any typos or errors, and have someone else review it

as well. Once the report is error-free, finalize it and prepare it for submission or presentation.
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Preparing and presenting a scientific report requires careful planning, organization, writing, editing, formatting,

and visualizing data. Follow these steps to ensure a successful and effective report that meets the needs of the

target audience.

GUIDELINES FOR SCIENTIFIC REPORT

Title page

The title page will include the following:

 Title of the report:

o Usually 4-12 words in length.
o Should be short, specific and descriptive, containing the keywords of the report.
 Authorship:
o Always publish under the same name.
o Include author addresses.
o Indicate the corresponding author and their contact details.
 Date:
o The date when the paper was submitted.

Table of Contents

A Table of Contents is only required for length reports (usually 6 pages or more).

Abstract

The Abstract is a self-contained synopsis of the report - an informative summary of what you did and what you
found out.

The Abstract should include the following:

 Objectives (as outlined in the Introduction) and scope of the investigation.

 A brief reference to the Materials and Methods.
 A summary of the results and conclusions - a brief but thorough statement of the outcome/s of the
experiment.
If there is a hypothesis, you may state what it is and whether it was supported or refuted.

The following should not be included in the Abstract:

 Literature citations.

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  Formulae and abbreviations, references to tables.
Although the Abstract comes first in a report, it is best to write it last, after you have the results and conclusions.

Introduction

This provides a summary of the analysis to be undertaken. The purpose of the Introduction is to put the reader in
the picture and place the research/experiment within a context.

The following may be included in the Introduction:

 Background about the analysis to be carried out.

 A brief review of previous research (relevant literature) to give a background - paraphrase relevant facts
from the scientific literature, citing the sources to support each statement.
 Reason/s why the research was undertaken.
 Statement of the hypothesis (an idea or concept that can be tested by experimentation) if there is one.
 An explanation of the different techniques and why they are used.
 A statement of the objective/s - what you hope to achieve.
The Introduction is the what and why of the experiment, and should answer the following questions:

 What was the purpose or objective of the experiment/research?

 Why was the experiment/research conducted in a particular manner?
 Why was it important in a broader context?
The Introduction should not include any results or conclusions.

Materials and Methods (Experimental)

The Materials and Methods, sometimes called Experimental, is a description of the materials and procedures
used - what was done and how. Describe the process of preparation of the sample, specifications of the
instruments used and techniques employed.

The Method should include such things as sample size, apparatus or equipment used, experimental conditions,
concentrations, times, controls etc.

While the Method does not need to include minute details (e.g. if you followed a set of written instructions, you
may not need to write out the full procedure - state briefly what was done and cite the manual), there needs to be
enough detail so that someone could repeat the work.

Do not keep using the word "then" - the reader will understand that the steps were carried out in the order in
which they are written.

The Method must be written in the past tense and the passive voice.

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Results

This section states what you found.

The following will be included in your Results:

 Pictures and spectra.

 Tables and graphs whenever practical.
 Brief statements of the results in the text (without repeating the data in the graphs and tables). When
writing about each picture, graph or table, refer to it parenthetically e.g. (Figure 1).
 If possible, give a section of related results and then comment on them rather than presenting many
pages of unrelated results and then discussing them at the end. Subheadings can be used to divide this
section so that it is easier to understand.
Massive quantities of data or raw data (not refined statistically) can be presented in appendices.

Include only your own observed results in this section.

The following should not be included in your results:

 What you expected to find or what you were supposed to have observed.
 References to other works (published data or statements of theory).
Use the Discussion section of the report for these.
The Results section should be written in the past tense and passive voice, avoiding the use of "I" and "we".

Discussion

State your interpretation of your findings, perhaps comparing or contrasting them with the literature. Reflect on
your actual data and observations.

Explain or rationalise errant data or describe possible sources of error and how they may have affected the
outcome.

The Discussion must answer the question "What do the results mean?" It is an argument based on the results.

Conclusion

This is the summing up of your argument or experiment/research, and should relate back to the Introduction.

The Conclusion should only consist of a few sentences, and should reiterate the findings of your
experiment/research.

If appropriate, suggest how to improve the procedure, and what additional experiments or research would be
helpful.

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References

Cite any references that you have used, ensuring that each item in the reference list has an in-text citation, and
every in-text citation has a full reference in the reference list at the end of your paper.

Ensure that the references are formatted according to the style required by the journal (or your
lecturer/supervisor), and be careful with spelling (the author whose name you misspell may be asked to review
the paper!).

APA Style of reference

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 PARAMETERS THAT DETERMINE THE QUALITY OF A SCIENTIFIC WRITING

The quality of scientific writing is determined by the clarity, accuracy, relevance, originality, rigor,

organization, formatting and style, audience awareness, ethical considerations, and the feedback received

through the peer review process. Following these parameters can help ensure that scientific writing is of high

quality and makes a meaningful contribution to the field of study.

i. Clarity: Scientific writing should be clear, concise, and easy to understand. The language used should

be precise and unambiguous, avoiding jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to the intended

audience. Complex concepts should be explained in a straightforward manner, and the structure of the

writing should be logical and coherent.

ii. Accuracy: Scientific writing should be based on accurate and reliable data, facts, and evidence. Claims

and conclusions should be supported by appropriate references to scientific literature or other credible

sources. Any assumptions or limitations of the research should be clearly acknowledged, and results

should be presented honestly without exaggeration or misrepresentation.

iii. Relevance: Scientific writing should be relevant to the field of study and address a significant research

question or problem. The research should contribute to the existing knowledge and demonstrate its

significance and implications for the field. The research question, objectives, and hypothesis should be

clearly stated, and the methodology and results should be aligned with the research question.

iv. Originality: Scientific writing should present original research or ideas that are not previously published

or well-known in the field. The research should provide new insights, findings, or interpretations that

add value to the scientific community. Proper credit should be given to previous work through accurate

referencing and citations to avoid plagiarisms.

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v. Rigor: Scientific writing should adhere to rigorous scientific methodology and follow established

research standards. The research design, data collection, and analysis should be robust and transparent,

and the limitations of the research should be acknowledged. The statistical analysis should be

appropriate and the results should be interpreted objectively and with caution.

vi. Organization: Scientific writing should have a clear and logical structure that is easy to follow. It

should typically include an abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Each section should have a clear purpose, and the writing should flow smoothly from one section to

another. Proper headings, subheadings, and transitions should be used to guide the reader.

vii. Formatting and style: Scientific writing should adhere to appropriate formatting and style guidelines,

such as those specified by the target journal or conference. This includes proper citation and referencing

according to a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago), consistent use of scientific

terminology, appropriate use of figures and tables, and adherence to word limits and other formatting

requirements. viii. Audience awareness: Scientific writing should be tailored to the intended audience,

which may include fellow researchers, practitioners, or policymakers. The level of technicality,

language, and tone should be appropriate for the audience, and the writing should clearly convey the

relevance and significance of the research to the target audience.

ix. Ethical considerations: Scientific writing should adhere to ethical principles, such as integrity,

objectivity, and transparency. Any potential conflicts of interest should be disclosed, and research

involving human subjects or animals should follow appropriate ethical guidelines and obtain necessary

approvals.

x. Peer review: Scientific writing should undergo rigorous peer review by experts in the field to ensure its

quality. Feedback from peer reviewers should be carefully considered and addressed in the revised

version of the writing.

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 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Interpretation of results is a critical step in any research project. It involves analyzing the data obtained from the

study and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Here are some guidelines for interpreting results:

i. Review the research question or hypothesis: Start by revisiting the research question or hypothesis

that guided the study. This will help to focus the interpretation of results on the specific objectives of the

study.

ii. Examine the data: Review the data collected and analyzed for the study. Identify any patterns, trends,

or relationships that emerged from the data.

iii. Use statistical analysis: If statistical analysis was used, review the results of the tests and analyze the

level of significance. Determine whether the findings are statistically significant, and if so, what this

means in terms of the research question or hypothesis.

iv. Compare to previous research: Compare the findings to those of previous research in the field. If the

findings are consistent with previous research, discuss how they contribute to the body of knowledge in

the field. If they differ, explain why and discuss the implications of these differences.

v. Discuss limitations: Identify any limitations of the study, such as sample size or methodological issues,

and discuss how these may have affected the results.

vi. Draw conclusions: Based on the data analysis, draw conclusions that address the research question or

hypothesis. Make sure to provide evidence to support the conclusions drawn.

vii. Discuss implications: Discuss the implications of the findings for the field, as well as for practice,

policy, or future research.

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7. Statistical techniques of data analysis

Statistical techniques are used to analyze data and draw meaningful conclusions from the results. Here are

some of the most common statistical techniques used in data analysis:

i. Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the basic features of data.

They include measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and range.

Advantages of Descriptive Statistics:

I. Descriptive statistics allows us to present the data in graphical formal. Data presented in a visual
form is much easier to understand. Qualitative data can be presented in the form of bar charts and
pie charts. Numerical data can be presented in the form of dot plots and histograms.

II. The various statistical measures allow us to summarize the central characteristics of the data. For
example, the mean measures the central tendency of the data values. This allows us to obtain a
rough understanding of where the data values lie. This is very important when we are dealing
with a large amount of numerical data.
III. The measures of dispersion such as standard deviation help us to understand how far the data
values are spread away from each other. This is important because it is not easy to determine
how spread apart the data values are when dealing with huge data sets.
IV. Correlation analysis allows us to compare two different characteristics and check whether there
is any relation between them. For example, we can check whether there is any correlation
between height and weight by computing the correlation coefficient of the heights and weights of
a sample of 100 individuals.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Statistics:

1. Descriptive statistics cannot use to make any kind of predictions on the basis of the given data
values. The tools of inferential statistics such as regression analysis allow us to make predictions
about future values of the variable.
2. The data collection process is generally time-consuming and expensive. For example, conducting a
survey in order to collect data involves a lot of work. It is a time-consuming process and quite
expensive since we need to train and pay the interviewers who conduct the survey.
3. Descriptive statistics can be misused in order to deceive and give a false impression to the general
public. For example, simply changing the scale of a graph can lead to misleading conclusions by a
layman not trained in statistics.

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ii. Inferential statistics: The inferential approach uses data to make inferences about a larger population, often

through surveys. The experimental approach allows researchers to control variables and observe their

effects. The simulation approach creates artificial environments to study systems or processes under

controlled conditions. Inferential statistics are used to make inferences about a population based on a sample

of data. These techniques include hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.

Advantages of inferential statistics

Inferential statistics helps to suggest explanations for a situation or phenomenon. It allows you to draw

conclusions based on extrapolations, and is in that way fundamentally different from descriptive statistics that

merely summarize the data that has actually been measured.

Disadvantages of inferential statistics

1. It can be difficult to choose the appropriate statistical method for a given problem, leading to

incorrect conclusions. It assumes that the sample is representative of the population, which may

not always be the case, especially in cases of biased sampling

2. providing data about a population that you have not fully measured, and therefore, cannot ever be

completely sure that the values/statistics you calculate are correct.

iii. Hypothesis testing: Hypothesis testing is used to determine whether a particular hypothesis is true or

false based on the sample data. The hypothesis is tested by comparing the sample data to a null hypothesis,

which is assumed to be true until proven false.

iv. Confidence intervals:

The confidence interval is the range of values that you expect your estimate to fall between a certain

percentage of the time if you run your experiment again or re-sample the population in the same way.

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 A confidence interval is the mean of your estimate plus and minus the variation in that estimate. This is

the range of values you expect your estimate to fall between if you redo your test, within a certain level

of confidence. Confidence intervals are used to estimate the range of values within which a population

parameter is likely to lie. They are based on the sample data and the level of confidence chosen by the

researcher. The confidence level is the percentage of times you expect to reproduce an estimate between

the upper and lower bounds of the confidence interval, and is set by the alpha value.

Confidence, in statistics, is another way to describe probability. For example, if you construct a

confidence interval with a 95% confidence level, you are confident that 95 out of 100 times the estimate

will fall between the upper and lower values specified by the confidence interval.

Your desired confidence level is usually one minus the alpha (α) value you used in your statistical test:

Confidence level = 1 − a

So if you use an alpha value of p < 0.05 for statistical significance, then your confidence level would be 1 −
0.05 = 0.95, or 95%.

P > 0.05 is the probability that the null hypothesis is true. 1 minus the P value is the probability that the

alternative hypothesis is true. A statistically significant test result (P ≤ 0.05) means that the test

hypothesis is false or should be rejected. A P value greater than 0.05 means that no effect was observed.

Regression analysis: Regression analysis is used to examine the relationship between two or more

variables. It involves fitting a regression line to the data and using it to make predictions about the

relationship between the variables. Regression is a helpful statistical concept that helps facilitate

decision-making by determining the correlation between a dependent variable and one or more

independent variables.

v. Analysis of variance (ANOVA):

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The total variation present in a set of data may be partitioned into a number of non-overlapping

components as per the nature of the classification. The systematic procedure to achieve this is called

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). With the help of such a partitioning, some testing of hypothesis may be

performed.

Importance of Analysis of Variance

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) had been employed only for the experimental data from the

Randomized Designs but later they have been used for analyzing survey and secondary data from the

Descriptive Research. Analysis of Variance may also be visualized as a technique to examine a

dependence relationship where the response (dependence) variable is metric (measured on interval or

ratio scale) and the factors (independent variables) are categorical in nature with a number of categories

more than two.

ANOVA is used to compare the means of two or more groups. It tests whether there is a significant

difference between the groups based on the sample data.

Types of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

If the values of the response variable have been affected by only one factor (different categories of

single factor), then there will be only one assignable reason by which data is sub-divided, then the

corresponding analysis will be known as One-Way Analysis of Variance. The example (Ventura Sales)

comes in this category. Other examples may be: examining the difference in analytical-aptitude among

students of various subject-streams (like engineering graduates, management graduates, statistics

graduates); impact of different modes of advertisements on brand-acceptance of consumer durables etc.

On the other hand, if we consider the effect of more than one assignable cause (different categories of

multiple factors) on the response variable then the corresponding analysis is known as N-Way ANOVA

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(N>=2). In particular, if the impact of two factors (having multiple categories) been considered on the

dependent (response) variable then that is known as Two-Way ANOVA. For example: in the Ventura

Sales, if along with geographical-regions (Northern, Eastern, Western and Southern), one more factor

‘type of outlet’ (Rural and Urban) has been considered then the corresponding analysis will be Two-

Way ANOVA. More examples: examining the difference in analytical-aptitude among students of

various subject-streams and geographical locations; the impact of different modes of advertisements and

occupations on brand-acceptance of consumer durables etc.

Two-Way ANOVA may be further classified into two categories:

Two-Way ANOVA with one observation per cell: there will be only one observation in each cell

(combination). Suppose, we have two factors A (having m categories) and B (having n categories), So,

there will be N= m*n total observations with one observation(data-point) in each of (Ai Bj) cell

(combination), i=1, 2, ……., m and j= 1, 2, …..n. Here, the effect of the two factors may be examined.

Two-Way ANOVA with multiple observations per cell: there will be multiple observations in each

cell (combination). Here, along with the effect of two factors, their interaction effect may also be

examined. Interaction effect occurs when the impact of one factor (assignable cause) depends on the

category of other assignable cause (factor) and so on. For examining interaction-effect it is necessary

that each cell (combination) should have more than one observation so it may not be possible in the

earlier Two-Way ANOVA with one observation per cell.

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ANOVA

Sale of the outlet (Rs.’000)

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 1182.803 3 394.268 10.771 .000

Within Groups 2049.780 56 36.603

Total 3232.583 59

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vi. Factor analysis: Factor analysis is used to identify underlying factors or dimensions in a set of data. It

helps to reduce the complexity of the data by grouping similar variables together.

vii. Cluster analysis: Cluster analysis is used to group similar objects or individuals together based on a set

of characteristics. It helps to identify patterns in the data and can be used for market segmentation or

customer profiling.

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