Chapter One

Introduction to communication

What is communication and why is it important?

Communication is defined as the sending of messages for a purpose. These messages

include factual information, ideas, opinions, thoughts and feelings. Boone and Kurtz
(1992) view communication as the transfer and understanding of meaning. According
to them perfect communication exists when the receiver perceives the idea or a
transmitted thought exactly as the sender envisioned it. For effective communication
to be achieved, meaning must be shared accurately. Communication plays a number
of roles including the following:
 Initiating action
 By expressing the need
 Through persuasion
 Information in order to
 Create awareness
 Create understanding
 Persuade
 Influence other people
 Establishing and maintaining relationships

There are four main communication skills namely:

 Writing
 Reading
 Speaking
 Listening

Communication may be at any of the following levels.

 Intrapersonal
 Interpersonal
 Impersonal
 Small group
 Public speaking
 Ò

Communication may be formal, informal, or academic. Formal communication is the

officially accepted way of communicating. It is what is considered correct and
suitable for official use and therefore it is officially recognized.

Informal communication, on the other hand, does not follow established procedures. It
is casual and, therefore, not official. When information or news is passed from one
person to another among friends in an organization, it is said to be the grapevine.

Students’ academic work involves tasks that are assigned by lecturers some of these
tasks culminate in academic writing which is assessed using academic standards.

1.2 Communication process

You may feel that communication is something you have always done and that, at this
stage there is no need for learning it. This is because communication is a deceptively
simple concept, which in reality involves a complex process, further complicated by a
variety of factors including motives, relationships, situations, resources available and
language use. Communication skills are not in-born. This necessitates training in
this important aspect of management.

For instance, people accept messages more readily if the message and sender are
credible and the message is congenial. Credibility and congeniality entail factors
such as perceived authority, perceived intentions, compatibility and whether the
message is psychologically satisfying to the receiver or not. Congenial messages are
those that fulfill a number of factors such as consideration for the recipient’s
needs and interests. The two key players in the communication process are the
sender and the receiver of the message. Effective communication is a two-way
process and it is best expressed as a cycle. The communication process can be
illustrated as follows:

Noise Noise

Source Encoding Channel Decoding Receiver

Message
Distortion Distortion

Message
Feedback
Noise………..

(a) Source: Robbins, 1994

The above communication model is made up of eight elements namely (1) the source
or sender of the message, (2) the message itself (3) encoding, (4) channel or the route,
(5) medium or the tool used (6) decoding the words or symbols used, (7) the receiver
and (8) feedback. The following is a more detailed picture of the communication
process.
2
 Ò

Impulse to communicate
Deciding to communicate and what to communicate is the first stage of the process.
For example, you might conceive an idea, think over it for a while and then decide to
send it.

Encoding the message

In order to turn your idea into a message, you select the symbols that will transmit the
idea. Words, numbers, diagrams, etc are like a code which the receiver is expected to
understand. If the sender’s selection of symbols is inaccurate, or if the receiver does
not share it, the receiver may not decode it. Thus for effective communication, the
sender must endeavour to encode the message in symbols that are mutually
understood to both the sender and the receiver.

Relaying the information

The sender decides what medium to use. This involves decisions on whether the
message should be written e.g. a letter, report or proposal, whether visuals are needed
to illustrate some of the points and exactly what those visuals should be, or
alternatively whether oral communication is the most appropriate medium in the
situation.

The choice of medium depends on factors such as:

(a) the time necessary to prepare and transmit the message

(b) the complexity of the message
(c) the distance the message is required to travel
(d) the need for a written record
(e) the need for interaction or instant feedback
(f) the need for confidentiality
(g) the need for persuasion
(h) the cost of transmitting the message

Relaying the message also involves decisions on the most appropriate channel to use.
This route may be a notice board, house journal, and telecommunication or computer
systems.

Decoding and interpreting the message

The receiver needs to understand the message. Sometimes what the message says is
not what it means. Reading between the lines, or considering the context of the
message may enable the receiver to arrive at the real meaning. Interpretation may be
affected by the relationship between the sender and the receiver.

Giving feedback
Feedback is the reaction of the receiver to the sender that indicates to the sender that
the message has been received and whether it has or has not been understood. This is
a very important stage in the communication process because without it, the sender of
the message has no guarantee that communication has been successful.

3
 Ò

Feedback may be positive or negative. A letter confirming receipt of message or

action taken as requested is an example of positive feedback. On the other hand, no
action, wrong action taken, request for more information, a blank look or no written
response provides negative feedback.

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

How should a manager handle negative feedback?

1.3 Media and channels

Messages are transmitted from the sender to the receiver using different media and
channels. One may say that media are vehicles that transport the messages while
channels are the routes the messages take to get to the intended receivers.

The sender decides what medium to use. This involves decisions on whether the
message should be written, whether visuals are needed to illustrate some points and
exactly what those visuals should be; or, alternatively, whether oral communication is
the most appropriate medium in the situation.

The following are the major media and channels.

1. Written communication e.g.
 Memoranda
 Letters
 Reports
 Proposals
 Minutes
2. Oral e.g.
 Meetings
 Interviews
 Presentations
 Briefings
 Public address
 Telephone calls
 Informal discussions
 conversations
3. Electronic e.g.
 Internet
 Email
 Websites
 Teleconferencing
4. Visual e.g.
 Graphs
 Charts
 Pictures
 Diagrams

5 Nonverbal
4
 Ò

 Body language (kinesics) e.g. grooming, posture, eye contact.

 Paralanguage (acoustics) e.g. tone of voice, tempo, pitch.
 Touching behavior (tacesics) e.g. handshake.
 Use of space (proxemics) e.g. comfort zone, personal distance. Contact –
18 inches : intimate; 18 inches – 4 feet: personal space / close friends; 4
feet – 12 feet: social space; 12 feet – public space.
 Use of time (chronomics) e.g. punctuality, willingness to listen,
absenteeism.
 Artifacts e.g. environment language such as. surroundings, interior
decoration, furniture.

The choice of media depends on factors such as the following:

 The need for a written record
 Need for interaction or instant feedback
 Need for persuasion
 The need for confidentiality
 The time necessary to prepare and transmit the message
 Complexity of the message
 The cost of transmitting the message
 The distance the message is required to travel

1.4 Non verbal communication

We communicate both verbally and non verbally. Non-verbal communication (nvc)
means communicating without using words. It is said that 65% of meaning is
conveyed through nonverbal cues while the verbal message carries the remaining
35%.

Sometimes nvc accompanies words; at other times it is independent of verbal

communication. Sometimes it reinforces what is said verbally; at other times it
contradicts verbal communication. It is culturally specific. Some nvc is deliberate but
sometimes the sender is not aware of it.

Nonverbal communication is important in face-to-face interactions and

communicators need to take control of it for professionalism and for the creation of a
consistently positive organisational image.

Non – verbal communication may be categorised as follows:

 Body language: This includes facial expressions, a smile, eye contact,
gestures, touching behaviour, comfort zones, posture, and orientation.
 Tone or vocal characteristics technically called paralanguage: Tone of voice
or how something is said can communicate interest or disinterest, courtesy,
concern and a caring attitude or coldness, confidence or lack of it, inferiority
complex, professional or carefree attitude, enthusiasm, anger, rudeness and
other emotions.
 Appearance: This is to do with appropriateness in grooming. One’s
appearance can indicate a serious and professional disposition or a

5
 Ò

casual attitude. What is important is observing an appropriate dress code.

 Surroundings: This concerns the physical context of an interaction and covers
such things as size of room, cleanliness, ambience, furniture, decoration, -
whether these portray the right messages and a professional image or not.

In general, we are much more aware of other people’s non verbal cues and sensitive to
possible meanings in them than we are of the things we are doing ourselves and the
meanings they convey.

It is important to remember that what one does or fails to do, or indeed silence
communicates messages which the sender may not be aware of or may be
unintentional. One, therefore, needs to be mindful of the messages they could be
sending.

When non-verbal communication contradicts verbal messages the receiver believes

the non- verbal communication. Communicators need to be mindful of how they are
saying what they are saying.

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

What non-verbal cues are important for the creation of a positive image in your context?

1.5 Barriers to communication

As noted earlier, one of the definitions of communication is the transfer and
understanding of meaning. Perfect communication is where the receiver perceives the
idea or transmitted thought exactly as envisioned by the sender.

One may say that communication is simple since it is something they have always
done. However, communication is deceptively simple since in reality, communication
is not always successful. This is because communication is complicated by a variety
of factors such as relationships, resources available, expectations, motives poor
listening skills and language use.

Effective communication skills are not inborn. The possibility of ineffective

communication is, therefore high. Communication may fail due to different problems
called barriers to communication. Barriers may be categorized as physical, social,
technical, psychological, physiological and semantic. Below are some of the major
roadblocks. Briefly explain what each of these barriers means and how each can be
overcome.

Roadblock Notes
Noise
Distortion
Inappropriate media & channel
Attitudes
Differences in perception

Assumptions
Premature evaluation & Halo effect

6
 Ò

Emotions
Beliefs & cultural differences
Gender
Stereotyping
Ethnocentrism
Gate keeping
Poor interpersonal relationships
Bypassing

1.6 A framework for planning non-routine messages:

There is no formula like those in Mathematics and Statistics that one can use to
achieve effective writing. Good writing is a product of a number of considerations
Non-routine messages require much more thought than routine messages. One
strategy that will help you to produce effective non-routine messages is applying a
framework each time you produce such messages.

Use the following mnemonic: PASS. This stands for

Purpose
Audience
Structure and
Style

To communicate effectively you need to know:

 what you want to achieve;
 the person or persons who will read the document in written communication, or
the audience, if it is oral communication;
 what points to include and how to order them;
 how to present the message.

Purpose and audience

Briefly explain why you need to know

a) your purpose
b) your audience

Generally, you will find yourself lobbying superiors for a favourable decision.
Hattersley and McJannet (1997) point out that taking a clear stand is important when
communicating with superiors. It is worth noting, however, that however strongly you
feel about your point of view, it will not prevail without support from the audience
whose approval you need for implementation. The rule of thumb for such a situation
is that you use the sell approach. This is because you are in command of the
information, but your audience retains the ultimate decision making power.

What is the significance of the above paragraph?

Your audience analysis and adaptation of your message to the audience is a crucial
strategy in effective communication. Knowing your audience’s attitudes towards your
idea helps you to address those attitudes in your message. Successful communicators
7
 Ò

put themselves in others’ shoes. It therefore helps to ask yourself the question: Who is
my audience?

Structure
Structure includes the content and how this content is ordered. Two aspects that guide
your choice of content are: relevance and pertinence. The purpose of your message
and the audience will determine what is relevant and pertinent.

Make sure you understand the two terms:

a) Relevance

b) Pertinence

While both pertinent and relevant details are useful in a message, where you have a
lot of information, pertinent information is more important than relevant details.
Never include irrelevant details.

Disorganised content has been listed as one of the barriers to communication. It is

therefore important to carefully select what to say and in what order the points should
be presented. Your purpose and the attitude of your audience towards the issue
determine what is pertinent and how the content should be ordered.

Study the following

Positive Your approach

attitude This audience simply needs to be motivated and given a plan
of action. Let them know how important they are and what
This audience they can do to help you. Make their job as easy and as
already supports rewarding as you can.
you
This audience needs a simple and clear statement of your case.
You need to present the evidence in support of your position.

8
 Ò

Neutral Use tools of rational persuasion. Convince your audience that

the idea is good to pursue. (More on persuasion later).

If you anticipate counter proposals, you need to show why

your idea is better by stating the weaknesses of the other ideas.
This group will want to hear the pro arguments first.

Hostile Show that you understand their point of view and explain why
The audience is you still believe in your project.
against your idea
and may never Skeptical or hostile audience members won’t pay attention to
support you. your positive arguments until their concerns have been
addressed. You will increase your credibility by recognising
the merits of opponents’ arguments while simultaneously
noting weaknesses and offering counter arguments.

The above approaches suggest different structures for different purposes and
audiences namely:

Pro con…….…From ‘for’ to ‘against’

Con pro……... From ‘against’ to ‘for’
Deductive…from ‘general’ to ‘particular’
Inductive…from ‘specific’ to ‘general’
Ascending…from least to most important point
Descending…from the most important to the least important point

Your audience analysis and appropriate structure may be summarized as follows:

Audience Argument
Interested Pro-con
Supportive Deductive
Informed Descending
Unengaged Con-pro
Hostile Inductive
Uninformed Ascending
Academic Academic

You must be able to select the right structure for your intended purpose and your
audience when structuring a document and for different sections of long documents.

Style
Once you have selected the points you want to make and the order in which they
should appear, the most delicate task is to choose language that is audience-sensitive,
clear, forceful, persuasive and memorable. Style can be defined as the art of packing
the maximum amount of meaning into the minimum number of words. The main
criterion for style is appropriateness. The style should suit the purpose, the audience,
and the occasion.

9
 Ò

An effective style starts with correct and concise use of the language: accurate
grammar, precise words, well built sentences and paragraphs, active verbs, and a
clear thesis that runs from the beginning to the end of your communication.

1.7 Principles of effective communication.

The communicator must adhere to the principles of effective communication,
sometimes referred to as the Twelve C’s of effective communication. In order to
communicate effectively in your communications such as essays, proposals, reports
and oral presentations you need to apply the 12Cs. These are listed below.

 Context
 Content
 Completeness
 Conciseness
 Clarity
 Consistency
 Correctness
 Concreteness
 Credibility
 Consideration
 Courtesy
 Coherence
These principles are explained and illustrated below.

CONTEXT

Context means circumstances in which something happens or in which something is

to be considered. Providing a context helps to create a common understanding to an
issue which helps to overcome differences in perception.

CONTENT

This refers to the subject matter or things to be written about. It involves decisions on
what to include in the communication and what should be left out.

COMPLETENESS

Completeness means giving all the necessary details. Therefore,

 Include all the facts the reader needs for you to achieve your purpose.
 Answer all questions stated and implied. If you have no information on a
question say so.
 Give something extra when desirable.
 Check for five W’s & H, i.e. who, what, where, when, why and how.

10
 Ò

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

How can this principle be applied in your academic assignments?

CONCISENESS

Conciseness means giving a lot of information in few words

 This is probably the most important writing principle. Conciseness means

saying all you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing
completeness and courtesy.

Hattersley and McJannet (1997) point out that

Most weak reports, presentations, and communication assignments fail to get to the point.
They tend to wander around among the data and possible solutions.

Major causes of irrelevancy

i) not sticking to the purpose of the message
ii) including information obvious to the reader
iii) using big words to make an impression
iv) not writing to the point / circumlocution
v) writing long introductions
vi) including too much explanation
vii) not revising the first draft
viii) including unnecessary background information

CONCRETENESS

Concreteness means being specific or using facts and figures.

 Avoid vague expression. The following words can lead to uncertainty: large,
several, soon, etc.
 Use specific facts and figures. General words have different meanings to the
sender and the receiver of the message.
 Use active, rather than passive words.

CLARITY
Clarity means the quality of being clear or easy to read. Your reader should
understand what you are trying to convey. The reader should interpret your words
with the same meaning you have in mind.

To make your writing clear, use short, familiar, conversational words, when you have
a choice between a long word and a short one, use the short, familiar word

CREDIBILITY
11
 Ò

Credibility means being believable, trustworthy and accepted. You are more likely to
persuade people if they like, trust and have confidence in you.

Since communication from a manager carries authority and commitment, the sender
needs to compose messages with care. It is therefore important not to:
 make promises which you do not have the means to keep;
 offer misleading information that can create disappointment and open the
organisation to complaints or even legal action;
 make untrue, unsupported or potentially damaging statements about other people.

Apply integrity to your messages.

 Don’t go against company policy.
 Avoid corrupt practices.
 Be truthful and sincere.
 Honest conduct is a must.

CONSISTENCY

Consistency is the quality of being consistent; following a pattern, not changing.

CONSIDERATION

Consideration means being thoughtful and careful not to hurt others. Prepare every
message with the recipient in mind. Try to put yourself in the recipient’s place.
Visualise the readers with their needs, desires, problems, etc and handle the matter
from their point of view. Keep your audience in mind from the beginning until you
finish. Consideration means you are genuinely thoughtful of your message recipient
and consider their probable reactions to your message. This is known as an audience-
centred approach, the ‘you attitude’, empathy, or understanding of human nature.

CORRECTNESS

Correctness means right, accurate, or without mistakes. It covers all kinds of things
such as, the details of your message, is your information correct? What about the
sentence construction? Are words you are using correct? What about your grammar,
spellings and punctuation? Have you spelt people’s names correctly? Have you used
correct titles such as Dr, Mrs, etcetra? Also remember to use the correct level of
language. There are three levels, Formal, Informal and Substandard.

The formal level is used in legal documents and top-level agreements. Informal
language is used in business letters, proposals, reports, memos etc.

Substandard English is not acceptable. Express yourself in standard, conversational

English.

Include only accurate facts, words, and figures. Verify all statements and figures
before writing. The sender needs to compose messages with care. It is important not
to make promises you do not have the powers to fulfill.
12
 Ò

COHERENCE

Coherence is to do with being logical and easy to read. It means ‘hanging together’ so
that the meaning is clear.

 Related ideas and details must be close to each other. Avoid misplaced
modifiers.
 Sentences and paragraphs must be properly connected.

Pause for thought

Critique this section in terms of consistency

1.8 Persuasion

Bovee, Thill and Schatzman (2000; 265) define persuasion as ‘the attempt to change
an audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and actions’ and effective persuasion as ‘the ability to
present a message in a way that will lead others to support it’ It makes audiences feel
they have a choice and they choose to agree. It focuses on getting other people to do
what you want them to do while preserving other people’s freedom to do whatever
they want.

A persuasive message is a message that influences the opinions, attitudes or actions of

the receiver. It is concerned with establishing facts, changing people’s values or
deeply held beliefs, or influencing policy.

Persuasion Strategies
There are three general strategies.

1. Credibility
You are more likely to persuade people if they like, trust and have confidence in you.
The following attributes contribute to one’s credibility:

a) Competence: This attribute demonstrates that the persuader knows what he

or she is talking about and shows that she is able to accomplish what she is
saying.
b) Worthy intentions: Other people need to perceive the persuader’s motives
as objective and honest.
c) Character: the sender of the message should be seen as ethical, industrious
and dependable.
d) Personality: The receiver needs to perceive the persuader as a friendly,
caring, enthusiastic and someone with a positive outlook on life.

2 Logical Reasoning
People are rational and they desire to understand why a particular action is desirable
before they can do it. They want to be convinced that a particular course of action is

13
 Ò

desirable before they can support it. It is therefore useful to anticipate a negative
response and think of the reasons you can give. Using logical arguments entails
having convincing facts and understanding your audience, as well as taking into
account the audience’s goals, needs and interests. Persuaders use the existing values
of the audience as a basis for creating a persuasive message. Make sure you present
the best arguments possible. Do not use all the possible reasons you can think of.
Choose the reasons that: -

 uphold what you are proposing

 you can support using facts
 will appeal to the person you are trying to persuade.

3. Emotional Appeal
To influence/persuade people, use language that touches the audience’s emotions.
Choose your words carefully aiming at appealing to the audience’s fears, love, joy or
frustration. For example, Rogers (1975) proposes the following as the factors that
make fear appeals effective:
 The amount of harmfulness of something.
 The likelihood of the listener being affected.
 How well the action being recommended is likely to work.

Zeuschner (1997: 290) states that:

If the degree of harm seems overly exaggerated, the audience will dismiss the
problem. Or an audience may agree that the problem being discussed is bad but feel
that it does not apply to them. It is therefore unlikely that they will feel involved
enough to modify an existing attitude or behaviour. Finally an audience may find
that the problem is indeed terrible and believe that there is a chance it will happen to
them, yet do not adopt the solution or action.

Ethics deal with whether something is right or wrong. For instance, the following
relate to the above persuasion strategies.

 In terms of competence – the communicator should demonstrate that he/she

knows that they are talking about. For instance, in a proposal, the sender must
demonstrate that they are able to accomplish their claims.
 In terms of worthy intentions – other people should perceive the persuader as
objective and honest.
 In terms of Character – the sender should be seen as dependable.
 In terms of Personality – T receiver should perceive the sender as friendly,
caring and someone with a positive outlook on life.

In Logical reasoning, it is useful to anticipate a negative response and think of reasons

you can give.

Note that if you exaggerate anything, the audience will dismiss your idea.

The following are important ethics of persuasion.

 Treat your audience with respect. Respect opponents’ views.

14
 Ò

 Tell the truth. Be accurate.

 Distinguish facts from opinions.
 Avoid exaggeration and distortion of facts.
 Do not try to persuade your audience by discrediting others.
 Avoid lying and name-calling. Don’t use mudslinging.
 Avoid suppressing key information.
 Avoid making trivial, irrelevant and false claims.
 Do not make unsubstantiated claims. Provide the evidence and sources of
information. Make no claim or assertion unless you can support it with good
reasons.
 Do not wander from your main point.
 In academic communication, avoid plagiarism at all cost.

1.9 The writing process and academic writing

Readers expect official documents and academic papers to be error free. The
communicators have, therefore, the enormous task of making sure that the documents
they produce are perfect. Your lecturers expect well written and properly documented
academic papers. To ensure that your written communications meet the expected
standards, the writing process passes through the following stages: drafting, revising,
editing and proof reading.

Lannon (1998) makes the following observation:

Unfortunately, effective writing is not a gift from the muse but the result of labour that can be
long and even painful. Writing is a complex intellectual, emotional, and creative process. It
requires analysing and synthesising diverse bits of knowledge, understanding human
psychology so as to anticipate readers’ responses … It means sometimes having faith in what
you have said and how you have said it, and sometimes regarding your own writing
skeptically.

Academic writing
Academic endeavours apply to teaching and learning. Academic writing
involves a great amount of reading. The writing applies to theoretical interests
especially at university. This genre is bound by an accepted academic discourse
and the writer must abide by it. In other words, academic writing may be
considered to be formal as opposed to informal communication. This is because
there are universally accepted ways of presenting an academic paper.

Academic writing is impersonal, targeting a critical and informed audience

based on closely investigated knowledge and intended to reinforce or challenge
concepts or arguments. it is objective. It is important to distinguish between
fact and opinion. It circulates within the academic world. It is also known as
scholarly writing.

It clearly states the significance of the topic and is organized with adequate
detail so that other scholars may try to replicate the results.

15
 Ò

The academic writer’s purpose is to influence the readers to think differently.

The academic writer must follow the constraints set by the discourse
community so that his or her ideas earn approval and respect. The constraints
are the discourse community’s written and unwritten conventions about what a
writer can say and how he or she can say it. The writer is expected to construct
his or her argument using acceptable conventional style and is expected to use
established citations within the text.

Flouting these guidelines, results in substandard papers. The following

considerations enhance your performance.
 Planning and focusing on purpose
 Gathering information
 Selecting and prioritising
 Developing a central argument / thesis
 Drafting and substantiating your claims
 Documenting your sources / acknowledging your sources
 Revising and editing to ensure clarity and appropriate language use. Check
on the following:

- Is it focused on purpose or central argument?

- Is the content worthwhile?
- Is it properly structured?
- Is borrowed material from published sources properly acknowledged
and citations correctly documented within the text?
- Note that academic discourse is: -
i. Formal
ii. It is bound by syntactic rules e.g.
 Subject – verb agreement: correct grammar is a must
since meaning is distorted by wrong grammar.
 No fragments: Write complete statements.
iii. It is linguistically and grammatically complex: it compresses
related details into single sentences using embedding,
subordination and co-ordination, thus creating lexical density.
iv. It uses agent less passive construction and nominalisation.
v. The writing is reflective and argumentative.
vi. It uses analysis and interpretation.
vii. It uses specialist language and precise vocabulary. Your
words must express exactly what you want to say.
viii. It uses conventional punctuation and cohesive devices.
ix. Redundancy is a negative feature hindering communication.
Repeat only when necessary.
 Documentation of borrowed material is a very important feature of
academic writing. Different academic disciplines use different styles e.g.
MLA, APA, Chicago and Harvard referencing.
 Providing References using appropriate style
 Proofreading – ensure all is well and that there are no typing errors.

Structure and style of an academic paper

16
 Ò

A properly structured academic paper has an introduction, body and conclusion. The
introductory paragraph generally accomplishes some tasks and follows basic patterns.
For instance, the introduction introduces the topic, clearly defining the boundaries of
the subject area. It indicates the structure of the essay, often with the major sections of
the essay clearly stated. It also states the thesis of the essay, preferably in a single,
arguable statement.

The impression set in the introduction sets the stage for the writer’s opinion. It is
therefore important to set the right stage for the rest of the essay. Start with a sentence
that draws the reader’s interest The sentence then leads to several sentences that
provide details about the subject. These sentences set the stage for the thesis statement.
In short, an introduction should contain an attention grabbing first sentence;
informative sentences that build to the thesis which makes a claim or a view that will
be supported in the rest of the write-up.

The following paragraphs develop your argument. A paragraph is a collection of

sentences that forms a unit of thought. A sentence is a group of words with a subject
and a finite verb and makes a complete sense. A paragraph contains one idea which is
normally expressed in a topic sentence. The topic sentence tells the reader what the
paragraph is about. It is a promise to the reader and this promise must be fulfilled.
Avoid the question topic sentence.

The topic sentence is normally placed at the beginning of the paragraph but it can be
at the end of the paragraph. The topic sentence is supported by writing a number of
sentences which develop the idea. These sentences play different roles such as: clarify
the topic sentence by providing detailed information, illustrate the idea, provide
documentary evidence, etc.

To document it means to prove or support something by documentary evidence. The

purpose of documentation is to help your reader to understand the write up by
informing him/her of the information you are presenting. Documentation is important
because readers are unlikely to accept your arguments unless you support them with
convincing evidence.

Within the write up you provide verification of your evidence in a number of ways:
You use quotations and paraphrases e.g.

Quotation: Kraschen (1993) pointed out that

Academic success depends on students comprehending the language of text. The language of text
is found in books. Thus, students’ knowledge of academic Language and their ability to use
academic language coherently in their own writing is crucially dependent on the amount and
variety of what they read (Cummins 1996, p. 80).

Short quotations are presented within the paragraph e.g. According to Biggs (1999)
“the objectives define what we should be teaching; how we should be teaching it and
how we could know how well students have learnt it” (p. 64).

17
 Ò

The following is a paraphrase. On assessment Biggs argues that lack of alignment can
result in students getting good marks when they should not. This is typed using the
font of the text.

Sometimes it is necessary to use footnotes or endnotes. Find out how this is done in
your discipline or discourse community.

Your conclusion is your opportunity to wrap-up your essay. You summarise what you
have written about in your paper. You may remind the reader your thesis statement so
as to inform him or her that you have accomplished what you set out to do. Claim a
modest achievement. The conclusion should contain a definite, positive statement or
call to action. That statement needs to be based on what has been provided in the
essay.

Do not bring up new ideas in the conclusion. Any idea that comes to mind should be
presented in its own paragraph earlier in the essay.

The list of references or publications consulted should be on a separate page and

presented in alphabetical order e.g.

Barton D, (1994), Literacy, Oxford, Blackwell.

Biggs J, (1999), Teaching for Quality Learning at University, Buckingham, Open

University Press.

Katenje NA (2014), ‘Feminism in Nuruddin Farah’s From a Crooked Rib and

Sardines’ in Uledi-Kamanga, BJ, (Ed) Society and the Arts: Studies in Gender,
Literature and Language, edited by Kachere Series, Zomba.

Again, please find out how references are presented in your discourse community.
Please note that references are neither bulleted nor numbered. Also note the
consistency in the presentation.

Please remember that academic writing is largely persuasive. Therefore, you need to
apply persuasion strategies, especially logical reasoning.

Also remember that effective writing is not inborn. It is a result of effort. Ensure that
meaning is transferred accurately and economically.

As noted earlier, formal communication follows agreed rules or conventions.

Academic writing belongs to such type of writing. Academic writing includes: essays,
examinations, research papers, and books. When one writes in order to explain an
issue, present a report, one’s views or position, this is called exposition. Academic
writing often requires developing an exposition with a well developed argument. It is
therefore an absolute necessity that you abide by the conventions of academic writing.

Since messages are sent for a purpose, it is absolutely necessary to keep in mind the
purpose of the message in order to avoid purposeless writing.

18
 Ò

Lannon (1998) suggests the following three key considerations that enable the
communicator to achieve worthwhile content.
 credibility
 informative value
 completeness

Important

Find out which referencing style your discipline uses and make sure you understand how it is
used.

Adopt the style that is applicable to you and use it in your academic assignments,

Checklist for effective writing

1 The writer has got to the main point quickly.
2 Good writing has an introduction, body and conclusion. Write the
introduction in the way that makes readers want to read on.
3 It has a clear thesis (main idea) that runs from the beginning to the end of
the write up.
4 Each paragraph is on one idea. The idea is normally expressed at the
beginning of the paragraph. The sentences that follow develop the idea so
that it is clear to the reader.
5 Only the best material has been used.
6 Different ideas are properly linked together so that the whole write up
reads like one unit.
7 The order of the paragraphs should reveal a clear line of thought.
8 Points are made in the fewest words.
9 In a long paper, each section has an orienting statement.
10 Everything belongs, nothing can be cut.
11 The reader learns something new and useful.
12 Every assertion is supported with enough details.
13 Borrowed material is properly documented and a reference list is provided.
14 Make sure the paper / document conforms to accepted style.

15 Logical reasoning is the main persuasion strategy. Avoid illogical

reasoning.
16 Statements are made in fluent English.
17 Technical jargon is not used unnecessarily. If it has to be used, it is defined
or explained.
18 The write up adheres to principles of effective communication: the 12Cs.
19 Make your writing reader friendly.
20 Eliminate sexist language.

1.10 Evaluative writing

This section presents the basic features of evaluative writing. Evaluative writing is
typical in academic papers including dissertations, and some business writing.
Evaluative writing generally includes four basic features: an adequately described
subject, a definitive judgment, a convincing argument, and pointed comparisons.

19
 Ò

An adequately described subject

Identify and describe the subject in some detail depending on what you think the
reader needs to know. Provide only enough information to allow the reader to
understand and accept your judgment.

A definitive judgment State your judgment directly about the value of the subject.
This is your thesis or the main point of your writing.

A convincing argument: Present a convincing argument to support your judgment.

Your argument must be based on reasonable criteria and supporting evidence. An
evaluative argument also depends on the reader’s confidence in the writer’s expertise
and fairness. You need to demonstrate your knowledge of the subject and your
credentials. A reasonable tone, of impartiality and authority are also important.

Pointed comparison: This aspect is necessary because of the relative nature of

evaluative writing. Subjects are often judged in terms of the general category to which
they belong and are usually compared to other instances of that category.

The Discourse of critical evaluation

In academic discourse, refutation of an argument, theory or claim usually follows a
certain form and makes use of specific language. This section covers the language of
academic debate and the language of refuting an argument. It also presents guidelines
on how evidence is presented in academic writing.

The language of argumentation

People Verb
argue that
Axelrod and Cooper assert that
One could believe that
say that
claim that
are of the opinion that
contend that
maintain that

Collins (1999) points out that……………

This argument is based on………………
Investigators have found ……………….

The language of refuting an argument

20
 Ò

This is unlikely because……………………………..

This is doubtful because…………………………….
This argument is open to criticism because……...
There are problems with this argument. For instance……
Contrary to this view, it might be argued that……………

1.11 Reading critically

Information gathering for a number of communications entails reading.

Critical readers do not just read for information. They do not simply accept the texts’
authority but question its assertions and information. Critical reading entails critical
thinking and can, therefore, be one of the most challenging human activities for it
tests the limits of our patience and intellect.

When you read critically, you read purposefully, sympathetically, analytically and
systematically. In order to read critically, you must be prepared to read actively, with
pencil in hand and to perform specific operations on the text. This section offers
strategies for critical reading.

Strategies for critical reading

The following activities enable you to be a critical reader.

 Previewing: This helps you to orient yourself and to get the most from your
reading. Take the following steps.
 Consider the author and how much you can trust him or her.
 Reflect on what the title suggests about the reading.
 Classify the text as to genre (genre means text type,
e.g. reports and proposals).
 Skim the reading, noting your first impressions.

 Annotating: This involves noting key words, phrases, sentences and writing
comments or questions in the margins. The notes can be written on a separate
piece of paper. This helps the reader to focus and sustain a critical reading.
Annotating a text also includes writing your reactions, definitions, main ideas
and underlining any other important features e.g. special use of language.

 Outlining: This involves making an outline of what you have read on a

separate piece of paper. This is necessary if you wish to remember what you
have read. Outlining as you read leads you to focus on important ideas
contained in the text.

 Taking inventory: This means looking for patterns of meaning.

 Analyzing an argument
An argument is basically a group of statements that have a special relationship
to one another. A statement or claim or conclusion is asserted as true on the
basis of the other statements. The other statements offer reasons or evidence
or assumptions. Reading and thinking about an argument critically requires
21
 Ò

identifying the claim and the supporting statements and then evaluating the
argument.

Writers use words that signal that claims are being made. Cues such as: suggests,
points to, demonstrates that, consequently, and other such expressions signal that
claims are being made. Other cues indicate that supporting statements are being
presented. For instance, expressions like in view of, because, as shown, the following
reasons, and others indicate that supporting details are being presented.

Regarding analysing an argument, Axelrod and Cooper (1987) suggest the

following.

If an argument provides few or no clues, you can identify the role of the statements by asking
certain questions. To identify the claim, ask: What point is the writer trying to establish? What
is being asserted as true? What is the writer trying to convince me of? To identify the
supporting statements, ask: Why should I accept this claim as true? What reasons or evidence
does the writer give for this claim? On what basis should I accept this claim?

These questions will help you to identify the claim as well as the reasons. Having
done this, a critical reader evaluates the argument.

Evaluating an argument
A successful argument uses logical appeal. When judging the logic of an argument,
check whether the supporting evidence is dependable. Test factual accuracy of the
evidence. Secondly, check on the compatibility of statistical data to the claims that are
being made. Thirdly, check on the examples used. Are they typical and therefore
generalisable? Check on the relevance and credibility of the authorities that have been
cited.

Check on the appropriateness of the evidence. Check whether the evidence really
supports the claim. Check for consistency. All the evidence must work

together to support the claim. If there is any contradiction, this raises questions in the
reader as to the validity of the claim.

You also need to remember that some writers involve their readers emotionally. Some
use highly charged language to manipulate the readers’ emotions.

Checklist: Thinking Critically

 Does the topic cover pertinent issues?
 Evaluate research in terms of its validity.
 Is the organisation of ideas and supporting material both logical and
persuasive?
 Evaluate examples, illustrations, testimony and statistics used to support an
assertion.
 Evaluate efforts made to adapt the message to suit the audience’s demographic
characteristics, attitudes and predisposition.
 Evaluate language use: is it appropriate to the message and the audience? Is it
direct, objective and formal?

22
 Ò

 Evaluate arguments and evidence in terms of validity and usefulness.

1.12 Summarising

Summarising a reading gives you its essence. When you summarise a text, you handle
the ideas and information not as the author did, but in your own way, in your own
words. Axelrod and Cooper (1987) assert that

Summarising a reading is a test of intelligence and persistence, difficult but satisfying. When
you finish a coherent summary, you know that you have mastered new material, reduced it to
its essentials and made it your own.

There is no exact formula about how long a summary should be in relation to the
original. The guiding principle is that a summary should be long enough to present the
main ideas coherently. To summarise, follow the following steps:

 Read and reread the material, annotating it as you go. The aim is to become
thoroughly familiar with the material.
 Identify the main ideas.
 Write a summary that includes only the main ideas. Not illustrations or examples
or quotations, and make sure that it is coherent and reads smoothly. Although
your summary will rely on key terms and concepts in the material, it must be
stated entirely in your own words.

Summarising evidence
A persuasive analytical essay must be based on a logical structure that is your own
way of seeing the topic. It must use the research literature in order

to support your way of seeing the topic. You have to choose those ideas from the
literature that are useful to support your thesis and show the inadequacies

of other ideas that contradict your thesis. There is no point at all in just making a
summary of what the various authors have all said. Compare the following two
paragraphs.

The following paragraph is a summary only.

Dickson (1984, p. 12) maintains that television violence has a marked effect on development
of the child. Brown (1985, p.175) says that children who watch a great deal of televised
violence could be affected for many years. The television Broadcasting Tribunal (1982, p. 16)
recommends that we should ‘limit the number of hours per week of programmes showing
violence during children’s viewing times’

(The following paragraph clearly shows the author’s point of view – that television
violence has a big effect on children. This point of view is then supported by
references to the literature.)

That television violence has a considerable effect on the develop ment of the child is not
disputed. Both Dickson (1984, p.12) and Brown (1985, p.176) have shown through extensive

23
 Ò

experiments that the majority of children are affected by television violence. Brown having
extended the base of their research to longitudinal studies, reveal that this effect is quite long-
term. In the face of such convincing evidence, the Television Broadcasting Tribunal has been
compelled to act in order to reduce the impact that increased television viewing could have on
our children. The Tribunal has recommended (1982.16) that the number of inputs per week of
violent programmes should be limited during children’s viewing times. In spite of these
recommendations, however, there continues to be a significant level of violence in
programmes which are broadcast at prime viewing times for children.

The above paragraph illustrates the need to use evidence to substantiate claims in
order to develop an argument. In other words, there is need to synthesize the
information and ideas gathered from different sources.

Reading:
Axelrod and Cooper, Reading Critically, Writing Well, chapter 1

Bovee et. al. Business Communication Today, chapters 4, 5 & 6.

Hattersley & MacJannet, Management Communication, ch. 2-6, 8 and 14.

Lannon JM. The Writing process, Longman. New York

Murphy et, al. Effective Business Communications, chapter 2

Chapter 2 Organisational Communication

2.1 Introduction
According to Schein, an organisation is defined as the rational coordination of the
activities of a number of people for the achievement of some common explicit
purpose or goal through division of labour and function through a hierarchy of
authority and responsibility.

Characteristics / features of organisations

From the above definition, the following emerge as features of a formal organisation.
 Coordination of activities – i.e. the task of reconciling different objectives in
order to make optimal use of resources.
 Purpose – i.e. organisations have a corporate mission and objectives which must
be clearly stated.
 Division of labour and functions – Different individuals concentrate on different
tasks. This necessitates specialisation.

24
 Ò

 A hierarchy of authority and responsibility – There is need to control the

activities of different members. This creates a structure of power structure
whereby some individuals control others.

Other common features

 Input – i.e. Need for resources such as human resources, machinery, financial
resources, etc
 Output – The product of the organisation
 Dynamism – for development
 Communication described as
- The lifeblood…
- The glue that binds….
- The oil that smoothes…
- The thread that ties….
- The force that pervades….
- The binding agent that cements all relationships
(Goldhaber in Beebe and Masterson 1997, p. 2)

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

Suppose Goldhaber’s description of communication is correct, what are possible

consequences of ineffective communication?

Although all organisations have all the above features and may be structured
similarly, each organisation develops its own ways of doing things – known as
organisational culture or house style.

Information needs of management

Management functions include the following:
 Planning
 Organising
 Coordinating
 Leading
 Control

Managers cannot undertake any of these functions in the absence of information.

Efficient management depends on the availability of appropriate information.
However, too much information can lead to analysis paralysis. This is why it is
necessary to guard against information overload. Of course, acting on too little
information results in poor decisions.

Information needs of employees

The following are some of the purposes for which employees require information
from the organisations.
 In order to perform their tasks effectively and efficiently

25
 Ò

 For motivation, learning and development

 For job satisfaction
 To fulfill social needs

Henry Mintzberg identified ten managerial roles which may be put into three
categories.

A, Interpersonal roles
 Figurehead: The manager performs ceremonial and social duties as the
organisation’s representative – e.g. at conferences
 Leader: The manager is expected to unite and inspire the team to achieve
organisational objectives.
 Liaison: The manager communicates with people outside the organisation.

B, Informational roles
 Monitor: The manager receives information about the organisation’s
performance.
 Disseminator: The manager passes information on to subordinates.
 Spokesperson: The manager transmits information outside the organisation.

C, Decisional roles
 Entrepreneur: The manager mobilises resources to get things done.
 Negotiator: The manager bargains - e.g. for required resources.
 Resource allocator: The manager distributes resources in the way that will
most efficiently achieve defined objectives.
 Disturbance handler: The manager rectifies mistakes and attempts to get
operations and relationships back on course

The above Managerial functions and roles inevitably involve a lot of managerial
communication and interaction. However, the manager delegates tasks to his / her
subordinates and confers upon them some authority. These individuals sometimes
delegate some tasks to other individuals and confer on them limited authority. This
results in lines of authority or chain of command. The one who delegates remains
responsible for ensuring that the task is done and remains accountable for it to his or
her superiors.

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT:

Based on the above roles, which communications should a manager competently produce and deliver?

The central importance of communication cannot be overemphasised. Communication

is all pervasive within organisations and management. Any organisation depends on
obtaining and transmitting information in order to achieve the organisation’s goals.
Communication is the means by which the people in the organisations are linked
together. It is a tool that helps the organisation to achieve its central purpose. This is
so because, without information flow, group activity is impossible. Communication

26
 Ò

serves four major functions: control, motivation, emotional expression and

information. In the absence of communication, leadership, co-ordination and change
are impossible.

Study the diagram below and explain the communication flows organisations may be
involved in.

Input Output
Manager Manager
Shareholders Shareholder

Government Government

Inland Revenue In Revenue

Personnel
systems
Press Press
Administrative
Public Systems etc Public

Competitors Competitors

Customers Customers

Suppliers Suppliers

Labour pool Staff Labour pool

The above diagram highlights four basic elements of organisational communication,

namely:

Receive: The organisation receives information from outside. This is the input side of
the diagram. To be effective, the organisation should be as receptive as possible to
the information flows.

Process: The received information is acted upon. In order to respond accordingly,

the information should be passed on to the relevant individuals.

Send: The organisation produces information for the outside world. This is the
output side of the diagram

Feedback: This is probably the most important element.

Managers spend much of their working time in communication. Boone and Kurtz
(1992) express the central role communication plays in management as follows:

The importance of communication for managers cannot be overemphasised for one specific
reason. Everything a manager does involves communicating. Not some things, but
everything! A manager can’t make a decision without information. That information has to
be communicated. Once a decision is made, communication must again take place. Otherwise

27
 Ò

no one will know that a decision has been made. The best idea, the most creative suggestion
or the finest point cannot take form without communication. Managers therefore need
effective communication skills. We are not suggesting, of course, that good co mmunication
skills alone make a successful manager. We can say, however, that ineffective
communication skills can lead to a continuous stream of problems for the manager.

The above principles of division of lab our, division of function and delegation of
authority create the formal structure of the organisation, which in turn dictates the
flow of communication in the organisation.

2.2 Communication systems and Network patterns

 The chain of command necessitates the flow of communication from superiors to
subordinates.
 Accountability implies flow of communication from subordinates to superiors
following reporting lines.
 Coordination demands for information flow between departments and colleagues,
thus creating a horizontal flow of information.

The above communication systems result in downward, upward and horizontal

communication flows. The official communication channel refers to communication
that follows the chain of command. Memos and reports must be channeled through
the levels of hierarchy to keep others informed.

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

What are the merits and demerits of the above communication systems?

Network Patterns/ structures

Networks are another aspect of direction and flow of communication in organizations.
There are four basic patterns: Fan, Chain, Large loop and Daisy.

The Fan
The fan is used by management to reach several or sometimes everyone at once. Its
effectiveness lies in the fact that everyone gets the message directly from the source
because there is little if any distortion. However, its effectiveness diminishes if the
audience is large since the sender of the message may not be able to read the
feedback. The sender may not determine whether or not the message is understood or,
indeed whether the audience is listening. Besides, in a large audience, people are shy
to ask questions. Putting notices on notice boards or using a public address system are
ways of communicating that can be categorized as fan.

Chain and Large Loop

The message comes from one source. It is then passed from one person to another
until everyone in the ‘chain’ gets the message. Sometimes a memo is deployed and
circulated. However, sometimes the source of the message requires evidence that each
intended recipient has seen the communication. In this scenario, each reader of the
memo or circular is expected to indicate that they have read the message by signing
against their names. The memo finally reaches the sender again. The main
disadvantage of the chain is that each receiver in the chain can pass on a distorted
message. Alternatively, messages can be delayed or even blocked. This may happen
28
 Ò

in a vertical chain where information can be distorted at different levels whether in

upward or downward communication.

Daisy ( Small loops)

The daisy pattern is where messages are sent to individuals and the recipie nts send
individual responses. The main advantage is that each individual receives the message
direct from the sender and it provides for feedback. Its main disadvantage is where the
initial sender wants to solicit views from the different recipients the views may be
varied requiring further processing. and personal decision.

In small groups, communication may take one of the following patterns.

Wheel network

In this pattern, members of a small group initiate ideas and pass them through the
leader to other members’. In practice, this is associated with organized discussion.
Where the chairperson guides the meeting,

Star
In this pattern, all members have a chance to express their views without waiting for
permission to speak. The leader is equal with the others during discussion.

2.3 The grapevine

This is an informal communication system in an organisation. The grapevine is an
important source of information in many organisations. However, it can have both
positive and negative influences on the performance of an organisation. This is
because in general much of its information is accurate and the information travels fast.
However, the grapevine can also spread half-truths and malicious rumours. It is
therefore the manager’s responsibility to know how to handle the system for the
benefit of the organisation through being open minded towards the grapevine as well
as reducing the negative effects. There is, therefore, always the need to investigate
information from this system in order to verify the truth before taking action.

2. 4 Intercultural communication

Cultures differ widely from group to group. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge all
groups according to one’s own group’s standards, behaviours and customs and to see
other groups as inferior by comparison.

Intercultural communication allows the transfer of information between people whose

cultural backgrounds lead them to interpret verbal and nonverbal signals differently.
Intercultural communication has increasingly become important due to market
globalisation and the multicultural workforce.
29
 Ò

Advances in technology help companies cross national borders to find customers,

materials and money, leading to market globalisation. To be successful in the global
marketplace, cultural and language barriers must be minimized. A company’s cultural
diversity affects how its business messages are conceived, composed, delivered,
received and interpreted. You therefore need to be sensitive to cultural differences as
you communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds.

Since clients from different cultures can interpret a company’s best intentions
negatively, effective intercultural communication depends on recognising ways in
which people differ and treat people the way they expect to be treated.

To overcome ethnocentrism and stereotyping1 , avoid assumptions and judgments.

Bovee et.al. (2003) suggest that successful intercultural communication is a result of
cultural sensitivity and communication skill. They, for instance, suggest that learning
about another culture enhances one’s

ability to communicate with its members. They suggest that one can improve
communication across cultures if they follow the following:

 Withhold judgment: Learn to listen to the whole story.

 Show respect: Learn how respect is communicated.
 Empathise: Put yourself in the receiver’s shoes.
 Be patient and persistent.
 Recognise your own cultural biases.
 Send clear messages.
 Deal with the individual.
 Avoid using slang and idioms.
 Pay attention to local accents and pronunciation.
 Use plain English.
 Use objective, accurate language.
 Be brief.
 Use short paragraphs.
 Use transitional elements.
 Look for feedback.
 Observe body language.
 Check frequently for comprehension.
 Speak slowly and rephrase your sentence when necessary.
 Clarify your true intent with repetition and examples.
 Use an intermediary as an interpreter.
 Learn the foreign language.

It is also worth noting that legal and ethical systems differ from culture to culture. It
is, therefore, important to keep your messages ethical by actively seeking mutual

1Stereotyping is the attempt to categorise individuals by trying to predict their behaviour or

character on the basis of their membership in a particular group.
30
 Ò

ground, sending messages that are honest and showing respect for cultural
differences.

2.5 Barriers to organisational and interpersonal communication

As noted earlier, communication is the sending of messages for a purpose and it is
also defined as the transfer and understanding of meaning. It is important to ensure
that communication is actually sent and that meaning is transferred accurately so that
the purpose may be achieved.

However, communication skills are not inborn and yet it is assumed that
communication is simple. Reality, however, shows that communication is deceptively
simple since it is not always successful.

We also noted that the possibility of ineffective communication exists. For instance, it
was noted in the communication process model that the entire communication process
is susceptible to noise. This signifies the presence of barriers to effective
communication.

Roadblock Notes
Poor timing
Inadequate information
Information overload
Inappropriate media & channel
Attitudes
Differences in perception
Assumptions
Premature evaluation & Halo effect
Emotions
Gender
Ignoring the receiver
Ignoring feedback
Language & mechanical problems
Stereotyping
Ethnocentrism
Gate keeping
Bypassing
Poor interpersonal relationships

Boone and Kurts (1992: p 308) state that the

responsibility for effective communication lies with the manager. Whenever communication
breaks down, the manager should determine whether he or she is at fault before blaming the
channel or worse yet, the employee.

2.6 Chapter summary

It is clear that communication is a crucial component of management in an
organisation. Considering that some information transfers are unsuccessful which may
lead to management problems, it is important that the right office or person transmits
the right information, at the right time, to the right person, in the right format, using
the right medium and channel and accepted house style, and ensuring that the receiver
will understand the message as intended by the sender. A manager must be aware of

31
 Ò

the barriers that can hinder communication. This awareness should help the manager
to surmount the roadblocks.

Reading
Boone LE and Kurtz DL, Management, Chapter 12.

Bovee, Thill & Schatzman, Business Communication Today, chapters 1-3.

Hamilton and Parker, Communicating for Results Chapter 5.

Hattersley and McJannet Management Communication.

3.0 Business Correspondence

3.1 Introduction

This chapter should be read alongside sections 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8.above. Hattersley and
McJannet (1997, p. 3) state the following.

In business, as in most other areas of life, the best idea in the world can fail if it is not
communicated effectively. How clearly and persuasively you present your information and
recommendations matters…

As noted earlier in chapter one, communication plays important roles such as:
initiating action, through expressing the need or persuasion; informing others in order
to create awareness, create understanding or persuade; and establishing and
maintaining relationships. It may be formal or informal. While a lot of informal
communication occurs in organisations, formal communication is the officially
accepted way of handling organisational communication

This section is on the ground rules for planning and sending messages in any
communication context. These ground rules are crucial to successful communication.
These rules should be applied in all business communications.

VanAlstyne and Maddison (1994:4-5) state that the transactions of all occupations
depend largely upon written correspondence and reports – concise orderly messages
which elicit results, not confusion. They also claim that frequently the employee who
writes well is the one who is noticed by management and marked for5 promotion.
According to these writers, ones ability to write well reveals the writers’
organizational skills, their attention to detail, their persuasiveness and their logic.

32
 Ò

Characteristics of business communication

Business communications are
 Formal. This is necessary in order to give corporate image and
communicate with the outside world in a professional way.
 Impersonal. The writer shows impartiality and respect to the receiver
 Brief. This helps the sender to avoid excessive and inappropriate
communication
 Deliberate. This entails planning, wording and ensuring that the
message is expressed in the best way possible and that potential
misunderstandings are removed.

How would you apply these ideas in your communication?

Formality
Impersonality
Brevity
Deliberation

Some circumstances and organisation’s procedures create standard documents for

routine communication tasks. Each time such a message needs to be sent, the
standard message is reproduced and specific details are inserted so that the message
appears personal.

Other circumstances require the communicator to decide what to write. Such non-
routine messages require the writer to decide the best way of presenting the message.
You may need to refer back to the section on the 12Cs.

Examples of verbosity in business documents

There are many examples of circumlocution and commercial jargon in business

correspondence. The following are commonly used clichés. This kind of writing is
also referred to as letterly voice.

 As per your request…

 Permit me to say…
 We are in receipt of…
 Kindly advise…
 We wish to inform you…
 Attached herewith please find…
 It has come to my attention…
 Please be advised that…

To achieve conciseness, learn to recognise jargon and avoid it:

a) Omit trite expressions. Trite expressions/clichés should be avoided in

business letters, memos, proposals and reports. The following are some of
the ways of avoiding verbosity.

33
 Ò

 Enclosed herewith please find = enclosed is

 It has come to my notice = I have learnt
 Please be advised that = wasted words
 Under separate cover = separately

b) Avoid unnecessary repetition and wordy statements

 Don’t say the same thing more than once unless you have good reasons
for it
 Avoid wordy expressions E.g.
A long period of time = a long time
At this time = now
Due to the fact that = because
In due course = soon

c) Include only facts – with courtesy

 write concisely but don’t destroy your message
 don’t be so brief that pertinent and relevant facts are eliminated

VanAlstyne and Maddison emphasise the importance of objectivity and conciseness

as illustrated in the following examples.

Vague Concrete /Jargon/ plain English

Expensive K10, 000
The bottom line the key point
Parameters guidelines
At this juncture now
In view of the fact that because
A downward adjustment decrease
Pursuant to following
With the exception of except
In a manner similar to like
As per your request as you requested

Compare this letter

Dear Sir
We beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 15 th instant, in which you brought to
our notice a decrease in sales consequent upon the recent upward movement in prices.
It is felt that your expression of concern at this untoward situation is unwarranted as t he
decrease is, in our opinion, merely of a temporary nature. Should, however, the situation become
worse we shall do everything in our power to effect a reduction in certain prices where possible.

with the following

Dear Sir,
Thank you for your letter of the 15 th of this month, informing us of the drop in sales following
recent price increases.
We think you are worrying needlessly over a temporary setback, but should it continue we
shall seriously consider reducing certain prices.

34
 Ò

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

Which is easier to read and understand?

CONSIDERATION
Prepare every message with the recipient in mind. Try to put yourself in the
recipient’s place. Visualise the readers with their needs, desires, problems, etc and
handle the matter from their point of view. Keep your audience in mind from the
beginning until you finish. Consideration means you are genuinely thoughtful of your
message recipient and consider their probable reactions to your message. This is
known as an audience-centred approach, the ‘you attitude’, empathy, or understanding
of human nature. Bovee, Thill and Schatzman (2000) state that

the most important thing you can do to establish a good relationship with your audience is
to avoid trying to be someone you’re not….just be you rself and be sincere….., establish
your credibility, be polite, use bias -free language, and project the company’s image.

 In letters, focus on ideas your reader can view favourably.

 Stress what can be done instead of what cannot be done.
 Avoid words like no, never, impossible, cannot, etc. You can make clear what you
cannot do without using these words, simply by saying what you can or will do.

Avoid words like ‘if’, ‘hope’, etc if they are likely to give readers unfavourable ideas
or cause them to doubt your confidence. Avoid expressions that irritate, hurt or
belittle. The following are examples of expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle.

 I do not agree with you……..

 We don’t believe……………..
 You claim that…………………
 Your complaint………………...
 You have to…………………….
 Surely you don’t expect ……..
 Your failure to…………………..
 You should know………………
 You did not tell us……………...

Remember: Your integrity and that of your company are revealed through the
messages you convey.

You also need to consider your audience’s information and ego needs. Information
needs are the data that will enable the receiver to understand and fulfill your wishes.
Ego needs are the desires for recognition and acknowledgement of worth to the
organization. Consider the following texts:

Text 1

35
 Ò

The company has obviously neglected to use its available resources to provide an efficient
communication system. That error can be corrected simply by doing two things:
1. Buy new computers for the department.
2. Connect the available microcomputers and minicomputers.
Text 2
The recommendations are that the bank should:
Purchase and install new computer hardware and software….
Connect the available microcomputers and minicomputers…

Comment on texts 1 & 2

Text 3
I was not surprised to find that the vast majority favoured drawing their money from auto
teller machines than through the current grossly inefficient system.

Text 4
Eighty-five percent of the customers said they prefer to use auto teller machines. Therefore
there is little need for the bank to use a lot of persuasion.

Comment on texts 3 & 4

Different organisations have accepted house styles, leading to slight differences in

documents produced in different organisations. You need to abide by the
organisational culture or organisation’s beliefs, values, and traditions, as well as
interests and biases of superiors.

Sexist language
Please note that over the years language has tended to emphasise the role and
importance of men over women. Such language is labeled sexist. The following are
examples of expressions that can be considered to be sexist. The column to the right
suggests possible alternatives.

Sexist nonsexist
Chairman chairperson, chair, presiding officer
Mankind people, humankind
Policeman police officer
Manpower human resources, work force
Salesman sales agent
Modern man modern society
Founding fathers pioneers, founders
Gentleman’s agreement informal agreement
Firemen fire fighters

36
 Ò

3.2 Legal and ethical issues in communication

Law affects business communication. Managers communicate on behalf of the
business entity. They commit the business entity through words, acts and documents.
Both managers and the company may be held liable when any form of business
communication is in breech of the law. The following legal issues may affect
managers in communication and must therefore be guarded against.

 Defamation: defined as publishing of a statement which tends to lower another

person’s estimation in the minds of right thinking members of society.

 Misrepresentation: a statement made by a person to another which is untrue.

 Invasion of privacy: This is interference with another person’s freedom to be

left alone.

 Negligence: Business entities have a duty to take care of their employees and
other stakeholders from injury or loss.

Since managers and the company may be held liable, managers must:
 know available defenses;
 choose their words carefully;
 resist publicising any information unless one is very sure it is prudent to do so.
 consider ethics in business communication;

Planning persuasive messages

 Analyse your purpose
 Analyse your audience
 Establish your credibility
 Strive for high ethical standards

Bovee, Thill and Schatzman (2000: 20) point out the importance of ethical
communication. They state that

ethical communication includes all relevant information, is true in every sense

and is not deceptive in any way. By contrast, unethical communication can
include falsehoods and misleading information (or withhold important information)

Unethical communication creates false impressions by

 using manipulative and imprecise language.
 omitting useful information or suppressing information.
 presenting inaccurate information.
 distortion of visuals.
 selective misquoting.
 Plagiarism.

Ethical business people inform audiences of the benefits of an idea, an organisation, a product, a
donation, or an action so that these audiences can recognise just how well the idea, organisation,
product, donation or action will satisfy a need they truly have Bovee et al p. 268.

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

37
 Ò

Comment on the view that communicators should value their ability to express more than their
temptation to impress.

3.3 Criteria for evaluating business documents

In summary, your writing and any documents you produce will be evaluated using the
following criteria. The seven criteria listed below may be thought of as the seven
essential elements of good writing. But no piece of writing will contain these elements
unless the writer has fulfilled three basic requirements:

 Knows what he or she wants to say and why;

 Is more concerned for the reader than for himself or herself;
 Puts everything in clear simple language.

The criteria are as follows.

1. Unity

 Does the piece of writing stand on its own as a unified statement, either
informing or persuading the reader of one point?

 Is the central thesis, or main point clear from the beginning, supported
in the middle, and summarised at the end?

2. Organisation
 Are arguments and supportive facts arranged logically, allowing the
reader to follow the writer’s reasoning?

 Are the points in the most appropriate order?

 Does each paragraph contain a topic sentence, a body, and a transition

or concluding sentence?

 Does the writer employ parallel organisation in cover letter, table of

contents, abstract, and main report?

3. Style
 Does the writer use active voice more often than the passive?

 Is material presented in concrete terms rather than abstract, vague

language?

 Does the writer avoid jargon and over-used “nothing” words?

4 Tone
 Does the writer use language appropriate for his reader and the subject
matter?

38
 Ò

5. Credibility
 Are all points supported by carefully selected relevant data?
 Where data are not available, does the writer acknowledge the lack of
back-up material and explain why he thinks as he does in spite of the
information gap?

 Has the writer acknowledged the sources?

6. Mechanics
 Is the writing free of grammatical errors, spelling punctuation, and
typographical errors?

 Does the writer use parallel construction in lists?

 Does the piece of writing include all essential parts, properly labeled?

7. Visual appeal
 Is the material presented in attractive, easy to read form?

 Are divisions, sub-divisions, and “bulleted” lists clear?

3.4 Composing and shaping business messages

The following sections provide checklists, for the different communications as mostly
provided by Bovee, Thill and Schatzman.

A. Generate Ideas

1 Get ideas down as quickly as you can.

2 Rearrange, delete, and add ideas without losing sight of your
purpose.

B. Vary the Style to create a tone that suits the occasion.

1. Use the appropriate level of formality.
2. Avoid being overly familiar, using inappropriate humour (including
obvious flattery), sounding preachy, bragging, or trying to be
something you’re not.
3. Avoid obsolete and pompous language.
4. Use plain English.
5. Write mainly in the active voice, but use the passive voice to achieve
specific effects.

C. Select the best words

1. Use concrete words that avoid negative connotations.
2. Rely on nouns, verbs, and specific adjectives and adverbs.
3. Choose words that are strong and familiar while avoiding clichés.

D. Create effective sentences and paragraphs

39
 Ò

1. Use simple, compound, and complex sentences, choosing the form that
best fits the thought you want to express.
2. Emphasize key points through sentence style; give important points the
most space.

3. Be sure each paragraph contains a topic sentence, related sentences,

and transitional elements.
4. Choose a development that suits the subject: illustration, comparison or
contrast, cause and effect, classification, problem and solution.

3.5 Writing routine replies and positive messages

A. Initial statement of the good news or main idea

1. Respond promptly.
2. If message is mixed, present the good news first.
3. Convey a courteous, you-oriented tone.
4. Avoid trite and obvious statements such as ‘I am pleased to,’ ‘Enclosed
please find.’

B. Middle, informational section

1. Thank the claimant for writing
2. List all information in an orderly manner.
3. If possible, answer all questions and requests in the order posed.
4. Adapt replies to the reader’s needs.
5. Indicate what you have done and what you will do.
6. Include any necessary details or interpretations that the reader may
need to understand your answers.
7. If you cannot comply with part of the request (perhaps because the
information is unavailable or confidential), tell the reader why and then
offer other assistance.
8. Embed negative statements in positive contexts or balance them with
positive alternatives.
9. Inform or remind the reader of the general benefits of doing business
with your firm. Avoid exaggerations and flamboyant language.

C. Warm, courteous close

1. If further action is required, tell the reader how to proceed and

encourage the reader to act promptly.
2. Avoid clichés (such as ‘Please feel free to’)
3. Offer additional service but avoid implying that your answer is
inadequate (by using doubtful statements such as ‘I trust that’ or ‘I
hope’).
4. Express goodwill or take an optimistic look into the future, if
appropriate.

40
 Ò

3.6 Making claims and requesting adjustments

A. Organising your request

1. Write a claim letter as soon as possible after the problem has been
identified.
2. Include a straightforward statement of the problem in the opening.
3. Tell specifics of the problem and include any necessary details in the
body.
4. Provide copies of necessary documents (invoices, canceled cheques,
confirmation letters, and the like); keep the originals.
5. Gain the reader’s understanding by praising some aspect of the good or
service, or at least by explaining why the product was originally
purchased.
6. Summarise desired action in the closing.
7. If appropriate, clearly state what you expect as a fair settlement, or ask
the reader to propose a fair adjustment.

B Adopting an effective tone

1. Maintain a confident, factual, fair, unemotional tone.
2. Present facts honestly, clearly, and politely.
3. Eliminate threats, sarcasm, exaggeration, and hostility, and use a
nonargumentative tone to show confidence in the reader’s fairness.
4. Make no accusation against any person or company, unless you can
back it up with facts.

Read the following letter

Mr R Skinfrit
22 The Glebe
Huddersfield
The Managing Director
Dedlos Holidays Ltd

Dear Sir
I am writing to you to complain about a ‘holiday’ from which we have just returned
and which was supposedly ‘organised’ by your company.

We booked an 8-day holiday in Torremolinos flying from Gatwick at 10pm on

Tuesday 18th May. We arrived at Gatwick shortly before 8 pm that evening, having
left my sister’s house in South London at 5 pm in order to ensure that we were on
time. Our departure was being advertised on the screens as normal and we settled into
the usual airport routine of burgers and cokes not really wanted, last minute books,
sun tan oil, etc, and waited for the sign telling us to go through to the departure
lounge. We were still waiting at a quarter to midnight. There was no sign of a rep
from your company to explain what was going on. It was only by talking to some

41
 Ò

people who had booked with Thomsoms and were travelling on the same flight that
we discovered that the flight had been overbooked. Some other people who were
traveling with Cosmos said that they had been told that there was a computer problem
with French Air Traffic Control. We don’t know who to believe.

We eventually flew out of Gatwick at 2am, by which time our seven-year old and
five- year old children were extremely tired, to say the least. Just as we had managed
to get them to sleep we were woken up by some of the ugliest hostesses I have ever
seen and forced to eat and drink some plasticky substances.

I am not sure when we arrived at the airport in Spain – I was too tired to care at that
point. Needless to say there was nobody there from your company to meet us. The
Cosmos rep very kindly helped us find our luggage and rang up a number to leave a
message on your company’s answering machine.

Your rep arrived about two hours later looking as if he had just got out of bed. He
took us to our hotel in a taxi (for which we paid because he had come out without any
cash, so he said) and proceeded to confirm our suspicions by telling us in lucid detail
about who he had just got out of bed with! We are quite open with our children, but
there are limits. He also had to stop the taxi to be sick. Fortunately we did not see
him for the remainder of our holiday.

It was probably about midday by the time we arrived at our ’hotel’, the Hotel
Vertedero. This is described in your brochure as ‘small and friendly’ (we were the
only people there!), ‘tucked away’ (thirty five minutes from the beach, but on a main
road?), ‘ideal for families’ (one of the owner’s numerous children punched my five-
year old son almost as soon as we arrived).

You also described the hotel as ‘quiet’, but as I have said it was on a main road. The
traffic only died down for about an hour between four and five in the morning and we
got very little sleep throughout our week in Spain. You say it is ‘clean and
comfortable’, but my daughter refused to sleep in her room because she said there
were ’big bugs’ in it. She spent the entire holiday sharing my wife’s bed. My son
said that he preferred the bugs to my snoring, which is about the only thing I can’t
blame you for!

You say the Hotel Vertedero serves ‘excellent local cuisine’. This consisted of
MacDonald’s style burgers and chips in the evening, and a cup of extremely nasty
coffee if we were lucky in the morning. To be fair we were served what I presume
was a local dish on the third night – slimy lumps floating in a foul red liquid reeking
of garlic is how I would describe it.

You say that there are ‘many interesting places to visit’ and that your rep will be
‘pleased to make the arrangements’. We didn’t actually see a rep until the Saturday.
He assured us that we had booked a 15 night holiday and that there was plenty of time
for excursions. When he finally got it into his thick head that we only had three
nights left he booked us into a ‘colourful’ evening of ‘good wine and food in the
company of real Spanish people’. This involved leaving the children in the charge of
the hotel owner while my wife and I were required to walk most of the way up a
mountain (the coach broke down) only to find ourselves at a drunken orgy attended

42
 Ò

mainly by sixteen-year-old skinheads, yobs and tarts. We were allowed to sit down
for a meal briefly but were then subjected to Spanish music and dancing during which
your rep (the Saturday one) made several improper advances to my wife and at one
point tried to remove her blouse.

We arrived back at our ‘hotel’ at about three o’clock in the morning. Our children
had been abandoned in our room and were both in tears. In the morning we found
that several valuable articles including a camera and a watch were missing. The
owner of the hotel refused to help, saying that the police were all crooks and that he
‘didn’t want them around here’. We were unable to contact your office, although we
did leave a message on the answer phone.

We are now safe and sound at home – except both of the children started shivering in
the car and appear to have developed diarrhea.

I am too angry to unpack! I demand that you refund the full cost of my holiday and
also to pay me a sum in compensation.

The reference number of the holiday, just in case you dare to keep records, was
ONO/7.

Yours in disgust,

Questions

1. Why was the letter written this way?

2. For what reasons is this letter not very effective?
3. Improve the structure of the letter.
4. Write two responses: one, positive and the other, a bad news message.

3.7 Granting claims and adjustment requests

1. Thank the claimant for taking the time to write.

2. In the body, explain how you will remedy the problem.
3. Minimise or, if possible, omit any disagreements with your reader’s
interpretation of events.
4. Make your explanation objective and impersonal.
5. Apologise only when appropriate; then do so crisply and without an overly
dramatic tone.
6. Maintain a supportive tone: ‘Thank you for,’ ‘May we ask,’ and ‘We are
glad to work with you.’
7. Admit your firm’s faults carefully: Don’t shift blame, imply inefficiency,
or make unrealistic promises.
8. Be careful when discussing the claimant’s role in creating the problem.
9. Clarify any actions that your reader must take.
10. In the closing, remind the reader how you are honoring the claim.
11. Encourage the claimant to look favourably on your company or the
product in question.

43
 Ò

3.8 Bad news messages

A Overall Strategy
1. Use the direct approach when the situation is routine (between
employees of the same company), when the reader is not emotionally
involved in the message, when you know that the reader would prefer
the bad news first, or when you know that firmness is necessary.
2. Use the indirect approach in all other cases.
3. Adopt an audience-centred tone by being sincere, using the ‘you’
attitude, choosing positive words, and using respectful language.

B Buffer
1. Express appreciation, cooperation, fairness, good news, praise, resale,
or understanding.
2. Introduce a topic that is relevant to the subject and that both you and
the reader can agree on.
3. Avoid apologies and negative-sounding words such as won’t, can’t,
unable to.
4. Be brief and to the point.
5. Maintain a confident, positive and supportive tone.

C Reasons
1. Check the lead-in from the buffer for a smooth transition from the
favourable to the unfavourable.
2. Show how the decision benefits your audience.
3. Avoid apologies and expressions of sorrow or regret.
4. Offer enough detail to show the logic of your position.
5. Include only factual information.
6. Include only business reasons, not personal ones.
7. Carefully word the reasons so that readers can anticipate the bad news.
8. Work from the general to the specific.

D Bad news
1. State the bad news as positively as possible, using tactful wording.
2. De-emphasise bad news by minimising the space devoted to it,
subordinating it, or embedding it.
3. Emphasise what the firm did do or is doing rather than what it can’t or
won’t do.

E Positive, friendly, helpful close

1. Remind the reader of how his or her needs are being met.
2. Keep the close as positive as possible by eliminating reference to the
bad news, avoiding apologies and words of regret, and eliminating
words suggesting uncertainty.
3. Suggest actions the reader might take.
4. Keep a positive outlook on the future.
5. Be confident about keeping the person as a customer.

44
 Ò

Critique the following business letter.

Subject : Burned-out motor

We have received your request for reimbursement. Although your Crown Freezer is
under warranty for two more months, you can’t honestly expect us to be liable for the
cost of a new motor and your spoiled food when the problem clearly resulted from
your own negligence. These freezers were not designed to operate at full capacity
with the door ajar for any length of time, let alone for three days over the public
holiday and weekend in some of the hottest weather we’ve had in a decade.

Crown products were designed to endure everyday use in a typical commercial

kitchen. They are constructed of top-quality materials, insulated with non-CFC in-
place polyrethane foam, and are ‘performance rated’ using environmentally safe
refrigerants. Your top-mounted freezer model includes casters, heavy-duty lift-off
hinges, durable lacking stainless steel doors, and exterior dial thermometer.

However, we would like to offer to pay for the repairman’s service call, in the spirit of
good customer relations. I am sorry, but that’s the best we can do for you at this time.

Sincerely

(Name)
Customer Service manager

Credit refusals

A. Buffer
1. Express appreciation for the credit request.
2. Phrase buffer to avoid misleading reader.

B. Reasons
1. Explain your general credit criteria.
2. Carefully present reasons for the refusal.
3. Avoid a condescending lecture about how credit is earned.
4. Avoid relying on unexplained company policy.
5. Stress the benefit of not being overextended.

C. The bad news

1. Make the refusal clear to the reader.
2. Offer only honest encouragement about considering the credit
application at a later date, if future approval is realistic.
3. Avoid negative words such as ‘must decline’.
4. For consumers, suggest positive alternatives.
5. For businesses, describe cash discounts or offer promotional and
marketing aid.

D. Positive, friendly, helpful close

45
 Ò

1. Encourage the reader to look to the future, when the application

may be approved.
2. Suggest alternative financing sources.

3.9 Position papers

This sub-topic covers position papers. The position paper debates opinions on
controversial issues. Debating issues ultimately leads to important policies. Position
papers are evaluative in nature.

Basic features of position papers

 A well defined, controversial issue
 A clear position on the issue
 A convincing argument
 A reasonable tone

A well-defined, controversial issue:

The writer must feel strongly about the issue and should carefully define the issue.
Readers must understand exactly what is at stake and why the issue is important.
However, it is important to note that issues of faith or matters that can easily be
demonstrated by facts are not arguable in a position paper.

A clear position on the issue

The writer must make his or her position clear by making explicit the
opinion he or she is advocating in a thesis statement. The writer may need to qualify
or modify the thesis in order to accommodate objections.

A convincing argument
The writer then presents an argument designed to persuade readers that the position is
valid and reasonable.

A reasonable tone
The writer must adopt a tone that will be perceived as reasonable and trustworthy. It is
useful to anticipate and acknowledge readers’ objections and explain why he or she is
rejecting them.

Task
Write a position paper on an issue you feel strongly about

3.10 Communicating change

We live in a dynamic world where every organisation has to adapt to the environment
the organisation is operating in. Managing and communicating change is one of the
challenges which managers working for the organisations face.

46
 Ò

Change messages say things like: change the procedure; reduce expenditure; live by
the rules; change the mission and the vision of the organisation; introduce a new
product; merge departments; etcetera.

Change creates uncertainty in the stakeholders. People wonder what effect the change
will have on them. The way the change is communicated can aggravate or help to
overcome the fears and concerns people may have regarding the proposed change.
Strategies have to be worked out to ensure that there is enough support from
subordinates to superiors to ensure that change will be successful.

Key issues in communicating change

 Many brilliant project ideas have gone nowhere because the right people were
not involved or because communication failed.
 If you have a good idea but do not have authority or credibility to bring about
change, you need senior allies who have better contacts and access to
resources.
 Involve members of the team in defining the problems.
 Expect resistance to change.
 Breakdown comfort zones.
 Produce a common perception that change must be implemented.
 Sell the change.
 There is need for a positive approach.
 Convey the right message to major stakeholders.
 Open communication is of essence in change management. Give room
feedback.

A successful change message tells the employees

- Why they have to change
- That management understands their position
- Why opposing arguments are wrong or inferior
- How change will save them time
- That they will be provided with the tools to do the job
- How their new performance will be evaluated

Communicating change successfully hinges on convincing your audiences that they,

and the organisation as a whole, will benefit from the change.

Communication strategies are characterised by practices like teamwork, joint problem

solving, staff involvement, etcetera. These strategies aim at reducing resistance to
change.

Barriers to communication in change management

When communicating change messages, there is likely to be some resistance from
employees. By identifying the barriers to receiving such messages, an organization
will communicate change successfully. The following are some of the barriers.

1. Security: Employees need security. When a change message comes,

employees are likely to resist it because it threatens their security in the
organization.

47
 Ò

2. Habit: People would like to do things the way they have always done. This
leads to resistance, thus creating a barrier to change messages.

3. Selective information processing: Individuals perceive change differently.

When the change message comes, they tend to select information that keeps
their perception intact and they filter out the rest of the information. In other
words, they hear what they want to hear and ignore information that
challenges the world they have created.

4. Lack of support: Change messages may also be resisted if employees are told
to change without being given the means to do so. Support may include
resources and training. Employees must be given such support.

5. Entrenched leadership: Leaders often issue change messages without

understanding the views or the problems of those whom they expect to follow
the orders.

Conversely, receivers of change messages should not be yes people. It is their

responsibility to alert their superiors to consequences of which they may be
unaware.

Both givers and receivers of change messages need to measure what will be
gained against what will be lost, including trust.

Each of these barriers needs to be considered when an organization announces

change.

Reading

Bovee, Thill and Schatzman, Business Communication Today, chapters 7, 8 &9.

Hattersley, ME and McJannet, L Management Communication: Principles

and Practice, chapter 12.

Chapter 4 Reports, Proposals and Research Communications

4.1 Introduction

Management involves the monitoring of the organisational activities. Monitoring

involves collecting, recording and reporting of information concerning all aspects of
organisational performance. The creation of information systems that give managers
the information they need to make informed, timely decisions is therefore vital in
organisational performance. Monitoring enables the manager to compare progress to
the plan and take action if progress does not match the plans or decisions.

Kuiper and Kohut (1999) define business reports as ‘organised, objective

presentations of observation, experiences or facts.’ They observe that some reports
supply information necessary for decision-making; others convey information about
decisions that have been made and must be implemented . They also state that
48
 Ò

Reports are essential tools in organisational communication, affecting

the decision-making process at all organisational levels. Since reports
are so vital to organisational success, they will also influence your
career success………

They also note that ‘business reports move up, down, and across the formal
organisational structure…. Your business reports will frequently contain data drawn
from company files or your experience as well as from print and electronic media….
Because the quality of a business report can determine the success or failure of your
career – and that of your company, you need to perfect your report writing skills.

A proposal is viewed as an action-oriented report which suggests a future task and

includes a complete plan of how to accomplish this task.

Research communications include the research proposal and the final report.

This chapter considers these important documents.

4.2 Planning different types of reports

Reports must contain data that is relevant for the purpose. For instance, project reports
must contain data relevant to the control of specific tasks that are being carried out
according to a specific schedule. There is no point in reporting for its own sake.
Remember that long reports are usually not read.

A hastily written report frequently leads to misunderstanding. Effective report writers

follow a six-step plan before beginning. These steps are:
1. Identify purpose
2. Identify audience
3. Identify context
4. Identify content
5. Select medium
6. Choose report structure

Identify purpose
The purposes of a report may be
i. innovation such as initiating change in an organization;
ii. production e.g. assigning an employee a new area of responsibility or
deviation from previous practice;
iii. monitoring to ensure achievement of a project plan through control. For the
senior management, there may be few milestones. For the project manager
there may be many critical points in the project schedule at which major
decisions must be made. Milestones relevant to lower levels relate to finer
detail and occur with higher frequency.
iv. maintenance e.g. report about employee accomplishments.

49
 Ò

v. Innovation requires a review of a problem or presentation of a rationale that

requires or justifies an organisational change. This, in turn requires a well-
structured message that will persuade a reader.

Identify audience
Kuiper and Kohut (1999, p. 54) point out the following

Audience identification requires more than merely identifying who will receive the report.
After identifying the primary receiver, try to empathise with that person and identify her or his
information and ego needs. If your purpose complements those needs, your writing task is
relatively easy. But if your purpose contradicts the receiver’s needs, your task becomes more
difficult. In such a situation, before you state the main point of your report, you will have to
give enough information to overcome possible objection in the receiver’s mind.

Identify context
This includes the physical and psychological environment of the communication.
Effective communicators send their reports to arrive at a time and place that will
encourage the reader to give full attention to the message. Project reports must be
submitted to the relevant authorities in time to allow control to be exerted during or
before the period in which the task is scheduled for completion.

In general, the timing of reports should correspond to the project milestones and the
reports should be available in time for control. Communication management requires
that project reports be scheduled in the project plan.

Identify content
You must include all information the receiver requires to fulfill the purpose and you must
include details that motivate the receiver to act. Do not include all information that you know.
Exclude unnecessary details that may obstruct understanding.

Select medium
Media are classified on the basis of three criteria:
1. ability to transmit multiple cues
2. ability to facilitate rapid feedback
3. ability to provide a personal focus

The richest medium is face-to-face communication, because it meets all three criteria.
Memos, letters and reports allow delayed feedback. Kuiper and Kohut (1999: p 56)
state that research has shown that using the richer media for non routine problems
contributes to communication effectiveness.

Choose report structure

Notice that the appropriate structure of your report depends on your purpose, content
and structure. There are nine commonly used structures for reports, or parts of reports
or even for paragraphs. These are:

 Deductive (direct) starts with main point followed by supporting data.

50
 Ò

 Inductive (indirect) provides specific facts before generalizations based on

those facts.
 Chronological – uses time order as the central organizational component.
 Problem solution – presents a problem followed by a proposed solution.
 Cause-effect – the writer discusses conditions (causes) and a predicted
outcome. This is similar to inductive structure.
 Spatial – used when the data can be presented logically in terms of
geographical units.
 Topical – information is organised around major topics of discussion e.g.
findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
 Comparison and contrast– this examines two or more items in terms of
common criteria. If you were thinking of enrolling for an MBA degree, you
would evaluate available options using criteria such as: admission standards,
cost, availability of financial aid, and quality of faculty, programme
requirements and success of graduates.
 Combination – Few reports adhere to a single structural pattern. Two or more
structures are usually combined in the same report.

4.3 Structuring and writing different types of reports

Routine reports include:
 Form reports
 Trip reports
 Production reports
 Progress reports
 Meeting reports

Always be guided by the purpose of the report / proposal and your audience. Consider
what your reader already knows and what they need to know. Think about the
supporting material your reader will need in order to fully understand the message.
Different types of reports render themselves to different outlines. Compare and
contrast the following outlines.

A Short informal report

 Title: is provided in the same style as in a memorandum:

 Background or introduction or situation: Provides the context of the report.

Include anything that will help the reader to understand the rest of the report.
This section may also contain the equivalent of terms of reference and
procedure.

 Findings or analysis of the situation or information: Present detailed

information gathered as required by the audience. The section may or may not
require subheadings,

 Action or solution or conclusion or recommendations: The main thrust of

the findings is summarized and conclusions drawn, together with action
required or recommendations as to how the problem might be solved.

B Short formal report

51
 Ò

This report is laid out according to certain basic guidelines. It is split into logical
sections, each headed appropriately.
 Title: At the top of the report or on the title page is the title of the report, who
has prepared it, for whom it is intended, the date of the completion.

 Terms of reference: State the purpose and scope of the report. The section
may simply be called Introduction.

 Procedure / Method: State how the data was collected including

names of other people involved, and how the data was analysed,

 Findings: The information itself is set out with appropriate headings and
sub-headings, if necessary. The content should be clearly structured in a
logical sequence.

 Conclusions: Summarise the main findings.

 Recommendations: The writer suggests the solution to the problem or

makes recommendations so that the recipient will be able to make a
decision.

Periodic / progress reports cover a review of the aims of the project highlighting
accomplishment and problems. The report is structured as follows:

 A summary or explanation of the work completed

 A summary or explanation of the work in progress
 A summary or explanation of future work
 An assessment of the progress.

Field reports: This report presents an analysis of a situation in order to record and
determine appropriate action. Service people inspect property to determine costs and
plans on improving the property. Such reports are organized as follows:

 Essential background data: Explain what is being investigated and for what
purpose.
 Account of the field inspection: Clarify what the field investigation found.
 Analysis of findings: Interpret the significance of the findings in relation to the
purpose of the investigation
 Evaluations / Conclusions: Detail what action should be taken

Non-routine reports
Non-routine reports include the following:
 Incident / Exception reports
 Feasibility reports
 Press releases
 Executive summaries
 Business proposals
 Research proposals
 Research reports

52
 Ò

Feasibility reports: This report is written to determine the practicality of a proposed

project. Typically, feasibility reports analyse data to answer specific questions such
as:
 Is an option practical in a given situation?
 Will a given service / procedure or policy work for a specific purpose?

The feasibility report usually includes:

 Explanation of the problem Introduction
 Preset standards or criteria Standards
 Description of the item / subject to be analysed Problem
 An examination of the scope of the analysis Limitations
 Presentation of the data Data
 Interpretation of the data Interpretation
 Conclusions and evaluations. Evaluations

Executive summary
An executive summary may accompany a long report. It is a fully developed ‘mini’
version of the report itself. It may contain headings and even visual aids. It allows the
reader have a clear picture of the report. It is intended for readers who lack time or
motivation to study the complete text. It is sometimes used to help executives to keep
up with current trends or issues in industry. The executive summary should not go
over three double spaced typewritten pages.

An executive summary should include only the most essential information that its
readers need to make informed decisions and to act wisely. Such a summary includes

 Identification of the issue or problem that is addressed

 Major findings about the matter
 Concise conclusions and recommendations

Incident reports (Also known as exception reports): This report is written when
digressions from normal operating procedure or the unexpected occurs. The report
aims at preventing the incident from recurring. And it may institute the basis of a
longer proposal to improve procedures. It follows the following structure:
 Incident What happened
 Cause Analysis of causes
 Results What were the results e.g. injuries, losses, delays etc
 Evaluations What can be done to prevent recurrences

4.4 Report format

Empathy for your reader requires that you format your report to enhance readability.
Reports appear in several formats: memorandum, letter, and manuscript. Whichever
of these you choose; you should apply general guides that apply to all report formats.

53
 Ò

Use topical headings, typography, emphasis techniques, numbering, capitalisation,

and variable spacing to enhance even the briefest report.

Headings Used to indicate content and relationships of various sections of the

report. Headings should represent the report’s outline and guide the
reader through its content. First level headings indicate major divisions
of the report; these must be printed in uniform style. Second -level
headings identify sub divisions and should therefore be clearly
distinguished from first or third-level headings.

Typography This refers to the typeface (font), typestyle and type size. It affects the
appearance and readability of reports. Use no more than two different
typefaces (e.g. Times New Roman and Century Gothic. The majority of
the text should be produced in plain typeface. Bold and Italic should be
used sparingly for emphasis. Avoid underlining

Emphasis techniques These include: enumeration, bulleted points, or special fonts. Grouping
and numbering or bulleting closely related items focuses attention on
that information. To group items
 Use an introductory sentence or phrase to unify the group.
 Include at least two items.
 Write all items in parallel grammatical structure.
Bold or italicised print may be used to emphasise words or sentences.
Do not overuse emphasis techniques.

Capitalisation

Numbering

Spacing

Write your views on capitalisation, numbering and spacing.

Memorandum, Letter and Manuscript formats

Memorandum format is used for brief internal reports. Letter format is used for brief
external reports. Internal or external reports that exceed three pages are generally
written in manuscript format. Specialised reports such as research reports and
business reports have several preliminary and supplementary parts.

4.5 Business proposals

What is a proposal?
Many organisations conduct much of their business on the basis of proposals. A
business proposal is a special type of analytical report designed to get plans or
products accepted by others. It is a document that suggests a solution to a specific
problem. It is written on a future task and includes a complete work plan of how to
accomplish the task. It is an important type of job related writing because its
acceptance can lead to significant operational improvements, new business, additional
jobs, and safer working conditions. It contains persuasive information along with an
54
 Ò

explanation of personnel needs, equipment needs, a time schedule and costs. Its
purpose is to persuade the reader that the proposed solution is the best approach and
that the writer is capable of accomplishing the task.

One has to understand and apply accepted rules and procedures regarding the
preparation of proposals. There are two categories of proposals: whether internal or
external, whether solicited or unsolicited.

Internal proposals are generally written to advocate change and are submitted to
decision makers in one’s own organisation. For instance, proposals can be written to
seek approval for a project; or a course of action such as revising recruiting
procedures, changing the company’s training programme, reorganising a department,
or adopting a more efficient and effective way of doing things. Proposals are also
written to request additional resources such as new capital assets, human resources, or
operating funds.

An internal proposal explains what course of action is needed, what it will improve,
how much the implementation of the proposed action will cost and how the company
will benefit.

External proposals are submitted to decision makers outside of an organisation such

as current or potential clients and government agencies. They aim at soliciting
approval for projects or funds. Unlike the internal proposals, external proposals are
legally binding because they form the basis of a contract if approval is granted. So
they are prepared with extreme care. For example, external proposals spell out
precisely what your company will provide under specific terms. You are expected to
deliver exactly what was in the proposal, which was approved.

External proposals also differ from internal proposals in that they compete for a
client’s business. There is need to convince the reader that your organisation is the
best source of a product or a service. Because of this, considerable space is devoted to
explaining your experience, qualifications, facilities and equipment. They are more
formal than internal proposals.

Solicited proposals Solicited proposals are those organisations request for. They are
prepared in response to a request, mostly from external parties and sometimes from
management or board of directors. External parties prepare an invitation to bid on
their contract. This is called a Request for Proposal (RFP). The invitation includes
instructions that specify the exact type of work to be done. It is a bid/offer/request
aimed at convincing the reader that the writer is the right person to carry out a project.
Your proposal shows how you will meet the potential customer’s needs.

Unsolicited proposals are initiated by organisations attempting to obtain business or

funding without a specific invitation from a potential client. Individuals or the
companies wishing to carry out a project initiate unsolicited proposals. The writer
makes the first move. Within organisations, employees who wish to adopt a
programme, a policy or idea, may initiate them. An unsolicited proposal explains an
existing problem and proposes concrete measures/procedures or steps for rectification.

55
 Ò

Unsolicited proposals differ from solicited proposals in that the proposal must
convince the reader that a problem exists and that the writer can solve it.

Format of proposals and length

Memo format: This format is used for internal reports that are no longer than ten
pages.
Memo report: This is used for relatively short reports that exceed ten pages.
Letter format: This is used for external reports of up to five pages.

Manuscript (book format): This is used for more formal proposals regardless the
length

Readers of proposals are cautious decision makers and investors of money and time.
Questions proposal readers ask:

Problem
Is there really a problem?
What is the problem?
Why does it need to be solved?

Solution
What is your solution?
How do you propose to reach your solution?
What are your strategies for solving the problem?

Costs
What are the costs of implementing your proposal?
Is it monetary, time or a benefit to society?
Is the cost worth it?

Capability
Can we really depend on you to carry out a desired project? Can you deliver
what you promise? These questions relate to external reports.

Benefits
Management considers how beneficial the proposal is to the organisation.

Writing the proposal

A proposal is a persuasive message. You need to demonstrate your knowledge, use
concrete examples, prove that your proposal is workable, and relate your product,
service or personnel to the reader’s exact needs either as stated in the RFP or as
discovered through your own investigation. You need to introduce the topic, convince
the reader there is a problem that you have a solution, that you are capable and that
the cost is worth it. Language must be persuasive, convincing and precise. Make sure
it is error-free and reader friendly. You also need to package your proposal
attractively. Readers will judge the type of work you perform by your submitted
proposal.

56
 Ò

The formal proposal requires headings and subheadings for easy access to sections of
greatest interest. Use sentences and well-organised paragraphs.

Why some proposals fail

The writer fails to explain the problem clearly and convincingly to the reader. This
may be due to vagueness; or under loading whereby only parts of the problem are
presented because the writer assumes that the reader knows all the details. Sometimes
the writer gives the impression that the problem is not serious so that the reader fails
to understand the problem or thinks the writer’s solution is not sound. If the proposal
contains errors, omissions, or inconsistencies, the reader will likely withhold
approval.

Structure of the business proposal

In the introduction, establish the need for action and summarise the key benefits of
your proposal. To do this, refer to the RFP in the case of a solicited proposal. If
unsolicited, mention any factors that that have led you to submit a proposal. The
following issues are briefly presented.
 Background or statement of the problem
 A summary of your solution
 Scope: state the boundary of the proposal also known as delimitations
 Report organisation: this orients the reader to major divisions of the proposal.

In the body, demonstrate the superiority of your ideas, product, or services. Provide
complete details, facts and evidence. Cover the following information.
 Proposed approach: This describes what you have to offer, your concept,
product, or service. Focus on the strength of your offer in relation to reader
needs. Stress the benefits of your product or service that are relevant to your
readers’ needs and point out any advantages you have over your competitors.

 Work plan: Describe the steps you will take, their timing, the methods or
resources you will use, and the persons responsible. Include when work will
begin, how it will be divided into stages, and when you will finish. If possible,
include a Gantt chart highlighting critical dates. For solicited proposals, make
sure your dates match those specified in the RFP. Don’t promise what you
cannot deliver.

 Statement of qualifications: Describe your organisation’s experience,

personnel and facilities in relation to reader needs. Remember: this can be an
important selling point.

 Costs: This section has many numbers and few words. You need to prove that
your costs are realistic. Provide specific details so that your reader can see
how you arrived at the figures. For instance, you need to state the figures for
materials, transportation, travel, training, labour, etc. the justification for the
costs may be in the cover letter – for informal reports. However, in formal
reports, the discussion is thorough and is therefore part of the proposal.

In the conclusion, you need to summarise the key points of the proposal, briefly and
confidently emphasise the benefits for the reader or the merits of your approach,
57
 Ò

reemphasise why you and your firm are the ones to do the work and ask for a decision
from the client.

Parts of a Formal proposal

Prefatory parts:
 Cover: Includes report’s title, the writer’s name and submission date
 Title fly: A blank sheet of paper that adds a touch of formality
 Title page: Includes report’s title; the name, title and address of the person or
group that authorized the report or the recipients of the proposal
 Request for proposal: If the RFP is too long to bind into the proposal, you can
either include only the introductory portion or simply refer to the RFP in your
letter of transmittal.
 Letter or memo of transmittal: This conveys the analytical report to the
audience and may appear in only selected copies of the report.
 Table of contents: Lists headings in outline form with page numbers.
 List of illustrations: Gives the titles and page numbers of visual aids.
 Synopsis or executive summary: Optional

Text parts
 Introduction
 Body
 Summary

Supplementary parts
 Appendices

4.6 Research Communications

This sub-topic covers research related communications and therefore focuses on
The research proposal
Presentation of findings: the written report

Research proposals
Requests for research proposals are usually advertised in newspapers, professional
journals, periodicals, and sometimes they are mailed to selected vendors. Research
projects require a formal approval in order for one to continue with the project.

Format of the research proposal

a) The title/topic of the research: This should be brief and precise.

b) Introduction: state the purpose and scope of the research project. Show that it
affects the society.

c) Problem background: Briefly explain the context of the issue you are investigating.
The length and details of this section depend on the audience.

d) Research question(s): This section presents 1 or 2 or 3 related questions which

you intend to focus on in order to understand the issue or come up with a solution.

58
 Ò

e) Aims of the research - This section states the specific aims of the research project.
The aims are related to the research questions. Thus there may be 1, 2 or 3 aims.

f) Rationale: This section explains the significance of the project. You need to
demonstrate that it is a worthwhile project. Convince the reader that the end result
is desirable.

g) Literature review: Do not simply summarise the contents of several books. You
need to show how and why the material is relevant to or important for your own
research.

h) Methodology - Explain your research design. State how you intend to collect and
how you will analyse the data. Avoid being vague.

i) Schedule and cost: Give dates and time of events and completion dates. State the
expenses to be incurred and supplies needed. Be specific and show that you are
systematic, organised and professional.

Research reports

A formal report including a research report is a full scale, detailed, tightly structured
document, which must be properly documented.

Parts of the report

FRONT MATTER

Title: The subject of the report. This must reflect accurately the subject matter.

Cover: On it, display the title, date of issue and the author. The cover must be
attractive.

Title page:
The full title of the report
Author’s name,
The date the report is submitted

Abstract: This is an overview or purpose of the report. It is no longer than one page. It
briefly states the purpose of the research, a brief background, how data was collected
and analysed, main findings, conclusions and recommendations. This is called a
descriptive abstract. Another type of abstract is called the executive summary.

Executive Summary: This is a fully developed mini version of a long report. It may
contain headings and even visual aids. It can run up to three double-spaced typed
pages. Please note that this summary is not required in the Dissertation.

59
 Ò

Letter of Transmittal: This is a cover letter that explains the context of a long report.
It is addressed to the primary recipient of the report. The first paragraph cites the
name of the report (in italics) and mentions the date of agreement to write the report.
The middle paragraph focuses on the purpose of the report and gives a brief summary
of its contents. The final paragraph encourages the reader to get in touch if there are
questions, comments, or concerns. It closes with a gesture of goodwill, expressing
hope that the reader finds the report satisfactory. This is not required in your
dissertation.

Acknowledgements: State the names of the people who contributed to the work and
what the contribution was.

Declaration: This is a formal statement the writer makes to the reader that the work
was done by the author.

Dedication: Optional

Table of contents: This shows readers the page number on which each of the major
sections and sub sections in the report starts so that the reader finds the section he is
interested in at a glance. It is important to number, indent and capitalise different
sections properly.

List of illustrations: This helps the reader to easily find the illustrations. In long
reports that contain both figures (drawings, graphs, charts, photographs) and tables,
separate lists are prepared.

MAIN TEXT

Presentation
Group related bits of information and assign labels. The labels must be related to the
nature of the information. Sequence the groups of information so that there is a
logical flow of material.

Use headings, subheadings, lists, bulleted points etc where appropriate. State the
sections the reader will encounter in the report and in what order. Number the
headings and sub headings. Use visuals to illustrate your ideas.

Remember to report your findings accurately and to properly document important

sources; and that Formal reports use impersonal language ( see section 1.9).

4.7 Selecting the right visual

Carefully prepared visuals can make your report or presentation more interesting; they
are an effective way to communicate with diverse audiences, they attract and hold
people’s attention; and they help your audience understand and remember your
message. You should use visuals to emphasise, clarify, simplify, reinforce, and
summarise information as well as to add interest and improve credibility.

60
 Ò

However, visuals need to be used selectively. For instance, avoid drafting a report
with too many visuals. Besides, different visuals are more appropriate for different
jobs because some visuals are not interchangeable. The following table indicates what
visuals are appropriate for what job.

Type of message Type of visual

To present detailed exact values Tables
To illustrate trends over time Line chart or bar chart
To show frequency or distribution Pie chart or segmented bar chart
To compare one item with another Bar chart
Compare one part with the whole Pie chart
To show correlations Bar chart, or scatter chart
To show geographical relationships A map
To illustrate a process or procedure Flowchart or a diagram
To show how much time is needed to Gantt chart
complete each task in a given project

Construction guidelines
1. Ensure that the title accurately states the desired message.
2. Include white space around the text so that it will stand out.
3. Keep the chart simple.
4. Show segment values accurately.
5. Label the chart: provide a title, a source notation, and identification of
segments. Clearly name each segment and identify its proportion of the whole.
6. Keep the number of segments to a minimum. A pie chart with too many
segments makes the comparisons difficult to comprehend.
7. Balance the segments. Place the largest segment around 12 o’clock position.
Place the other segments in descending order of size.
8. Plan the chart size for readability: maximum half a page to allow for
identifying information.
9. Use the horizontal axis to designate the independent variable; and the vertical
axis for the dependent variable. Label the axes so that they can be read without
rotating the visual.
10. Several dependent variables may be plotted on the same graph. Use different
colours for the different lines. Don’t draw too many lines.
11. All visuals must be ethical representations of data. They must not be used
to distort information.

NOTE: Provide a legend or key for each visual.

Visuals must fit in your ‘story’ and must be referred to and commented on
in the text.

4.8 Checklist: Research papers

1. Choose a topic that can be adequately covered.
2. Find relevant sources.
61
 Ò

3. Read and evaluate sources.

4. Keep track of where information comes from.
5. Develop a thesis or main argument.
6. Work up an outline.
7. Write the first draft. Never lose sight of your topic and research question(s).
Remain focused throughout.
8. Revise and then revise again. Remember: your language and presentation
skills matter.

9. Provide documentation in the text and a bibliography.

10. Type the final draft and proofread.

4.9 Checklist: Organising business reports and proposals

A. Decide on format and length

1. For brief external reports, use letter format, including a title or a

subject line that appears directly after the reader’s address that clearly
states the subject of the document.
2. For brief internal reports, use memo or manuscript format.
3. Follow company guidelines
4. Choose a report length that matches your subject, your purpose, and
your audience’s expectations.

B. Select an organisational approach

1. Use direct order for informational reports to receptive readers,

developing ideas around subtopic (chronologically, geographically,
and categorically).
2. Use direct order for analytical reports to receptive readers, developing
points around conclusions or recommendations and placing
conclusions and recommendations in the opening.
3. Use indirect order for analytical reports to skeptical or hostile readers,
developing points around logical arguments.

C. Choose a structure that matches your needs

1. For informational reports, use one of six topical arrangements:

importance, sequence, chronology, spatial orientations, geography and
category
2. For analytical reports to receptive audiences, focus on conclusions or
recommendations.
3. For analytical reports to skeptical audiences, focus on one of three
logical arguments: 2 + 2 = 4 (to determine that everything adds up), the
scientific method (to reveal the most effective solution), or the
yardstick approach (to weigh possible solutions against criteria).

62
 Ò

4. For solicited proposals, use the direct approach and focus on

recommendations.
5. For unsolicited proposals use the indirect approach and unfold
recommendations, by focusing on logical argument.

Producing formal reports and proposals

A. Prepare a sturdy, attractive cover

1. Label the cover clearly with the title of the document.

2. Use a title that tells the audience exactly what the document is about.

B. Prepare title page

1. List title; recipient’s name, title, affiliation; author’s name, date of

submission.
2. Balance the information in blocks on the page.
3. Include a copy of the letter of authorization or request for proposal, if
appropriate.

D. Prepare letter or memo of transmittal

1. Include only in some copies if it contains sensitive information suitable
for some but not all readers.
2. Convey the document officially to the readers.
3. Refer to authorisation and discuss purpose, scope, background, source
and methods, and limitations.
4. Acknowledge everyone who was especially helpful in preparing the
document.
5. Close with thanks, offer to be of further assistance, and suggest future
projects, if appropriate.

E. Prepare table of contents

1. Include all first- and second-level headings (and perhaps all third-level
headings).
2. Give the page number of each heading.
3. Word all headings exactly as they appear in the text.
4. Include the synopsis (if there is one) and supplementary parts.
5. Number table of contents and all prefatory pages with lowercase roman
numerals (bottom centre).

F. Prepare list of illustrations if you have four or more visual aids

1. Put the list in the same format as the table of contents.
2. Identify visuals either directly under table of contents or on a separate
page under its own heading.
63
 Ò

G Develop synopsis or executive summary (for long, formal

Documents)
1. Tailor the synopsis or executive summary to the document’s length and
tone.
2. Condense the document’s main points, using either the informative or
the descriptive approach.
3. Present the points in a synopsis in the same order as they appear in the
document. An executive summary can deviate from the order of points
appearing in the report.

H. Prepare introduction to text

1. Leave a two-inch margin at the top of the page. Centre the title of the
document.
2. In a long document, type the first-level heading ‘Introduction’ three
lines below title.
3. In a short document, omit ‘Introduction’ heading and begin typing
three lines below title.
4. Discuss the authorisation (unless already in cover letter of transmittal),
purpose, scope, background sources and methods, definitions,
limitations and text organisation.

I. Prepare body of document

1. For left-bound documents, number all pages with Arabic numerals in
the upper right-hand corner (except for the first page, where the
number is centred one inch from the bottom)
2. For top-bound documents, number all pages with Arabic numerals
centered one inch from the bottom.

J. Prepare conclusion of document

1. Wrap up the text of reports and proposals with summary.
2. If appropriate, include conclusions and recommendations.

K. Prepare appendixes, if necessary

1. Give each appendix a title.
2. For multiple appendixes, number or letter them consecutively in the
order the text refers to them.

L. Prepare reference list (bibliography), if necessary)

1. Use a consistent format
2. Place on separate page of report.

M. Review document thoroughly, double-check for inconsistencies and errors

1. Verify that all materials quoted or paraphrased from secondary sources
are documented.

2. Check that all visual aids are numbered consistently throughout the
report and placed close to their textual explanation.

64
 Ò

3. Check all page-number references.

4. Make sure that terminology is appropriate.
5. Verify that abbreviations, names, and addresses are correct.
6. Check that headings use a consistent format; line headings to three
levels when possible.
7. Place additional information in appendix.
8. Format appropriately: Single-space text; double-space between
paragraphs; leave space between headings.

Task: Compare and contrast the following draft reports

MEMORANDUM 1

TO : …………………….. DATE: ……………….

FROM: ……………………… SUBJECT: Recruiting and hiring

Seminar

Last week I attended an American Management Association seminar on recruiting,

screening, and hiring new employees. I got enough useful information to warrant
updating our online personnel handbook and perhaps developing a quick training
session for all interviewing teams. Here’s a quick look at the things I learned.

We should avoid legal mistakes, screen and interview applicants more effectively, and
measure applicants more accurately. We need to write recruiting ads that accurately
portray job openings and that don’t discriminate. We need to sort through resumes
more efficiently, while still looking for telltale signs of false information. And we
need more information of which types of preemployment tests are most effective.

I learned how best to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act and how to use
an employment agency effectively and safely (without risk of legal entanglements).
The conference also covered how to screen and interview questions that could get us
into legal trouble, and when and how to check criminal records. In addition, I learned
which drug testing issues and recommendations affect us.

As you can see, the seminar addressed a lot of important information. I attended six
sessions in all to gather exactly the information we needed. We already cover the
basic guidelines for much of this already, but a number of specific recommendations
and legal concepts should be emphasized. Also, over the four-day conference, I
attended three workshop lunches that addressed specific applications for much of
what was presented during the regular sessions. I was amazed by the valuable
information I received in addition to the cruise-ship-style buffet lunches. The food
was fantastic.

It will take me a couple of weeks to get the personnel handbook updated, but we don’t
have ay immediate hiring plans anyway. Contact me if you need ay information
before then. Everyone will have a lot to review to get up to speed. Also, we have a

65
 Ò

lot of new information that may well affect our need to train the interviewing team
members.

Please don’t hesitate to e-mail me or drop by for a chat.

MEMORANDUM 2

TO : ……………………….. DATE: ………………….

FROM : ………………………… SUBJECT: Recruiting and hiring

Seminar
As you all know, the process of recruiting, screening, and hiring new employees can
be a legal minefield. Because we don’t have an in-house lawyer to help us make
every decision, it’s important for all of us to be aware of what is legally acceptable
and what isn’t.

Last week I attended an American Management Association seminar on this subject.

I got enough useful information to warrant updating our online personnel handbook
and perhaps developing a quick training session for all interviewing teams. First,
here’s a quick look at the things I learned.

Avoiding Legal Mistakes

 How to write advertising ads that accurately portray job openings and that
don’t discriminate
 How best to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act
 How to use an employment agency effectively without risk of legal
entanglements

Screening and interviewing More Effectively

 How to sort through resumes more effectively

 How to avoid interview questions that could get us into legal trouble
 When and how to check criminal records

Measuring applicants

 Which types of preemployment tests have been proven most effective

 Which drug-testing issues and recommendations affect us

As you can see, the seminar addressed a lot of important information. We cover the
basic guidelines for much of this already, but a number of specific recommendations
and legal concepts should be emphasized.

It will take me a couple of weeks to get the personnel handbook updated but we don’t
have any immediate hiring plans anyway. I will keep the seminar handbook and any
notes on my desk, in case you want to peruse them. After I have updated the
handbook, we can get together and decide whether we need to train the interviewing
team members. Although we have a lot of new information, I think we can highlight
66
 Ò

what people need to be aware of and let them read the new sections as their schedules
allow.

If you have any questions in the meantime, don’t hesitate to e-mail me or drop by for
a chat.

4.10 Criteria for the evaluation of qualitative research reports

1 Context: Is the research clearly contextualised?

o Is the setting clearly described?
o Is information about the subject provided?

2 Literature review: Is the connection to an existing body of knowledge or

theory clear?
o Is there adequate reference to the literature?
o Does the work cohere with or critically address existing theory?

3 Sampling: Are there clear accounts of the criteria used for the selection of
subjects for study, and of the data collection and analysis?
o Is the selection of cases or participants theoretically justified?
o Is it clear what population the sample refers to?
o Is consideration given to whether the units chosen were unusual in
some important way?

4 Methodology: Are the methods of the research appropriate to the nature of the
question being asked?
o Could a quantitative approach have addressed the issue better?
o Does the sensitivity of the methods match the needs of the research
questions?
o Are the limitations of the method considered?

5 Data collection: Was data collection and record keeping systematic?

o Were careful records kept?
o Is the evidence (e.g. transcripts) available for independent
examination?

6 Data Analysis: is reference made to accepted procedures for analysis?

o Is it clear how the analysis was done?
o Has its reliability been considered?
o How systematic is the analysis?
o What steps were taken to guard against selectivity in the use of data?
o Is negative data given?
o Have measures been taken to test the validity of the findings E.g.
Triangulation and Grounded Theory?

7 Discussion: Is there adequate discussion of how themes, concepts and

categories were derived from the data?

67
 Ò

8 Conclusions: Do the conclusions follow from the data? Is a clear distinction

made between the data and their interpretation?
o Are the results credible?

9 Presentation: Are the different sections presented systematically?

o Is the presentation Reader- friendly?
o Is appropriate language used?
o Is it comprehensible?
o Is the author’s own position clearly stated?
o Has the researcher examined his / her own role, possible bias and
influence on the research?

10 Ethics: Have ethical issues been adequately considered (e.g. confidentiality)?

o Is there evidence that the research was presented and explained to its
subjects?
o Is there evidence about how the subject perceived the research?
o Is sufficient of the original evidence presented to satisfy the reader of
the relationship between the evidence?

Reading
Bovee Thill & Schatzman, Business Communication Today, chapters 12, 13 & 14

Kuiper & Kohut, Contemporary Business Report Writing,

68
 Ò

Chapter 5 Presentations and Speeches

5.1 Introduction

The ability to make effective oral presentations is an essential competence for

managers. Bad presentations are regrettably common. The following are some of the
comments members of the audience make about bad presentation:
 He went on for too long.
 That was dead boring.
 I couldn’t read the slides.
 The slides flashed past so quickly that I couldn’t keep up.
 If the presentation had any message, it escaped me.
 He didn’t answer my question.
 I got lost in all the statistics / the complicated drawings.
 If they are not competent to put on a decent presentation, we are not going to
invest in their project.
 The fillers took up too much time.

5.2 Oral presentations

Presentations may be informational or they may be made in order to persuade the

audience. The keys to successful presentations are thorough preparation and
worthwhile content.

A systematic approach to planning a presentation often ensures that essential factors

are not forgotten. The following section deals with seven essential operations in
planning and preparing a presentation.

1) Identifying the purpose of the presentation and the audience;

2) Identifying the constraints on the speaker;
3) Designing a structure
4) Choosing an appropriate style of presentation;
5) Designing a set of visual aids;
6) Providing supporting materials; and
7) Preparing for the actual presentation

5.2.1 Preparation
This approach entails thorough preparation. This involves a number of considerations.
This section presents suggestions on what can be done to ensure a successful
presentation.

69
 Ò

Purpose and Audience

The presenter must identify the purpose of the presentation and the audience if the
presentation is to be effective. For example, a manager with an engineering
background may set out to impress the board of the company with the technical
intricacies of a design. The board is however interested in whether the product is
viable in the market place. The presenter’s objectives are mismatched to the
requirements of the audience and the presentation is unlikely to be successful. Thus,
the presenter must decide before the presentation what information the audience is
interested in and capable of absorbing.

Constraints
The presenter is always constrained in time and by the facilities available for the
presentation and for questions. If no time limits are stated, the presenter should set a
reasonable limit. The facilities available in the venue should be confirmed and, if
possible, inspected at an early stage of planning.

Structure
The key to a good presentation is designing the right structure to meet the purpose,
audience requirements and constraints. The structure must:
 be attuned to the purpose of the presentation;
 be geared to the requirements of the audience;
 ensure continuity and logical flow of the presentation;
 take into account the constraints, including time available; and
 be reflected in a set of slides.

Choosing a Style of Presentation

There are different presentation styles, e.g. extemporaneous, manuscript, and
memorised. The purpose and audience are key factors in determining the style of
presentation. The level of formality or informality must be chosen according to what
is most acceptable to the audience.

Important: Do not read your paper unless you have good reasons for doing so. If you
are presenting a long report or even your research proposal, circulate the paper in
advance to the concerned audience, and select key points for the oral presentation.

Use visual aids whenever possible. It is always more effective to communicate

visually as well as orally. Not even an exceptional speaker can present financial or
managerial analysis without visual material.

Designing Visual Aids

The overhead projector, or data projector if available, is assumed to be the principal
medium of presentation. However, PowerPoint presentations are popular among
professionals.

5,2.2 Using PowerPoint

70
 Ò

Please note the following important point:

The message is more important than the medium. Use of tools such as PowerPoint for
preparing slides encourages the use of decorative backgrounds and effects. Use these
embellishments with caution as the clarity of diagrams and tables can be reduced

A number of issues arise in designing a set of slides for a PowerPoint presentation.

 How many slides? A good general rule is to average not more than one slide per
two minutes, unless the material lends itself to more. Too few slides could
result in the audience having to concentrate on long explanations with
insufficient visual support.

 A good set of slides serves as the presenter’s “crib notes” and avoids having to
speak from a separate set of notes.

 What are essential slides? A presentation should have at least the following
slides:
- A title slide: Title of presentation, presenter’s name(s) and affiliation(s),
date, presented to…

- Overview slide: list of main sections conveying the logic of the

presentation;

- Specific slides as required

- Concluding slide: presenting a summary of the presentation and

recommendations as required

 It is good practice to list a related group of points under

discussion on a slide and to refer to each as the talk unfolds.
This list concentrates the audience’s attention and also keeps the
talk on track.

 For student presentations slides can be hand written or produced

on a computer, using a tool such as PowerPoint.

 However the slides are produced, the text must be legible and
the amount of information limited. A good rule is

- Not more than six first level items (points or bullets) per slide;

- Not more than ten lines of details: implying that points should not go on
for several lines;

- Avoid fancy fonts: Romans or San Serif (Arial, Tahoma, Century Gothic,
Times New Roman,) are more legible. Make sure your audience will be
able to read what is on your slides.
71
 Ò

 Diagrams should not be complex. A complicated diagram in a document should

be replaced by a simplified version for the presentation. Labels in a diagram
should be as large as possible.

 Tables must be simple. A good rule is to consider a six by six table the largest for
presentation. A complex table in a document should be replaced by a simplified
version showing the principal data for the presentation. Text in the table should
be as large as possible.

 Graphs and diagrams must be kept simple. Use no more than three curves on any
one graph. Label each curve directly. Do not rely on legends at the bottom of the
graph.

Other Supporting Material

In most cases, providing printed material to the audience, either before or at the
presentation, enhances a presentation. Avoid having to supply the printed material at
a later date. The nature of the printed material varies as the three examples below
show.

 Technical conferences provide a volume of printed papers before or at the

conference. The presentation concentrates on principal logic and results of the
paper.

 A complex project report should be sent out to the audience prior to the
presentation. Only important points should be highlighted in the presentation.

 If a presentation has no formal document, a handout should be provided which

contains copies of the slides (reduced and printed back to back to save paper).

Further Preparation
The novice presenter, and in fact all but the most accomplished presenters, must
rehearse the presentation. A few colleagues should be present and offer criticisms of
the structure, content, timing and visual aids.

The best advice to the presenter is:

 Be in command of the subject of the presentation and be familiar with the
wider context and impacts of the subject;
 Use a set of slides as a guide, not to be read word for word;
 Rehearse before the presentation in the presence of colleagues;
 Rehearse; and
 Rehearse again!

At the preparation stage, possible questions that could be put to the presenter should
be identified. The presenter should think through answers to these questions.

72
 Ò

Checklist 1 enables the presenter to ensure that all necessary preparation has been
completed

CHECKLIST 1: PREPARATION FOR A PRESENTATION

 Are the purpose of the presentation and the audience clearly identified?
 Have all constraints been identified and taken into account?
 Does the structure fit the purpose, audience requirements and constraints?
 Has a style of presentation been identified and checked against the audience
requirements?
 Does the set of slides (and other visual aids) reflect the structure, style and
purpose?
 Is the supporting material appropriate and available
 Has the presentation been rehearsed sufficiently in the presence of colleagues?

CHECKLIST 2: SLIDES FOR A PRESENTATION

 Does the number of slides depart from the rule of one per two minutes? If so, is the
number justified?
 Is there a title slide?
 Is there an outline slide?
 Is there a concluding slide?
 Does each slide have an explanatory title?
 If a data projector is to be used, is there a backup set of slides?

5.2.3 Delivering the Presentation

Having planned the presentation, attention needs to be given to the actual delivery.
Advice, born of experience of good and bad delivery, is captured in the following
points. The presenter is strongly advised to:

 Be completely ready to start at the appointed time: don’t use your time for
setting up!

 Adopt a relaxed manner: if the preparation is thorough a relaxed approach is

possible.

 Never read a detailed proposal or report to an audience.

 Maintain eye contact with the audience. The mark of an expert orator is
that each listener feels that he is being addressed directly.

 Always try to react to the audience.

73
 Ò

 Avoid distracting the audience, for example by:

 Excessive movement and gestures.
 Digression from the topic.
 Fumbling with the slides, notes, etcetra.
 Switching the overhead projector on and off for each slide.

 Stick to the allotted time.

 When answering questions:

If there is a slide relevant to the question, display it immediately and use it to support
the answer.

If a question is unclear, ask the questioner to repeat or clarify the question, indicating
the aspects that are not clear.

Keep calm, even if the questioning gets aggressive.

To use PowerPoint in your presentation

Make sure all is well before the presentation time.

Click Slide show and select view show. Use the mouse or press enter or both.

At the end of the slide show, close the programme by clicking at the left corner of the
screen.

Remember to speak to your audience, and not to your visual aid.

5.3 Speeches

Hattersley and McJannet (1997) categorically state that

Managers make speeches for many reasons: to pass information upward or downward, to
motivate subordinates, to entertain at a social occasion, to rally allegiance to a new policy, to
convince others to support and carry out a particular course of action.
(P. 267)

The above statement can also apply to other people other than managers. You may
find yourself having to make a speech at one time or the other. This section presents
some considerations that may enhance your speech making skill.

Ways to reach others

According to Aristotle (in Zeuschner 1997), in order to reach others, three aspects
need to be taken into account namely Ethos, Pathos and Logos.

74
 Ò

1 Ethos : This includes four elements : expertise, trustworthiness, dynamism and

goodwill. It is related to the issue of credibility stated above under persuasion
strategies.

If you are not an expert, research extensively on the issue. The audience must be
convinced that you are competent. Be an honest person. Be lively and energetic.
Control your voice, posture, movement, etc. Tailor the message to the needs and for
the benefit of your listeners. They are more likely to respond if you have their best
interest at heart. Sound pleasant; observe social courtesy and everyday norms of
behaviour.

2 Pathos : Pathos helps your listeners to become involved or aroused.

Persuaders use humour, fear pride, pity, sadness, etc to influence and get people to act
as they desire. The following are some of the ways speekers attempt to achieve
pathos. This is similar to emotional appeal.
 using a picture of a sad-eyed child in rags
 using a picture of starving people
 cartoons

Any emotion can help you get your audience involved in your idea. However
Zeuschner (1997, p. 295) notes that:

The best use of emotion in persuasive speaking is in conjunction with other forms that also
help to make the topic memorable and motivating. Most listeners, especially as their level
of education increases, demand the inclusion of factual information and a logical
interpretation of the information before they make any important commitment.

3 Logos : This was Aristotle’s term for logic or reason. This involves making
connections from a set of facts and drawing logical conclusions from those facts. It
also includes using logical supporting materials and the reasoning process. The key
idea behind Logos is ‘prove your point’. It is similar to logical reasoning which is
presented under persuasion strategies.

Language
Effective speakers choose their words carefully. You can use imagery such as
analogies, metaphors and similes. For impact – use humour, emphasis, etcetra.

54 Persuasive speeches

Zeuschner outlines four general categories of persuasive speeches

1 Speeches to convince
2 Speeches to actuate
3 Speeches to reinforce
4 Debates and public argumentation

Speeches to Convince
The speech focuses on changing attitude or opinion. Its focus is not to get people to
do something. However when the people are convinced their actions/behaviour may
also change.

75
 Ò

Speeches that actuate

These speeches try to get people to do what the speaker wants them to do. The
audience needs to be convinced that the action you propose is the right one for them.
When they are convinced the persuader asks them to take action e.g. adverts or
political campaign messages.

Speeches to reinforce or inspire

These are inspirational messages. They are delivered to audiences that are already
leaning in a favorable direction e.g. a sermon or a talk from a team coach before a
game. The aim of the speech is to build enthusiasm or for the audience to try harder.
The speaker reminds the audience of the values or commitments its members already
hold or once held and then gets them to become rededicated or reinforced in those
values.

Debates and Public argumentation

Public argumentation aims at addressing issues and questions of importance to the
community or society. Robbins and Hunsaker (1999) suggest eight tips on improving
persuasive skills. These are:

1) Establish your credibility

2) Use a positive, tactful tone
3) Make your presentation clear
4) Present strong evidence to support your position
5) Tailor your arguments to the listener
6) Appeal to the subjects self-interest
7) Use logic
8) Use emotional appeals

Behaviour checklist for an effective persuader

- Uses a positive, tactful tone.

- Presents ideas one at a time
- Presents strong evidence to support position
- Tailors argument to the listener
- Appeals to the subjects self interest
- Makes a logical argument
- Uses emotional appeals

Source : Robbins & Hunsaker 1999: p. 118

5.5 Panel discussions, Forum and symposium presentations

76
 Ò

What are the main differences between panel discussions, forum

presentations and symposium presentations?

Panel discussion

Forum presentation

Symposium presentation

77
 Ò

5.6 Special occasion speeches

Using Devito (1997) and Lucas (1996) state the key features of the following types of
speech.

The Speech of Introduction

The speech of Presentation or Acceptance

The speech to Secure Goodwill

The speech of Tribute

The special Occasion Speech in Cultural Perspective

78
 Ò

5.7 Crisis Communication and Media Relations

Crisis communication is a process of disseminating information about a crisis to

members of the general public and other interested parties. One of the features that
managers must bear in mind is that a crisis normally attracts unexpected publicity.
Managers must therefore plan how to communicate with the media, the public and the
other stakeholders during and after the crisis. There is also need to inform the
company directors, shareholders and employees.

The overall purpose of crisis communication might be to regain public confidence

following the crisis. Communication, therefore, aims at alleviating the community
anguish; restoring confidence in the product or service, individual or the organisation;
rebuilding relationships with the victims; and reducing media coverage of the story.

It is useful for management to put in place strategies that can be implemented when
the need arises. It is helpful for organizations to have an internal crisis communication
plan that can enable management to be prepared for the worst case scenario. For
instance, management can identify potential crises and the worst case scenarios and
then prepare for them. Once various situations are identified, the management team
can then ensure that all necessary steps to deal with each possible crisis have been
taken. This should include putting the correct processes in place to deal with whatever
comes their way.

It might also be helpful to practice from time to time how the company will manage
the different aspects of its potential crises both internally and externally. The more
they practice, the more the key role players become comfortable with who does what,
why and when it must be done.

If a situation indicates that a crisis is imminent, management can proactively

communicate to staff and union members to explain the situation and then formulate a
plan to ensure smooth management. There may be need for face- to - face meetings
for staff to discuss their concerns. The different stakeholders also need to be
communicated to.

When an actual crisis occurs, the manager may adopt the following plan.
 Provide adequate resources for gathering information and preparing news.
 Get facts as soon as possible in readiness for questions. Apply the five Ws and
H as well as what the company is doing about it.
 Prepare key messages.
 Set up a news centre for company representatives and the media.
 Identify a company spokesperson or team.
 Brief key audiences such as frontline staff and other employees, directors
shareholders, other stakeholders including customers and media
representatives.

The frontline staff should know to whom queries should be referred. Meanwhile the
responsible managers should deal with the problem causing the crisis.

79
 Ò

External communication may take the following approach:

 Be quick. Delays may result in undesirable communication or speculation.
 Issue at least two news updates daily.
 Inform those directly affected.
 Provide complete and correct information to the media.
 Be realistic and separate facts from rumour.
 Never lie, or speculate or guess. Say what you do know.

What should be communicated?

 Acknowledge that a problem exists and that corrective action is being done.
 If possible, explain why the problem occurred.
 Express regret, empathy, sympathy and even embarrassment.
 Take appropriate responsibility for the event.

What should be avoided?

 Defensiveness
 Arrogance
 Inappropriate language
 Excuses
 Inconsistency

Press releases
One way of communicating crises is using press releases. A press release is a report
that is released by an organization for distribution by the mass media: newspapers,
magazines, radio, and television. An effective press release contains the following
information:

1. Name of the organization releasing the news

2. Target date for publication of the news
3. Headline that states the core of the story
4. Information source when applicable
5. Answers to the basic communication questions: Who? What? When? Where?
Why? How?
6. Name of person to contact for further information, along with telephone or fax
numbers or e-mail address.

The body of the press release should be organised in an inverted pyramid i.e. answers
to basic questions appear first followed by supporting details. To accommodate the
editors of the agencies to whom the release is sent, the news release should be double
spaced, preferably with extra space between paragraphs.

5.8 Meeting the press

Another way of releasing corporate information is meeting the press. The higher one
goes in the professional ladder, the higher the chances of meeting the press. Hattersley
and McJannet (1997) suggest that senior managers need to understand the following:
 Press people strive to get to the truth. Members of the press tend to trust
companies and individuals with a track record of accuracy and accessibility.

80
 Ò

 What the press needs is a story, and bad news generally sells better than good
news. Because of this, companies and individuals have to deal with the press
when something has gone wrong. Management can do itself good service
either by giving the press good stories in the form of press releases. When
something has gone wrong, management can take the initiative in announcing
it, explaining it, and telling the public how it is going to be corrected.
 Management needs to understand the role of the media in crisis management.
Management needs to know how to provide effective interviews as well as
when and how to hold a press conference. The following rules apply to both.

a. Identify your central message. Be sure you can back it up, and stick to it.
b. Prepare materials in advance that the reporter can take away with them and study
or quote later.
c. Never say more than you know to be true. If you don’t know, say so and assure
the reporter that as soon as you get the information you will pass it on to them and
remember to keep your promise.
d. Make sure top management as well as your subordinates or even other
stakeholders share your views and that they are unlikely to leak contradictory and
even embarrassing information.
e. Provide the press with credible information.
f. Anticipate, and be prepared to respond to the most difficult questions.
g. Don’t become hostile or defensive.
h. Make your answers brief, quotable, and to the point.
i. If you are facing a problem you caused, be prepared to acknowledge your error
and state clearly what you are prepared to do to correct it. Turn the threat to an
opportunity.

Remember: you can control the media to some extent and you can control yourself.
This is because you have the information, something the media wants. This is easier if
you can identify the questions you would ask if you were the reporter because this
would help you to frame answers to those questions in advance.

Tips on effective interviews

 Be polite and communicate a wish to help.
 Find out in advance what particular aspect the interview will be on.
 Once the issue is clearly defined in your mind, ask yourself if you are the one
who should be doing the interview.
 Think of everything you could be asked, including the worst possible
questions.
 Prepare statements triggered by anticipated questions. Remember to base your
statements on the organisation’s position on the issue. Answer questions in
writing to promote recall and accuracy.
 Give honest feedback.
 Address the issue from where you feel most comfortable, not necessarily
where the reporter’s questions are leading you.
 Establish the areas not for discussion.
 Conduct the interview with professionalism, confidence and control.
 Consider your audience. Tailor your message to meet the needs of your
audience. Keep your language clear and simple, without using jargon. Use
quotable language.
 Remember: no message is complete without supporting information.
81
 Ò

 Turn negatives into positives. Never use negative language. Pause and think.
Use negative questions as opportunities to deliver thoughtful and positive
messages.
 If you do not want to see your comment as part of the story, do not say it.
Make your statements as you would like them recorded.
 If a reporter asks several questions, start with the question that allows you to
take control of the situation.
 If a reporter interrupts, politely continue your statement.

Don’t’s
 Don’t ask for questions in advance.
 Don’t argue with the reporter.
 Don’t ask to see the story before it is presented.
 Don’t just answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
 Avoid technical jargon.

Appearing before the camera

 Wear plain but not too bright colours.
 For ladies: you my use powder to avoid looking too shiny. However, avoid
heavy makeup
 Look confident, authoritative and professional. The audience can read this
from your posture, mannerisms, eye contact and dressing.
 Sit or stand straight.
 Keep your gestures close to your body.
 Be careful about sudden movements towards the camera. The camera
exaggerates those movements.
 Try to visualise the camera as a colleague sitting in front of you and gaze into
it.

Reading

Bell, AH and Smith, DM, Management Communication

Hattersley, ME and McJannet, L, Management Communication: Principles and

Practice, Boston.

Chapter 6 Interpersonal Communication

6.1 Introduction

Interpersonal means between people. Interpersonal communication means person to

person communication. No matter how efficient the formal channels of
communication are, if people are not able to ‘get the message through’ to one another,
communication will be ineffective. To get on in your career and climb the corporate
ladder, you need what are known as ‘people skills’. That means you need to have the
ability to communicate well with others in a one-on-one situation.

82
 Ò

Through communication, people learn about each other and strive to work out a
relationship which is mutually beneficial. Interpersonal communication is a
transactional process which is inevitably valuable for the development of human
relationships. ‘The main positive effect of interpersonal communication is the
development of close human relationships based on trust, respect, shared motives and
even love. When interpersonal relationships develop, people address each other as
distinct individuals; they understand each other and are sensitive to each other’s
needs. Besides, they appreciate each other’s views and values.

People who are engaged in managing, selling, supervising and providing services
depend on good interpersonal communication to achieve their objectives. Much of
personal and professional success in life depends on our ability to understand, co-
operate with, and influence the people around us.

When management is effective and relationships are sound, problems of

communication tend not to occur. It is only when relationships among members of
the organization are fraught with unarticulated tensions that one hears complaints of
communication breakdown.

Thus the quality of relationships in an organization may dictate to a great extent the
level of communication effectiveness achieved. The quality of relationships affects
the success of an organization. In other words, suspicions, and lack of trust in each
other lead to communication problems. The opposite is true: trust, and sharing of
information lead to sound communication.

6.2 Examples of workplace relationships

The employee in an organization will create, develop and maintain a number of
relationships whether as part of a group or as an individual. The type of relationships
one develops will be dependent to a large extent on the job that one does and the
position in the hierarchy. The nature of the relationship of the employee will, to a
large extent, influence his/her communication.

Some common relationships include: employer/employee, superior/junior/ employee/

client, colleagues, neighbours in terms of proximity in office space,

male-male colleagues, male-female colleagues, male boss/ female subordinate, female

boss/ male subordinate, etcetra.

The type of relationship places certain constraints on the communication process. The
amount of communication also depends on variables such as:
 protocols: Ceremonial systems of fixed rules of accepted behavior including
the need for social distance in some relationships.
 etiquette: The formal rules of proper social behavior.
 conventions: Generally accepted practice especially with regard to social
behavior.

6.3 Characteristics of interpersonal relationships

83
 Ò

1. Interpersonal Versus Impersonal Communication

In interpersonal communication, we treat others as individuals whereas in
impersonal communication we treat others as objects.

2. Uniqueness
 No two interpersonal relationships are alike, and the communication
patterns reflect these differences.
 The unique quality of interpersonal communication often takes the form of
distinctive rules that evolve between the parties. In one relationship you
might exchange good natured jokes and insults, while in another you are
careful never to offend your partner.
 Likewise you might handle conflicts with one friend or family member by
expressing disagreements as soon as they arise, where as the unwritten rule
in another relationship is to withhold resentments until they build up, and
then clear the air periodically.
 Language patterns reflect differences between unique interpersonal
relationships. In less personal relationships we tend to stereotype the other
person by using labels.

3. Irreplaceability
 Because interpersonal relationships are unique, they can’t be replaced.
This explains why we feel sad when a close friendship or love affair
breaks down.
 No matter how many other relationships we have, none of them will be
like the one that has ended.
 People in less personal relationships are much easier to replace.

4. Interdependence
 In an interpersonal relationship the other person’s life affects you,
whether negatively or positively.

5. Disclosure
 Another yardstick of interpersonal relationships is the amount of
personal information parties share with one another. In impersonal
relationships we don’t reveal much about ourselves, but in
interpersonal ones we feel more comfortable sharing our thoughts and
feelings.
 Not all interpersonal relationships are warm and caring, neither is all
self disclosure positive. It is possible to reveal negative personal
information.

6. Intrinsic Rewards
 In impersonal communication we seek pay offs that have little to do
with the people involved. For instance,. people enroll in a college to
learn the subject matter or get a qualification, not to make friends with
the lecturer. They will be satisfied with any competent instructor.
 Communication in interpersonal relationships is its own reward. It
does not matter. What you talk about in developing the relationship is
what is important.

84
 Ò

7. Scarcity
 The majority of our communication is relatively impersonal. We chat
with shopkeepers, fellow passengers on a bus or plane, neighbours,
teachers, etcetra. Considering the number of people we communicate
with, interpersonal relationships are in the minority.
 The rarity of interpersonal relationships is what makes them precious.
They are special because of their scarcity. After all, most people do
not have the time or energy to create personal relationships with
everyone they encounter.
 Most relationships are not completely interpersonal or impersonal.
Often they fall somewhere between these two extremes.

6.4 Types of interpersonal communication in relationships

Interpersonal communication varies in different relationships and at different stages of

the relationship. Some types of interpersonal communication that have been identified
are as follows:-

1. Rigid-Flexible
In new, less developed relationships, communication is more of a routine and
inflexible i.e. following strict rules and flows. As the relationship develops,
communication may involve a variety of ways of expressing topics, emotions
etcetra.

2. Difficult-Efficient
Communication is difficult in the early stages of a relationship and a lot of
planning is needed. As a relationship develops and becomes established, less
planning is needed and there is less overall effort to communicate and less
tendency to misunderstand each other. This is because the people involved can
refer to mutual experiences without
need for a large amount of elaboration or description. Therefore message
exchange is more efficient.

3. Awkward-Smooth
With people we don’t know, there is need to explain or appeal to them to
understand. It is easier for us to communicate well as we get to know the
person better. That is, when know what they will understand and what topics
etc will motivate and interest them.

4. Hesitant-Spontaneous
In new relationships, communication is marked by hesitancy due to fear of
saying the wrong thing. We therefore take time to calculate how something
should be said. There is more spontaneity as relationships develop. There is
less fear and more mutual tolerance for the message and how it is interpreted.

5. Public-Personal
The public image that a person has or portrays affects our communication.
This is because information that we have is only what has been revealed so
one can only communicate on the basis of that information. As we come to

85
 Ò

know another person, we often learn more of the personal, intimate details of
their lives. Communication may be influenced by these.

6. Stylized-Unique
Stylized communication is one which follows a prescribed style e.g.
formal/using an elaborate code: This is suitable for a wider range of people
and is common in early stages of a relationship. When people get to know
each other better, communication is adapted to specific individuals e.g. use of
‘restricted code’ where you don’t have to elaborate because the two of you
understand each other. It is also characterised by use of non-verbal (cues)
expressions.

7. No overt judgement - presence of overt judgement

In new relationships, we are careful not to express judgment because we don’t
know the person well. Our reactions may not be open or freely given. As the
relationship develops, people are free to give responses and are more open and
can make value judgements about issues or even personalities.

6.5 Factors that influence interpersonal communication

Proximity This refers to mutual engagement in a social situation. Some factors brings
people into face to face contact, physically in the same place, e.g. home, place of
work, club etcetra. In organizations, usually the job brings people together.

Many of the individuals with whom we develop close interpersonal relationship we

meet only by chance. We seldom set out intentionally to find specific individuals
with whom we want to develop interpersonal relationships.

Attraction Attraction may bring people together. That is, our attitudes may influence
our perception of another. For instance, people may want to get to know someone
whom they differ from or is very much like them.

People are always involved in social stereotyping or have their own ways of
classifying people. They may therefore want to get to know different social
stereotypes to confirm their classification.

Some of the stereotypes with characteristics that individually or in combination may

attract us include:-
 Individuals who may be ‘good looking’ according to the standards of our
group.
 Members of the opposite sex whose characteristics fit our sexual interest.
 Individuals who seem to merit the attention and praise of others, whose
‘success’ seems to be recognized.
 People whom we feel are ‘like us’, ‘in the same boat’, who may be undergoing
what we are undergoing.
 Individuals who resemble people we already know and like.
 Individuals who seem identifiable with family members (such as ‘father
image’)

86
 Ò

Obviously, there are exceptions and contradictions to these varieties of stereotypes

that often influence interpersonal attraction. A person may not fit any of these, yet
greatly arouse your curiosity; or you might feel sorry for them. A person’s
attractiveness, along with other factors may stimulate the interpersonal
communication process. If it does not, there are other factors that may still motivate
the process.

Contextual Motives In different contexts people assume roles in relation to each

other such as. lecturer/student, student/student, roommates, doctor/patient, etcetra.

Because of different roles people assume in different contexts, they might have direct
motives for getting to know the other person and effect interpersonal communication.

It is a lack of motive or negative motive that prevents many of our everyday

encounters with others from developing to the interpersonal level of communication.
For instance, as a teacher one may be in physical proximity with an attractive person,
but their roles of teacher and student necessitates social distance and therefore dictate
an impersonal relationship. If your conversation moved to an interpersonal level, then
you would be abandoning the teacher/student role.

It is probably for this reason that managers are told not to get too personal with their
workers otherwise authority may be weakened – communication should remain on a
relatively formal and impersonal level.

Sharing Information This means confiding in others in a positive way. Openness

and agreement to share information will make known each other’s motives.
Interpersonal communication is only possible if individuals gain information about
each other. It includes developing personal interest in the other and getting a similar
response. The degree of how open you should be in revealing information about
yourself is a subject of controversy.

Developing Trust Trust is an important and integral component of interpersonal

communication. Interpersonal communication can be effected when people need the
confidence that the relationship is mutually beneficial. There should be mutual respect
for each other’s confidence, motives and information.

Often trust can be influenced by non-verbal cues of voice, gestures, and facial
expressions. These cues are often more potent as suggestions of untrustworthiness.
We can therefore conclude that trust is an integral component of the interpersonal
communication process. The process cannot develop without it. If trust is seriously
violated, whatever level of interpersonal communication has been reached may be lost
and possibly irretrievable.

Individual Versus Stereotype orientation We normally see people as stereotypes (as

belonging to a ‘group’) in terms of the roles they play. For instance, on3e may
stereotype all managers as confidential; and all messengers cannot be trusted with
confidential material. In such circumstances communication will be mostly formal
and work related .

87
 Ò

Interpersonal communication leans more towards the individual rather than the
stereotype i.e. you talk to that person as an individual who has his own feelings,
views, values, opinions, aspirations, reactions etcetra.

Maintenance (Conflict Resolution) The interpersonal communication process

requires special attention given to its maintenance. No relationship is without
potential conflict and it is not the probability of conflict that threatens relationships as
much as the inability to resolve it. Conflict should not be suppressed but rather
interpersonal communication should accommodate it and develop a capability to
resolve it.

Matching Hypothesis The matching hypothesis describes situations in which we

form relationships with people who are quite similar to us in physical attractiveness.
In some cases, however, we might find discrepancies. For instance, we might notice
an old person dating a younger person. In these cases we look for (and often find)
that the partner possesses some quality that compensates for the lack of physical
attractiveness. Prestige, money, intelligence, power, etc… are examples of qualities
that may compensate for being less attractive.

Similarity We validate ourselves by being attracted to people like ourselves.

Although there are exceptions we generally like people who are similar to us in
nationality, race, ability, physical characteristics, intelligence, attitudes and
preferences.

Complementarily The principle of complementarily follows the approach of

‘opposites attract’ as opposed to that of ‘birds of a feather flock together.’ For
example a dogmatic person would form a relationship with a less dogmatic person.

People are attracted to dissimilar others only in certain situations e.g. a submissive
student may get on well with an aggressive teacher, but the same student may not get
on well with an aggressive spouse.

Economic Theory The theory describes situations in which we form relationships

because of what we can gain from one another.

6.6 Characteristics of effective interpersonal communicators

1. Positive Self Concept

Self concept is the way one views oneself. We use our view of self as a basis for
negotiating our relations with others. Those with a positive self concept and self
confidence view others in a better positive light. That is they transfer their positive
qualities to others and view others that way, giving them benefit of doubt.

2. Positive Assertiveness
Assertiveness is willingness to make an effort to get the other person to believe or do
what we want i.e state your position/stand and motives and get another person to
agree with you and do what you want. Be confident about yourself.

88
 Ò

Act towards the other person in ways that will maximize the benefits to both of you
i.e. positive assertiveness and it creates a I win, You win atmosphere. Confidence in
yourself will get the other person to have confidence in you and therefore confidence
in whatever transaction you put forward to him or her.

On the other hand Negative assertiveness is called aggression. Avoid aggressive

behavior – i.e. behaviour which will make the other person feel intimidated. If
aggression occurs, the other person becomes defensive, resentful and may create
communication barriers.

3. Open Mindedness
Open mindedness means seeing situations and people in several possible ways or
being receptive to other people’s views. This includes: being open to suggestions and
alternatives and ability to assess alternatives; Closed minded individuals tend to see
situations and people in one way only. This is known as tunnel vision.

4. Ability To Feel Empathy

This means ability to sense/feel emotions of others and therefore anticipate reactions
and responses. This is an imaginative process. Imagine yourself as the other person.
In other words, put yourself in that person’s place or ‘in his shoes’. This characteristic
gives one a basis for sensing individual feelings, reactions etc and act accordingly.

5. Ability To Use Persuasive Strategies

Once you project a positive self concept/image. It is important to assert yourself
positively, be open minded and empathetic. It then becomes easier to persuade and
influence others.

6.7 The role of self concept in interpersonal relationships

Self concept is the way you see yourself and/or the way you feel about yourself.
People with low self concept often feel the need to talk about self and do not have the
ability to accept praise gracefully

People with high self concept talk about self less frequently and may talk about others
easily in terms of their accomplishments. They need less constant reassurance of own
personal worth. They are able to accept praise or blame gracefully. When working
with others, they are likely to take risks and verbalize positions not necessarily the
‘correct’ ones. They do not spend much time figuring out the safe way of approaching
problems to avoid blame.

These characteristics suggest that self concept is directly related to communication in

several ways. One way to look at the important part self disclosure plays in
interpersonal communication is by means of a device known as the Johari Window.

6.8 Need for self disclosure in the workplace

1. It is important to share work related information, opinions, ideas, suggestions,

feelings, experiences, concerns, reactions etcetra.

89
 Ò

2. It helps individuals to develop more realistic self concepts/accurate pictures of

real self i.e. knowing what other people think of you personally/professionally
which can help consolidate positive qualifies and change negative ones.

3. It improves relationships and makes the working environment more enjoyable.

That is, people feel closer to one another, trust each other, feel they are part of
a group therefore must work as a team toward achieving the groups goals.

4. It improves productivity. This is because employees need sufficient

information. to be productive in their jobs. Productivity also increases when
employees are happy and satisfied with their jobs

6.9 JOHARI Window: self disclosure

Employers and employees need to be technically competent in their areas of expertise.
However, this expertise has to be combined with good interpersonal skills for them to
relate with each other in the right way. Interpersonal skills include the following:

 Self disclosure
 Listening skills
 Provision of appropriate feedback
 Sensitivity towards other people

Johari window is a concept that was originated by Joe Luft and Harry Ingham. The
concept illustrates the quality of a person’s relationship with others. JOHARI Window
concept has a bearing on effective interpersonal communication in that quality of
relationships in any group contributes a lot to communication effectiveness. If
relationships are poor, members may keep information from other members. On the
other hand, if there is mutual trust, and members easily share ideas, and like each
other, communication problems can be minimised.

Self-concept is the way one sees himself or herself or the way one feels about oneself.
Some people have a low self-concept, that is, they assess themselves negatively
whereas others have a high self-concept, and that is to say they have a positive
attitude about themselves. It is important to note that one develops one’s self concept
from what other people say.

When one develops a negative self-concept, this affects communication in that the
person finds communication and relationships with others difficult. A negative self-
concept prevents one from participating in-group communication.

According to the Johari window, a person’s communication behaviour can be viewed

by considering the size of four windowpanes: closed, hidden, blind and open.

The closed windowpane represents information about an individual that is

completely unknown even to the individual. A closed manager is a non-communicator
who rarely self discloses and uses very little feedback. A closed group member keeps
a low profile in the group.

90
 Ò

The hidden windowpane contains information and personal feelings that each
individual keeps hidden from others. Nobody knows what the person thinks until the
individual discloses it. When this happens, that in formation moves to the open
windowpane. Hidden managers maintain a one sided relationship with others. They
rarely self disclose but are interested in what other people say. They keep their
feelings hidden. They are motivated by social acceptance. They prefer to smooth over
problems instead of tackling them. The hidden group member is a good listener but he
or she keeps his / her feelings and ideas to himself / herself.

The blind windowpane contains information about a person of which the person is
unaware but which others readily know. For example one may be fond of making
embarrassing remarks – unconsciously. Unless the person gets feedback from others,
he or she will remain ignorant of the practice.

The blind manager and the blind group member overuse self-disclosure while
neglecting feedback. This manager displays authoritarian behaviour. S/he discloses
information on how a job should be done or states how a problem should be solved.
S/he believes that s/he is the expert and therefore does not ask for feedback. S/he is
motivated by overconfidence in his / her ideas and generally ignores the potential of
others. Members whose ideas are never sought do not feel part of the group /
department / organization. This may lead to resentment which may result in lower
productivity.

The open windowpane represents the information, feelings and opinions that a
person has that are known by the person and by others. The open manager uses both
self-disclosure and feedback equally. The open manager has a high self concept and
he / she is motivated by a real like of people and a desire for effective communication.
The open manager allows employees to take active parts in the affairs of the
organization. The open group member fully participates in group discussions. S/he
expresses his / her views and listens to others.

Please note the following

1. The windowpanes are not the same sizes in individuals. The sizes vary depending
on one’s communication behaviour with different individuals. One may be said to
have a very large blind windowpane if the person finds it difficult to accept
criticism or suggestions.

2. If one rarely gives others a chance to talk, the others may not be responsive to his/
her ideas.

3. Self-disclosure should deal with what is happening among the people present.
That is, one’s self-disclosure should be appropriate to the occasion and the people
in the group.

4. By being open to each other and by close interaction between management and
staff, differences in perception can be narrowed and a common understanding
about a problem or situation will be reached.

5. Management can effectively win staff support if they are more open to staff and
listen to their ideas, opinions, and suggestions.

91
 Ò

6. There are times when silence is golden. If you have access to privileged
information, Disclosing such information to anyone is being unprofessional.

7. It is important to think before speaking. Do not open your mouth before engaging
your brain since one cannot easily retrieve what they have said. Communication is
generally irreversible

Centering on self-disclosure, the JOHARI window through its four windowpanes

seeks to explain the effect that relationships have on communication. Bad
relationships hinder self-disclosure and effective listening while healthy relationships
promote self-disclosure and effective listening. These are some of the most important
personality traits that are referred to as Soft Skills, a term often associated with a
person’s Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ). Soft Skills also include friendliness.
Such skills impact on an individual’s relationship with others.

6.10 Forms of etiquette

Dealing with people requires being mindful of not only what we say, but also how we
say it. It is also important to remember that we communicate both verbally and non-
verbally. Interpersonal communication is enhanced by observing and carrying out the
following forms of etiquette.

 Greet other people with a smile. Do not let your mood influence you. A
friendly smile is the trademark of a friendly person.
 Be discreet in your dealings. Know when to be silent. Offend no one.
 Exercise caution. Think of what to say before you say it.
 Be courteous and polite. Be dignified and well mannered.
 Always empathise. Getting along with people requires an open mind and
interest in their problems. Develop the ability to see their point of view. Do
not belittle other people.
 Avoid losing your temper even when you have been provoked. Keep cool.
 Always be attentive. Do not let your mind wander while other people are
talking to you. Be a good listener and make sure you understand what has
been said. If you are not sure, ask for clarification.
 Always talk clearly so that the people you are talking to can hear you properly.
However, do not shout.
 Keep promises.

Reading

Adler Ronald and Rodman George (1991): Understanding Human Communication.

Hamilton, C et al (1982) : Communicating For Results.

Stewart John and Logan Carle (1993): Together: Communicating Interpersonally.

92
 Ò

Chapter 7 Small group communication and managerial interaction

skills

7.1 Introduction

As noted earlier, management functions include: planning, organising, coordinating,

leading, and control. Although there are times when the manager as an individual can
make decisions and solve problems as he / she carries out these functions, there are
many times when groups can be more effective than individuals. There are times
when issues need to be discussed or when stakeholders need to be consulted. This
necessitates working in small groups which inevitably results in small group
communication.

Beebe and Masterson (1997) define small groups as task oriented groups or groups
with specific objectives to achieve, information to share, a problem to solve or a
decision to make. A small group has at least 3 members. The maximum may be
anything up to 20 members. The larger the group, the more likely it is that group
members will become passive rather than participate in the discussions.

Small group communication is ‘interaction among a small group of people who share
a common purpose or goal, who feel a sense of belonging to the group, and who exert
influence on one another’.

Advantages of working in small groups and group decision making

 Groups have greater information resources than individuals do. Decisions may
therefore be superior to those made by individuals. Besides, groups can
employ a greater number of creative problem solving methods.
 Resistance to change / decisions is reduced. Members’ satisfaction with the
group decision increases because they participated in the decision making
process. Therefore, the members are committed to the solution and are willing
to support it.
 Personal satisfaction and job enjoyment are greater. Productivity may,
therefore, increase.
 Working in groups fosters improved learning and comprehension of ideas
discussed.
 Group members gain a better understanding of themselves as they interact
with others. Hostility and aggression are significantly reduced.

93
 Ò

Disadvantages of working in small groups

While working in small groups can produce positive results, sometimes problems
occur. It is important to know these problems so that we can avoid them.
 Group members may pressure others to conform to the majority opinion.
When group members accept views they disagree with just to avoid
controversy, the quality of a group decision is affected. When groups agree
primarily to avoid conflict, it is called groupthink.

 An individual group member may dominate the discussions. When one

member runs the show or insists that his or her position on the issue is the best
one, this forfeits the creative approaches that come with full participation.
Other members may not be satisfied because they feel alienated from the
decision-making.

 Some members may rely too much on others to get the job done. This leads to
comments like: ‘No one will miss me if I don’t show up.’ Working together
distributes the responsibility of accomplishing a task. It is therefore important
to encourage less talkative group members to contribute to the discussion.
Poor attendance at group meetings may indicate that members think that other
people can make decisions on their own.

 Working in groups takes longer than working alone. It is important to

remember that if you want a better solution, it takes time, patience and
understanding.

7.2 Group discussion and decision making

Methods of group decision making

To make a decision, consider the method that will give the group the best decision.
The methods are:
 Decision by experts: in the group
 Decision by experts outside the group
 Majority vote
 Decision by the most vocal members
 Decision by consensus

Success in small group discussion, decision-making and problem solving depends on:

1. Good leadership
2. Committed participants
3. Organised procedure

Another way of achieving effectiveness is considering what Kenrick terms FIVE Ps of

meetings viz: Purpose, People (or Participants), Papers, Power, and Procedure. It is
important to have a clear purpose also known as agenda; People discussing issues
must be those that can make useful contributions to the deliberations; Meetings
generate several papers such as notice of meeting, agenda, minutes, and documents
also known as agenda papers that guide the deliberations.

94
 Ò

You should be able to produce the above cited papers. Be guided by the house style and the 12 Cs
presented in section 1.7 above.

7.2.1 Leadership
As noted earlier, success in group discussions depends on leadership. Beebe and
Masterson (1997) Summarise leadership styles as follows

AUTHORITARIAN DEMOCRATIC LAISSEZ-FAIRE

1. Leader makes all 1. All policies a matter 1. Complete freedom

determination of policy of group discussion of grou p or individual
and decision. decision; minimum
of leader participation

2. The leader dictates 2. Leader consults and 2. Leader supplies various

techniques and activities values feedback. materials, He or she
steps one at a time, so Leader suggests procedures supplies information
that future steps are when asked, but takes no active
largely uncertain. part in discussions.

3. Leader usually dominates 3. Members free to work 3. Complete non part -

discussions and relies on with anyone; division……… cipation of leader
Issuing directives. of tas ks left up to the
group

4.Leader rarely consults others 4. Leader ‘objective’ or 4. Makes infrequent

and is a poor listener.
fact-minded in praise and spontaneous
criticism, trying to be a comments on member
regular group member activities when
inspirit without doing too questioned; makes no
much. attempt to appraise
or regulate course of
events.

Consider the assertion that one’s communication behaviour reflects the individual’s leadership style.

The JOHARI window concept, discussed in chapter six above, applies to the three
styles of leadership especially in the way the three types of leaders handle
communication.

The authoritarian leader is usually said to operate under the blind windowpane.
Managers who operate under the blind windowpane believe in their own minds that
they know everything and so do not need any feedback from subordinates. They are
said to have a blind spot and can miss meetings, pay little attention to others or
deliberately keep themselves out of the information loop. They are dictatorial and
allow little employee participation. However, their informational blind spot makes
them ineffective at work. It also leads to frustrated employees and hence low
organisational productivity.

The authoritarian leadership style also portrays characteristics of the hidden window
to an extent since information is deliberately withheld. It could be done in an effort to

95
 Ò

wield more power over others. Maximum organisational progress, however, requires
free flow of information among all players.

The democratic leader is said to operate under the open window, otherwise called the
arena. This leader does not just issue instructions, but also values feedback.
Information to this leader is mutually held and exchanged. This leader encourages
employee participation, which motivates subordinates. This leadership style,
therefore, leads to effective communication and high productivity in an organisation.

The laissez faire leader is said to operate under the closed windowpane since the
manager keeps a low profile. Communication flow either way is very minimal and
there is a lot of misguided participation hence productivity is low.

PAUSE FOR THOUGHT

How can a chair of a meeting contribute to a member’s self-concept?

Hamilton and Parker (1997, p. 322) assert that if you are the designated leader of a
small group, you should be ready to assume certain responsibilities, including the
following:

1. Inform everyone involved when and where all meetings are to take place.
Distribute an agenda whenever possible.

2. Select a place for the meeting that will be conducive to effective discussion. Pay
attention to the surroundings – make them as pleasant as possible. Comfortable
chairs that can be arranged in a circle are desirable. Serve refreshments if
possible.

3. Check the facilities a few minutes before the meeting is to begin to see that
everything needed is in place. It can be disconcerting for there to be too few
chairs, or for the room to have another meeting scheduled at the same time as
yours.

4. Start on time. People have busy schedules and are inconvenienced when
meetings do not begin and end on time.

5. Preview the agenda. It is always helpful to outline the plan for the meeting at the
beginning of the meeting. Even if the participants already have access to this
information, your time will be well spent if you take a few moments to remind
them of the content of the discussion. Assuming that they know the agenda or
the specific topic or problem to be discussed is asking for trouble.

6. Stick to the agenda. Rambling is a waste of time. Stay with what you have
planned, and keep the discussion on track.

7. Encourage discussion. It is your responsibility to encourage the more reticent

members of the group to give their points of view, and to tactfully block those

96
 Ò

who would try to monopolize the discussion. You are in a favorable position to
do both in your role as designated leader, and you can often do it more tactfully
than someone else.

8. Summarize. You should summarize the main points as the discussion progresses
and provide an overall summary at the conclusion of the discussion.

9. Perform other necessary task and maintenance roles. In many cases, these roles
will be performed by members of the group. However, it is the responsibility of
the leader to make sure that the group accomplishes their task in relative
harmony.

10. Thank the participants. It takes very little time for you to express appreciation to
the participants and the audience, and one of your final responsibilities as leader
is to take a few moments to do this.

11. Make sure that everyone in the organization who needs results of the meeting is
properly informed. Do not just assume that the word will be passed around. If
people are affected by the results of your meeting, inform them as soon as
possible.

7.2.2 Participants

The group members must participate effectively. Effective group participation

involves members who are committed and who know their responsibilities.
Commitment involves devoting one’s time and energy to the group. This commitment
is demonstrated in the following:

 attending meetings faithfully

 preparing carefully for each meeting
 supporting the final decision of the group
 performing needed tasks
 performing maintenance roles for the good of interpersonal relationships and
harmony in the group
 avoiding non functional roles

Becoming a competent small group communicator

Evans (1990) states that people who become successful and effective members of
working groups tend to possess the following characteristics.

 The ability to cooperate and share in decision making

 A willingness to listen and accept other people’s ideas and suggestions
 The capacity to modify their own ideas so as to fall in with evolving proposals
and decisions.
 A preparedness to undertake within preset deadlines tasks which form only a part
of a greater design or project under the direction of the group leader and to see
praise and recognition go to the group rather than to the individual.

97
 Ò

 A willingness to come up with ideas which could be ‘shot down rather than
merely coast along as the group’s ‘sleeper’, and so to do a fair share of the
group’s tasks.
 An inclination to support other group members and the group’s work rather than
to undermine it.
 A willingness to accept responsibility as group member for the outcomes of the
group’s activities.

Beebe and Masterson (1997) suggest the functions of effective and ineffective group
problem solvers as presented in the following box.

Functions of effective and ineffective group problem solvers

Characteristics of an Characteristics of an
Effective Group Ineffective Group
Problem Solver Problem Solver

Functions
Analysis Seeing the problem from
Functions a variety of viewpoints;
gathering data and
researching the issues.
Knowing how to use evidence
to reach a valid conclusion.
Asking appropriate questions.
Seeing the problem only
from one’s own view point
Failing to research the problem
or gather data.
Not knowing how to use
evidence
asking inappropriate questions.

Idea Searching for many Ceasing to search for a

Generation solutions to a problem. solution after one is identified.
function Taking a vacation from the Continuing to work even after
Problem to revitalise the the group is exhausted.
Group.

Evaluation Evaluating the opinions and Never examining or evaluating

Function assumptions of others others’ opinions or assumptions.
Testing proposed solutions Not matching proposed
To see if they meet solutions against preestablished
Preestablished criteria criteria.

Personal Concern for both the group Lack of concern for the feelings
Sensitivity task and the feelings of others; focusing only on the task.
Functions Listening to minority Not listening to dissenting view-
Arguments points; lack of tolerance for the
Ideas of others.

Effective participation
Evans (1990) suggests the following on how participants should take part in meetings:

 Listen first Each meeting develops its own climate. By listening and waiting,
you will be able to assess not only the general climate, but also the moods and
attitudes of individuals. Test the temperature first, before diving in.

98
 Ò

 Timing If your contribution is to be effective, then timing the moment to speak is

all-important.

 Succinctness More good ides fall by the wayside. Keep your points short and
simple. Use any previous arguments to support your opening statement, justify
your points with generally appreciated examples and stress your main contention
when closing.
 Involving others If other participants have shown a like-minded point of view
ensure you make reference to their contributions. In this way you will broaden the
base of your approach and may win helpful allies.

 Overcoming counter-arguments the most convincing means of persuasion is the

use of a superior argument. Make your approach seem more logical, rational and
justifiable. No one likes to see his own argument demolished or derided.
Therefore, use gentle persuasion.

 Loss of face One of the hurts which goes deepest and which people least forgive
is when someone causes them to ‘lose face’ in the company of associates or
colleagues. It is deceptively easy to make someone feel small by treating what
they have said with scorn, contempt or heavy sarcasm. Consideration for others
and the ability to construct ‘face-saving’ approaches and remarks is one of the
most important skills which those who take part in meetings need to acquire.

 Integrity not obduracy Holding to a point of view generally challenged by others

is not very wise. Stubborn resistance to persuasion may indicate a closed mind,
pettiness or even spite. The mark of the mature person is that he or she has the
strength of personality to defer to a superior argument – graciously!

 Courtesy Each participant is inevitably being assessed by his peers. People are
quick to label behaviour as boorish, arrogant or rude Good manners displayed by
attentiveness, politeness, consideration of other points of view and respect for the
rule of procedure are the hall-marks of the effective participator.

7.2.2.1 Hierarchy of Needs Theory and Communication

One’s communication behaviour may be affected by different factors. Refer to
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory. This theory will not be explained here
in detail. However, it throws light on what may motivate members to participate or
demotivate group members from effective participation in group discussions.

According to Abraham Maslow, all humans have basic needs which can be arranged
in a hierarchy. The bottom two levels, that is physiological and security needs, are
survival needs. The higher level needs are psychological; that is, the need to belong,
the need for esteem or respect and the need for self actualisation. These needs may
affect people’s communication behaviour and one needs to be sensitive to these needs
and satisfy them wherever possible. It is important to remember that the higher people
move up Maslow’s hierarchy, the greater the importance of communication. That is,
the psychological needs must be taken into account.

99
 Ò

Pause for thought:

In your view, how can Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory be applied to effective group
discussions and decision making or one’s communication behaviour?

7.2.3 Procedure

Effectiveness demands that decisions be made and communicated following accepted

procedures. Flouting relevant procedures can result in unwelcome decisions. This
section presents legal terms that relate to meetings and how formal meetings should
be conducted.

Glossary of Meeting Terms

Adhoc – For this purpose. E.g a committee formed for a special purpose which is
disbanded after the purpose has been achieved.
Addendum – A resolution which add words to a motion.
Addressing the Chair – A member wishing to speak on a point must rise and address
the chair. In addition, all remarks must be addressed to the chairperson. It is not
prudent for members to discuss matters between themselves at a meeting.
Adjournment – The act of extending or continuing a meeting for the purpose of
dealing with unfinished business or of deferring the debate on a motion which is
before a meeting. To postpone or put off with the intention of resuming later.
Advisory – Providing advice or suggestion, not taking action.
Agenda – Literally means ‘things to be done’, but commonly used to describe the
agenda paper which lists the items of business to be discussed at a meeting. The
agenda lists items in the order in which they are taken.
Agenda Papers – This term is also used for papers of supplementary information
relating to items on the agenda. These papers are circulated in advance for the
information of members.
A.G.M. – Annual General Meeting; all members are eligible to attend
Amendment – A proposal to alter a motion which has been submitted to a meeting.
E.g. by adding, inserting or deleting words of the original motion.
Apologies – Excuses given in advance for the inability to attend a meeting.
Articles of Association – Rules required by Company Law which govern the
company’s activities
Attendance Record – Record of names of those present
Ballot – A method of voting used when secrecy is required e.g. by use of a voting
paper
Bye-laws – Local laws set up by local authorities or internal regulations of an
organisation.
Casting Vote – A vote allowed to the chairperson and used to break a deadlock.
Closure – A motion submitted with the object of ending the discussion on a matter
before the meeting.
Collective Responsibility – A convention by which all committee members agree to
abide by a majority decision.

100
 Ò

Committee – A body of persons to whom general or specific duties and authority

have been delegated by a parent body; e.g. authority and duties are delegated by the
shareholders of a company to its board of directors.
Consensus – Agreement by general consent, no formal vote is taken.
Constitution – Set rules governing activities of voluntary bodies
Convene – To call for a meeting (formal term)
Co-opted – invited to join the discussions of a meeting, part of a meeting or series of
meetings but not entitled to vote
Debate – Discussion on a motion put before a meeting prior to putting the matter to
vote.
Dropped motion – A motion that has to be dropped either because there is no
seconder or because the meeting so wish.
Ex-Officio – Literally ‘by virtue of office or position’, as for example when a person
attends a meeting not in his capacity as a member but because of the position he/she
holds.
Extraordinary Meeting – A meeting called for all members a serious issue affecting
all the members is called an Extraordinary General Meeting, otherwise it is a non-
routing meeting called for a specific purpose.
Executive Committee – A committee with powers to put decisions into effect.
Form of Proxy – A document by which one person authorizes another person to
attend a meeting and vote on his/her behalf.
Formal Motion – A motion intended to alter the procedure of a meeting; e.g. to
adjourn the meeting.
Honorary Post – A duty performed without payment; e.g. Honorary Secretary.
In Camera – Held in private; the public excluded.
Intra-Vires – Within the power of a person or body.
Lie On The Table – A letter or document is said ‘to lie on the table’ when it is
decided at a meeting to take no action on it.
Lobbying – A practice of seeking members’ support before a meeting.
Majority – Unless otherwise indicated, this may be taken to mean a simple majority,
as opposed to an overall majority.
Minutes – The written record of the business transacted at a meeting.
Motion – A proposal put forward for discussion and decision at a meeting.
Mover – One who speaks first of a motion; proposer.
Nom Con – (nemine contradicente). Without dissent; i.e. by show of hands.
No Confidence – When members of a meeting are grieved or disappointed with the
chairperson, they may pass a vote of ‘no confidence’ in the chair. When this happens,
the chairperson must vacate the chair in favour of his deputy or some other person
nominated by the meeting. There must be a considerable majority of members in
favour of this decision.
Open Voting – Any methods of voting ‘in public’; e.g. by show of hands.
Opposer – One who speaks against a motion.
Order of Business – The intended order in which items of business, as set out in the
agenda, as set out in the agenda, are to be taken. This order may be altered by a
resolution of the meeting.
Point of Order – A question regarding procedure or a query relating to the rules (e.g.
constitution, standing orders etc) raised during the course of a meeting and decided by
the chair; e.g. lack of quorum.
Poll – The taking of a vote; the number of votes taken.
Postpone – To put off a meeting to a later date.

101
 Ò

Proposal – The name given to a submitted item for discussion (usually written)
before a meeting takes place.
Quorum – The minimum number of people entitled to be at a meeting which the
regulations require to be present in order that the business of the meeting may be
transacted.
Proxy – A person authorized to attend a meeting and vote on behalf of someone else
or the document that authorizes him/her to do so.
Resolution – Although the words ‘motion’ and ‘resolution’ are often used
indiscrimately, a ‘motion’ is a proposal put to a meeting, whereas a ‘resolution’ is a
proposal which has been accepted by the meeting.
Rider – An additional clause or sentence added to a resolution and proposed,
seconded and voted upon in the same manner as the motion.
Seconder – One who supports the ‘proposer’ of a motion or proposal by seconding it.
Sine die – ‘Without an appointed day’; indefinitely. Thus a meeting adjourned sine
die necessitates fresh notice for the adjourned meeting.
Special Business – All business defined by the rules as other than ‘ordinary business’.
Meetings convened to consider ‘special business’ usually require a longer period of
notice than ‘ordinary meetings.’
Standing Committee – A permanent committee (the opposite of an adhoc
committee) such as the housing department of a local authority.
Status Quo – The existing state of affairs. The more conservative members will vote
to preserve the status quo unless they are persuaded of the necessity of change.
Sub Committee – A committee appointed by a parent body for a certain specific
purpose or to relieve the larger body of some of its routine work. It usually consists
of some of the members of the appointing committee but specialist members are often
co-opted.
Terms of Reference – Outline of the purposes, functions and responsibilities of the
committee/board.
Ultra Vires – Beyond the legal powers possessed by the organization.
Unanimously – A motion carried unanimously has been agree by all present at a
meeting – everyone is in favour.

Words in the Agenda

 Adopt – The committee is asked to accept the recommendations (proposals)
as representing its view, decision or position on the matter concerned.
 Approved – The committee is asked to support a proposal
 Confirm – The committee is asked to confirm the minutes as an accurate
record of the meeting.
 Consider – The committee is asked to deliberate on a particular issue.
 Endorse – The committee is asked to support a recommendation made to
another body/action taken, where the recommendation/action did not require
the committee’s formal approval.
 Note – The committee is informed of background information, sometimes
with emphasis on a particular point.
 Recommend – The committee supports, but does not have the power to
resolve the issue/proposal; it has to refer it to another committee or officer.
 Resolve – The committee is asked to support a recommendation.

Words associated with minutes

102
 Ò

 The following words have the same meaning as when they are used in the
agenda;
 Adopted
 Approved
 Confirmed
 Considered
 Endorsed
 Noted
 Agreed – The committee accepted the report/recommendation as representing
its view/decision/position on the matter concerned.
 Discussed –
 Ratified – Endorsement of a decision/action taken in the committee’s name,
e.g. by the chair.
 Received –
 Reported – Usually when an oral report is made.
 Resolved – When a decision on a matter was reached.
 Recommended – When a committee refers/suggests a proposal to higher
authorities.
 Spoke to – When a speaker introduced a paper.
 Tabled – To put items of information on the table before a meeting. Papers
not included with the agenda which are normally circulated at the meeting.

7.3 Managing meetings

“An effective meeting is a forum where knowledgeable individuals come together to

solve problems through participative and open communication. It is a group session
where plans are made, goals established and problems solved. It should be conducted
in a climate where goodwill is increased and personnel are permitted to grow”
(Sigband & Bateman 1981, p. 375).

Hattersley and McJannet (1997) point out a number of variables that affect the
success or failure of meetings. These are: conflicting goals and perceptions, force of
personality, contextual constraints, questions of power and authority, and human need
to feel included, heard and valued.

Meredith and Mantel (2003) note that many managers do not like meetings because
they are usually long, come to no conclusion and waste everyone’s

time. However, they contend that team meetings are necessary and useful. They also
note that project reports are many times delivered in face - to - face meetings. To
minimize the above negative attitudes Meredith and Mantel propose the following:

 Use meetings for making group decisions or getting input for important
problems.
 Have preset starting and stopping times and stick to this.
 Have a written agenda and stick to it.
 Do not penalise those who show up on time by making them wait for the
others.

103
 Ò

 Make sure that you (and the others) do your homework prior to the meeting.
Everybody must be prepared.
 If you chair the meeting, take your own minutes because minutes become
reality as soon as the meeting is over. Distribute the minutes not later than the
next working day.
 Avoid attributing remarks or viewpoints to individuals in the minutes.
 Avoid strict rules of procedure. Such rules apply to parliament. However,
courtesy is always important.
 If a serious problem or crisis arises, call a meeting to resolve the problem. As
soon as the solution has been found, stop the meeting.

Checklist: Improving meeting productivity

A Prepare carefully
1. Determine the meeting’s objectives.
2. Workout an agenda that will achieve your objectives.
3. Select participants
4. Determine the location, and reserve a room.
5. Arrange for light refreshments, if appropriate.
6. Determine whether the lighting, ventilation, etc are adequate

B Be an effective leader
1. Begin and end the meeting on time.
2. Control the meeting by following the announced agenda.
3. Encourage full participation, and confront or ignore those who seem to be
working at cross purposes with the group.
4. Sum up decisions, actions, and restate main points at the end.

C Remember to follow up
1. Distribute the minutes on a timely basis.
2. Follow up action agreed to.

7. 4 Listening

Effective listening is essential in extracting relevant information, filtering out

inessentials and providing feedback. Listening affects all kinds of communication.
Effective listening is absolutely necessary for managers as a tool for information
gathering in varied situations. For example, managers are expected to listen to others
whenever they interact face to face, attend meetings, use the telephone, participate in
interviews, take part in arguments, make decisions based on information received
orally, and generate and receive feedback. Unfortunately, most people are poor

104
 Ò

listeners. This is because listening is taken for granted. It has been said that knowing
how to listen takes more than two good ears.

Listening versus hearing

Hearing occurs automatically. It is a response to stimuli and therefore, it is a passive
process. Listening, on the other hand, is a deliberate process through which we seek to
understand. It involves reception, selection, interpretation, organizing and storing
information. It is an act of the mind. One consciously engages in the process. It is a
selective and active process. Unlike hearing which simply happens, listening requires
one to make a conscious effort to understand and remember.

Listening levels
There are four listening levels
 Listening to help others Requires
(active / empathetic listening) greatest
effort

 Listening to analyse and evaluate content

( evaluative / critical listening)

 Listening to retain content

( listening for content)

 Listening to understand Requires least

expenditure of
energy
Hearing
The above illustration indicates the following:
 Hearing requires little, if any involvement.
 Listening to understand requires a greater effort.
 Retaining the message requires even more effort.
 The need to analyse and evaluate what is said is more difficult and
consumes more energy.
 Empathetic (empathic) listening requires a great deal of involvement.

Each level requires the listener to participate in the listening process in order to
enhance the process.

Ethics of listening
 Be a responsive listener. Listening has been identified as one of the major
communication problems in management. Do not only expect other people
to listen to you. Listen to others.
 The listener is bound by ethics of communication to offer feedback that is
appropriate and useful.
 Be prepared to listen. Listening is the fundamental process through which
people maintain relationships. Besides, it is the primary process through
which we take in information.
105
 Ò

Unethical behaviour of ineffective listeners

Ineffective listeners may be categorized as follows:
1. Nodders – These listeners pretend that they are listening. They look at the
speaker and nod their heads appropriately and utter sounds such as ‘uh huh’
that imply that they are listening when they are not.

2. Ear hogs – These people want other people to listen to them but they don’t
listen to others. They deny other people the right to be listened to while
defending their right to express themselves no matter what the cost. Research
has shown that there are more male ear hogs than female ear hogs. Men
interrupt women’s statements more frequently than women interrupt men’s
statements.

3. Gap fillers – These people do not get the whole story when they listen. They
manufacture information to make up for what they have missed.

4. Bees – These select what to listen to. They reject whatever is of no interest to
them. Like bees, they search for honey and miss the flower.

5. Ear muffs – These pretend that they haven’t heard the information they don’t
want to deal with.

6. Dart throwers – These wait for the speaker to make a mistake and are quick to
criticise.

Although one listens to understand and sometimes to retain the content, critical
listening and empathetic listening skills are very important skills for the manager.

Critical or evaluative listening is necessary because uncritical listening can end up in

believing false or dangerous ideas that have been made to appear reasonable. It is
therefore essential to be alert so as to raise questions about the information. Critical
thinkers listen carefully in order to determine if what they are listening to makes sense
and is worth retaining or acting upon.

Characteristics of a critical listener

1. Is open-minded and takes time to reflect on ideas.
2. Looks for good reasons to accept or reject opinions.
3. Believes that he/she will learn something of value from what is being said.
4. Is concerned with unstated assumptions and what is not said in addition to
what is said.
5. Insists on getting sound evidence.
6. Reflects on how conclusions fit premises and vice versa.

Characteristics of the uncritical listener

1. Is closed-minded and jumps to unwarranted conclusions.
2. Thinks he/she knows everything (a know it all).
3. Pays attention only to those who agree with him or her.
106
 Ò

4. Disregards evidence.
5. Is concerned only with what is stated, not what is implied.
6. Disregards the connection or lack of connection between the premise,
evidence and conclusions.

One of the main barriers to effective listening is premature evaluation. Critical

thinkers do not rush to judge another person’s words. Instead of prejudging or
evaluating the words prematurely, such people exhibit a willingness to reexamine
ideas. They withhold their evaluation until they have had sufficient opportunity to
assess the information.

Questions to facilitate critical thinking

1. Is the speaker’s message plausible?
2. Does the given support back up the claims?
3. Are the claims verifiable?
4. Is the speaker credible / reliable? Can I trust him / her?
5. Is the message free of inconsistencies or contradictions?

Feedback
Oral communication is by nature interactive. As such, feedback is intimately
connected with the listening process. Anything the listener does or fails to do in an
interaction can be considered feedback. Feedback can therefore be sent consciously or
unconsciously.

There are three categories of feedback.

 Evaluative feedback can either be positive or negative. In evaluative feedback,
the listener expresses his opinion about the matter. It involves making
judgments based on one’s systems of values.
i. Positive feedback encourages one to move in the direction one was
already heading.
ii. Negative feedback causes the speaker to modify direction or behaviour.
 Formative feedback is a special kind of negative feedback which may be
considered helpful e.g. ‘in my opinion….’
 Non-evaluative feedback is used more when the listener wants to learn more
about a person’s feelings or when one wants to help. The listener does not
make judgments; instead he/she indicates an interest in what is being said. The
speaker especially when going through a difficult time considers non-
evaluative feedback positive. There are four types.
i. Probing: This involves asking for additional information and a
willingness to listen to the problem.
ii. Understanding: This is seeking to comprehend and paraphrasing what
has been said may do it.
iii. Supportive feedback: This involves indicating empathy by putting
oneself in the position of the speaker and encouraging him or her to
solve the problem him or herself.
iv. ‘I’ messages: This is using ‘I’ instead of using ‘you’ if by using ‘you’
the listener may be interpreted as saying something is wrong with the
speaker. The aim is not to hurt the speaker.
107
 Ò

Pause for thought

What might one mean by the statement: this personr does not listen?

7.5 Empathy

Empathy as a style of communication means that the communicator shares a common

core of feelings with the other person. Zeuschner (1997) points out that an empathetic
communicator gives the other person positive regard and identifies with his or her
emotional state.

Having empathy means that the communicator understands a situation from the other
person’s point of view. Even if the other point of view is not exactly the same as your
own, you are, nevertheless, capable of looking at a situation from his / her
perspective. It means getting into the other person’s shoes and seeing his / her
reaction from that person’s perspective.

Empathy takes a lot of effort and the effort is felt by the other person as genuine
support and caring. You show that the other person is valued, that his or her feelings
are respected, and that the person has worth that you acknowledge.

7.6 Negotiation and conflict resolution

Conflict is defined as the process which begins when one party perceives that the
other has frustrated or is about to frustrate some concern of his. The following
paragraph illustrates this.

Groups / teams consist of people that have their own values, interests, perceptions and
goals. Each seeks to fulfil his particular goal. The effectiveness of the team depends
on the success of each unit’s fulfilment and

its specialised tasks. For instance, in the case of a project, the parent organisation’s
objectives are to deliver at the lowest cost as soon as possible. On the other hand, a
subcontractor’s objectives are to deliver at the highest possible profit with the least
effort. These conflicting interests create antagonism and suspicion. Besides, planning
requires inputs from many people since it involves interaction among functional and
staff operations. Conflicts are usually inevitable in such interactions. This necessitates
adoption of acceptable methods to reduce or resolve the conflicts. The following are
specific examples that may cause conflict in teams.

 Priorities
 Schedules
 Procedures
 An individual or a group pursues goals different from those of other
individuals in the group
 Budgets
 How much responsibility a worker needs to take.
108
 Ò

 A threatened strike
 Opinions

Conflict has both positive and negative outcomes. Conflict often educates individuals
and groups about the goals / objectives of other individuals and groups in the team.
This satisfies the precondition for valuable win - win negotiation. The debate often
generates a collaborative solution that is superior to any solution originally proposed.
The success of communication in teams depends on how conflicts are handled. There
are five styles.

 Withdrawal: feel little concern and remain neutral at all cost.

 Smoothing: view conflict as destructive, concerned about people and try to
keep everyone happy.
 Forcing: No compromise, one wins – the other loses. Uses force because
production is more important than people.
 Compromise: Avoid direct confrontation, go for a solution that is workable to
everyone even if it is not the best
 Problem solving: Give equal consideration to people and production and go
through problem solving procedure.

The favoured technique for resolving conflict is negotiation. Negotiation is the

process through which two or more parties seek an acceptable compromise.
Negotiation is somehow synonymous with bargain, bring to agreement, settle
differences, adjust differences, make peace or moderate. In business conflicts are
usually settled through negotiations.

Effective negotiation occurs when two or more parties discuss proposals to find
solutions that can be mutually acceptable. If negotiation is well carried out, it can
improve the position of both conflicting parties. In Communication, negotiation is a
process in which two or more parties attempt to agree. There are two approaches:

 Distributive bargaining
 Integrative bargaining

In distributive bargaining, one party wins while the other party loses. In the
integrative approach, the negotiators aim at a win – win solution. Both parties feel that
they have achieved a victory. Robbins and Hunsaker (1996) outline the following
guidelines for effective negotiating.
 Consider the other party’s needs, interests and goals. This helps you to
understand your opponent’s behaviour and predict his / her response to your
offer and frame solutions in terms of his / her interests. Besides, knowing your
opponent’s needs and interests helps you to be better prepared.
 Have a concrete strategy. Act like a chess player. Anticipate your opponent’s
move ahead of time and prepare for that move in advance.
 Establish rapport. You may begin by making small concessions since
concessions are usually reciprocated. If your opponent makes concessions,
reciprocate them. Address the problem, not personalities.
 Keep calm. Avoid becoming emotional even when your opponent gets
emotional. Maintain a rational, goal oriented frame of mind.

109
 Ò

 Pay little attention to initial offers. Focus on your goal by initiating other
possibilities.

 Emphasise win – win solutions – Look for solutions that benefit both parties.
 Use objective criteria. Avoid making decisions based on pressure or emotions.
Base the decisions on principles. Be rational. The solution must be reasonable.

Integrative bargaining requires openness, trust and flexibility. Principled negotiation

proposes the following technique.

1. Separate people from the problem since conflicting parties can get emotional
resulting in confusing emotions with objective facts. In so doing you address
the problem. Not one another. It is therefore helpful to define the conflict
before working on it.
2. Focus on interests, not positions. Do not focus on concerns / issues that affect
people’s ego.
3. Before trying to reach an agreement, invent options for mutual gain.
Conflicting parties enter negotiations with desired outcomes. Because of this,
they can be blind to other possible outcomes. If a number of possible solutions
are generated, mutual interests of conflicting parties may be advanced. This
results in win – win negotiation.
4. Insist on using objective criteria such as market value, expert opinion, law,
company policy, etc to determine the outcome. This also increases the chance
of win – win solutions.

Always remember to understand the interests of the person with whom you are
negotiating.

The Role of Communication in Conflict Management and Resolution

The above ideas can be enhanced if effective communication skills are put into
practice. The following are some of the considerations
 Beware of the importance of environment for communication success and try
to control it.
 Encode ideas in such a way that they fit into the frame of reference of the
receiver.
 Everything must speak the same language. It is important to remember that
everything speaks (verbally, nonverbally, and linguistically). Actions, letters,
ideas expressed, words uttered, and events attended. The actual meeting is an
opportunity to communicate, but also a chance for others to judge the value of
your information, knowledge, values and goals.
 100% communication is unlikely. Always plan for ways to correct possible
misunderstandings ahead of time.
 Feedback is absolutely necessary for successful communication, and therefore
both give and receive feedback.
 Remember: Everything is the message and the message is everything.
Effective communication depends on an effective message.

110
 Ò

Reading

Beebe and Masterson, Communicating in Small Groups

Bovee, Thill and Schatzman, Business Communication Today

Hamilton and Parker, Communicating for Results

Hattersley & MacJannet, Management Communication

Kenrick, E (1990), Business Communication

Zeuschner R Communication Today

111
 Ò

Chapter 8 Employment Communication

8.1 Introduction
This chapter covers a number of employment messages and how to handle them.

8.2 Curriculum Vitae and Cover letter

When looking for a job, you send out Curriculum Vitae (also known as Resume).
Whenever you send out a CV, accompany it with a cover letter (also known as
application letter). We will start with the CV before going on to the application letter.

Getting a job takes more than sending out CV’s to a number of organizations. You
need to consider a number of things including your capabilities and the job you are
interested in.

It is also important to understand that employers assess the applicants’ CV’s against
their job specifications and job descriptions. These HR documents inform employer’s
job advertisements.

Please note that many employers value experience. It is therefore important to craft
your CV very carefully. If responding to a job advert, select the content of your CV to
match the stated requirements. In your CV and application letter, you want to create a
picture of what you really did and what you accomplished.

Also note that employers look for well-roundedness. Show that you can handle
responsibility and understand teamwork. Bear in mind that no employer condones
shoddy work. Your CV and application letter will not get the attention you need if
they do not look professional. These documents should be visually appealing. Note
that spelling errors, poor organization and sloppy grammar will cost you a lot since
the prospective employer expects you to be careful. Such errors indicate carelessness.
It is therefore important to think of a CV as a marketing document. Edit and proofread
the documents before submitting them.

Your CV is a structured written summary of your educational and employment

background and it shows qualifications for a job. Do not present all your skills and
abilities. The purpose of a CV is to kindle employer interest and generate an
interview. Avoid overloading it since the reader may not have time to read everything.
Also note that your CV should be adapted to your audience with their needs and
interests. It is not like one CV suits all.

However, please note that a successful CV contains seven qualities:

 That you think in terms of results;
 You know how to get things done;
 You are well rounded;
 You show signs of progress;
 You have personal standards of excellence;
 You are flexible and willing to try new things; and
 You possess strong communication skills

112
 Ò

Since a CV and application letter are marketing documents, organize these documents
around your strengths. Emphasise the information that has a bearing on the advertised
position. Minimise or, exclude any information that is irrelevant or counterproductive.

Remember, a letter is often the first contact you have with the recipient. Your
audience’s first impressions will influence your reader’s decision whether to shortlist
you or not.

As a marketing tool, compose your CV to impress. Be reader friendly. Write short

phrases instead of sentences. Focus on what your reader needs to know. Start your
phrases with impressive action verbs such as the following.

Accomplished
Achieved
Administered
Chaired
Compiled
Completed
Coordinated
Created
Developed
Established
Identified
Implemented
Improved
Initiated
Managed
Motivated
Proposed
Reorganised
Resolved
Served
Simplified
Succeeded
Systematised

Please remember never to lie because it is easy to catch you. Tell the truth. Apply
persuasion strategies. Do not exaggerate successes, Do not fabricate and do not make
blatant omissions.

Other Key words: e.g. Fluent in English and Chichewa

Excellent computer skills including Excell
Eager to learn
Team player

The cover letter for the curriculum vitae (or application letter) allows you to formally
apply for the job and state why you believe you meet the employer’s expectations.

113
 Ò

Write three –four paragraphs. Remember it is a sales letter. Study the advertisement
and highlight the points the organization is looking for. Show that you know the job.

In a solicited application letter, start with reference to the advert and the reason for
writing. In other words, mention how you found out about the position you are
applying for and make a formal application.

In the middle section, summarise your relevant qualifications, emphasise your

accomplishments, focusing on desirable qualities and refer to your CV. Do not
include anything in your letter that already appears in your CV.

Close the letter by asking for an interview.

8.3 Interviews
This section focuses on interviews. An interview is a planned interaction characterised
by objectives. It is a form of oral communication involving two parties one of whom
has a preconceived and serious purpose and both of whom speak and listen from time
to time.

8.3.1 Types of interviews

There are several types of interviews. These are distinguished by the goals they are
meant to accomplish.

1. Information Interview
Here exchange of information is the primary goal. Some of the people who
are involved in these types of interviews are: buyer-seller, patient-doctor,
lawyer-client and teacher-student

2. Interrogation Interview
The interrogation interview differs from all others in that there is usually an
offence involved.

3. Grievance Interview
The grievance interview is any type of one-to-one encounter involving conflict
and its resolution. The grievance interview is unique in that emotions often run
at higher levels than in most other types of interview situations. The
interviewer in grievance interview must be both a good listener and a problem
solver.

4. Employee Appraisal Interview: See section 8.5

5. Counselling Interview
Unlike most interviews which focus on tasks, counseling interviews are
person-directed. They aim to identify sources of stress and other personal
problems, with a view to finding solutions.

6. Disciplinary Interviews

114
 Ò

These interviews serve to show the employee what he or she did or did not do;
remind him or her the rules involved; inform her of the disciplinary actions, if
any, to be taken, and lay out clear expectations for performance improvements
in the future.

7. Persuasive Interview
This interview aims to identify and appeal to the needs and values of the
interviewee with a view to urging a desired course of action. Apart from
having a clearly defined purpose and a comprehensive work plan, it is
important to anticipate possible problems and difficulties that may prevent the
realization of your goals. Empathy, consideration, active listening and
observation may go a long way toward the success of the interview.

8. Problem-solving Interviews
Problem solving interviews may be task or person-related. They may include
counseling, disciplinary matters, improving employee morale, and matters
relating to reaching production goals. Empathy, mutual trust, mutual respect
and sincerity play a pivotal role here.

Advantages of Interviews

a) They offer a quick exchange of information.

b) One is able to assess the other person’s personality from non-verbal
communication.
c) One has a better chance of persuading the other.
d) One is able to assess the other person’s interpersonal skills.
e) For confidentiality.

Disadvantages (weaknesses) of Interviews

a) It is not possible to address all that may need to be covered in depth.

b) They are artificial situations since both parties are prepared and may disguise
their true personalities

8.3.2 Making Interviews Effective

Effective Interviewing requires that both the interviewer and the interviewee prepare
for the interview. Preparation may include considerations of goals of the interview,
venue, time and types of questions to be asked, and so on. For the interviewer,
thought should be given to coping with inadequate answers or no responses, probing
questions, and so on. The interviewee should think about the likely questions, how to
cope with vague, unclear questions, as well as the difficult ones.

Both need to listen attentively during the
respect should be exercised throughout.
making remarks that may intimidate the
showing off. Both parties should show
interview.
interview period. Empathy and mutual
Whereas the interviewer should avoid
candidate, the interviewee should avoid
same understanding of the goals of the

115
 Ò

There are 5 stages in the process:

a) Preparation
b) Opening
c) Conducting
d) Closure
e) Follow-up

8.4 The employment interview

This is perhaps the most common type of interview. The employment interview is a
face-to-face encounter between a prospective employer and a prospective employee.
Although the prospective employer usually takes the lead in an interview of this type,
the person seeking employment is at the same time interviewing the prospective
employer.

This type of interview is one of the most important because within it some of the most
critical, and personnel decisions are made. The productivity of an organisation
depends on the ability of its management to recruit and select the best personnel.

It must be remembered that education, experience and preparation are important for
employment, but it is the candidate’s performance which should separate him or her
from the rest. Those others too will have the same education and experience. So, the
focus is on the candidate’s performance during the interview period.

The role of interviewer

Preparation: The interviewer needs to be fully aware of both the description of the job
and its specification. He or she should also be familiar with the description of the
person best suited to do the job.

Based on the job description, the interviewer prepares an assessment form or sheet
which is simple to use during the interview. The information obtained is recorded on
the form. This will be the basis for the final decision. Some interviewers. What is
important is that the assessment sheet covers all the crucial areas, and that the
interviewer is familiar with its content.

Some interview assessment sheets cover the following areas:

Name of Candidate ……………………. Date of Interview ……….

Attainment
Education
Training
Experience
Abilities and Special Aptitudes
Verbal
Perceptual
Mechanical
Manual dexterity

116
 Ò

Impact on Others/Disposition
Speech
Manner
Health
How well does s/he interact with others?
Is s/he self-reliant?
Is s/he dependable or reliable?
Does s/he have sense of responsibility?
Does s/he have any leadership qualities?
Is s/he flexible, adaptable?

Motivation
Level of goals, realism and consistency in following them.

The interviewer prepares questions beforehand. These should be structured or

sequenced. Avoid formulating questions haphazardly, in the interview room.
However, there should be room for probing and follow-up questions.

Where there is more than one person interviewing, each member’s role must be
clearly defined. Each member must be conversant with assessment procedures.

Conducting the interview

1. Opening phase
The opening phase of an interview includes three basic steps: rapport,
orientation and motivation.

Rapport: Interviews can be highly stressful situations; therefore, at the

beginning, it is the interviewer’s responsibility to set the interviewee at ease.
To provide a relaxed atmosphere, the interview should be held in a room
which is free from distractions. When the interviewee enters, the interviewer
should make the person feel welcome. To start a relaxed conversation, the
interviewer might refer to a topic of mutual interest,

Orientation: The interviewer should give a clear orientation (overview) of the

interview to the interviewee. The orientation step should include the
following information:
1. The interviewer’s name.
2. The purpose of the interview

Motivation: Thirdly the interviewer should motivate the interviewee to give

straightforward and complete answers.

2. Body (Question-Response) Phase

This middle stage of the interview is the longest. It is here that the interviewer
asks the questions which were planned before the meeting.

Although the list of questions is important, it is sometimes a mistake to follow

them precisely. Some areas will need more exploration, whereas others won’t

117
 Ò

seem worth pursuing. The trick in the body of the interview is to focus on all
the important content areas in a way that seems comfortable to both
interviewer and the interviewee.

2 Questioning styles
Different questioning styles are used for different purposes.
i. Open-ended
These are broad, general questions that allow the respondent maximum
freedom in deciding how much and what kind of information to give. This
type forces the interviewee to talk. However, responses may be time
consuming or the interviewer may lose control of the interview.

ii. Hypothetic Open Questions

These questions allow the respondent maximum freedom in deciding how to
respond to an invented, but possible situation. For example, “On your first
day of work, you arrive an hour late. How would you explain this and to
whom?”

iii Direct (or Specific) Questions

These are short questions requiring a short answer or a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.
For example, “How long have you been in this field of work?”

iv Probing Question
These help the interviewer to get deeper information e.g.
Why do you want to quit the other job?

v Multiple Questions
Two or more questions asked at once; used to encourage the interviewee to
talk at length. e.g.
Do you think you are up to date or will you need to spend time studying?

vi. Leading Questions

This implies the correct answer in the question itself e.g. We are looking for
somebody who likes dealing with figures. How much do you enjoy dealing
with numbers?

Closing the interview:

-Give the interviewee a chance to ask questions.

Follow-up: - Analyse information gathered.

-Determine action to take.
-Initiate the action agreed upon
-communicate decision)

The responsibility of the Interviewee

The interviewee should regard the interview as a chance to sell himself or herself.
Bearing in mind that there are others who are competing for the same position, it is
incumbent on the candidate to prepare both mentally and physically for the exercise.

118
 Ò

The interviewer will pass judgment based on the interviewee’s performance. Here are
a few helpful hints:
Prepare for the interview
 Find out about the company and its business.
 The interviewee can create a good first impression by being on time, dressing
appropriately, being prepared for the interview and appearing confident and
relaxed.
 The interviewee should also anticipate possible questions and carefully think
through honest answers to each question.
 The interviewee should come prepared with a list of strengths, areas of
knowledge, and past accomplishments (usually in resume form).
 Answer questions with confidence, clearly, convincingly. If you do not know the
answer, say so. Ask for clarification when the question is unclear.
 Do not produce documents such as certificates unless you have been asked to do
so.
 Ask reasonable questions when given the opportunity to do so. (e.g. about
terminal benefits, medical scheme, housing, transport, holiday, etc)
 Thank the panel for the interview before you leave.

8. 4.1 Checklist: Negative Employment Messages

A. Buffer
1. Identify the applicant or employee clearly when writing to a third
party.
2. Express the reasons for writing – clearly, completely, and objectively.
3. Avoid sincere expressions of regret.
4. Avoid impersonal business clichés.

B. Reasons
1. Avoid terms with legal definitions (slanderous, criminal)
2. Avoid negative terms with imprecise definitions (lazy, sloppy)
3. Whenever possible, embed negative comments in favourable or semi
favourable passages.
4. Avoid generalities, and explain the limits of your observations about
the applicant’s or employee’s shortcomings.
5. Eliminate secondhand information.
6. Stress the confidentiality of your letter.
7. Avoid negative personal judgments
8. For letters refusing to supply a recommendation to job seekers, suggest
another avenue for getting a recommendation.
9. For rejection letters, emphasize the positive qualities of the person
hired rather than the shortcomings of the rejected applicant.
10. For performance reviews, describe the employee’s limitations and
suggest methods for improving performance.

C. The bad news

1. Imply negative decisions whenever possible.
2. Avoid statements that might involve the company in legal action

119
 Ò

D. Positive, friendly, helpful close

1. For refusals to supply recommendations and for rejection letters,
extend good wishes.
2. For performance reviews, express a willingness to help further.
3. For termination letters, make suggestions for finding another job, if
applicable.

Example

We have filled the tax accountant position. Selecting just one candidate from 30
qualified applicants was quite difficult. But after much consideration, we hired a
candidate with more than 10 years’ experience in the field.

Your resume and credentials show you to be a deserving candidate. Your academic
record and previous accounting experience certainly indicate your willingness to work
hard. Those of us who had the opportunity to talk with you believe that your ability to
communicate will certainly help you achieve an excellent position in a recognised
accounting firm.

In the meantime, we would like to keep your information on file for six months, in
case another position opens up in the near future.

Thank you for thinking of us.

Sincerely

8. 5 Employee performance appraisal interviews

One of the keys to the successful operation of any organisation is the accurate and
consistent evaluation of its employees.

Employee appraisal is a process by which an employee’s contribution to an

organisation during a specific period is assessed. It is a mechanism that is used to help
organisations to have a picture of how employees are undertaking their
responsibilities.

The purpose of staff appraisal system is to improve the efficiency of the organisation
by ensuring that the individuals within it are performing to the best of their ability and
developing their potential for improvement. This involves the preparation by a
manager / supervisor of an appraisal report on the employee using a pre prepared form
like the one in your appraiser’s guide. Within this overall aim, staff appraisals are
used in practice for the following reasons:

a) To review performance and to plan and follow up training and development

programmes.
b) To review potential, as an aid to planning training, promotions and so on:
predicting the level and type of work the individual will be capable of in the
future.

120
 Ò

c) To review salaries: measuring the extent to which an employee is deserving of

salary increases as compared with his peers.

Benefits of performance appraisals

The performance appraisal is one of the most important ways the organisation can
ensure the continued best performance practices of its employees and to promote their
future development. An effectively operated appraisal system will deliver the
following benefits.

 Improved job performance through feedback and development plans

 Employees have a clearer understanding of performance standards
 Improved communication between staff and their supervisors
 Increased loyalty
 Improved relationship between staff and their supervisors.

What to appraise
 Personal characteristics e.g. one’s personality
 Employee’s behaviour on the job
 Employees’ accomplishments

Critique the above three considerations as bases for employee appraisals

Stages in employee appraisals

1. Identification of criteria for appraisal, usually based on job analysis.

2. Preparation of an appraisal report on the employee.
3. An appraisal interview, for an exchange of views about the report, targets for
improvement.
4. Review of the appraisal by the appraiser’s own superior, so that the appraisee
does not feel subject to one person’s prejudices. Formal appeals may be
allowed, if necessary to establish the fairness of the procedure.

Approaches to appraisal interviews

1. The tell and sell method

2. The tell and listen method
3. The problem solving approach
In the tell and sale method, the supervisor tells the subordinate how he / she has been
assessed, and then tries to justify the evaluation the assessor then explain the
improvement plan. In the tell and listen method, the supervisor tells the subordinate
how he or she has been assessed and then invites the subordinate to respond. In the
problem solving approach the supervisor becomes a counselor and helper. The
121
 Ò

discussion is centred on the employee’s work problems, needs and ambitions. The
employee is encouraged to think through his / her own solutions and to commit
himself or herself to the need for personal improvement. The following are some of
the questions that are discussed.

 Do you fully understand your job?

 Are there any aspects you wish to be made clearer?
 What parts of your job do you do best?
 Could changes be made in your job, which might result in improved
performance?
 Have you any skills, knowledge and aptitudes which could be made better use
of in the organization?
 What are your career plans?
 How do you propose achieving your ambitions in terms of further training and
experience?

Which of the above approaches do you prefer, why?

In your view, how can a supervisor ensure that the appraisal procedure is relevant, fair and
efficient?

How would you apply the problem solving approach in your work context?

The Appraisal Interview

The appraisal interview is more productive if the employee is actively involved in
assessing his/her performance. Please note the following:
 The purpose of the appraisal must be clearly expressed to both the appraiser
and the appraisee to avoid resentment and insecurity from the perceived
‘threat’ of judgment.
 Criteria for assessment should be clearly set out and adhered to by the
appraiser and standardised throughout a department or organisation.
 There should be a clear attempt at objectivity or controls to minimise personal
bias.
 The interview should be allotted a reasonable amount of time.
 Appraisees should be given time to prepare for the interview, so that it is
regarded as a problem solving opportunity, not just a tool for management
control.
 A jointly agreed, concrete conclusion should emerge from the interview, in the
form of a written summary.

Key aspects of the appraisal interview / discussion

Preparation by the Appraiser

1. Performance analysis
 Identify achievements during the review period
 Identify improvement
122
 Ò

 Identify facts that affected performance

2. What support will the appraisee need?
3. What are the appraisee’s development needs?
4. Content of the performance interview

Preparation by the appraisee

 To what extent have objectives been achieved?
 In what aspects of my work has success been recorded?
 In what aspects of my work has failure been evident?
 What areas need improvement?
 What steps do I need to take to achieve the objectives?
 What ideas have I got about my future?

As an appraiser, remember that appraisees are often nervous, or frightened of

appraisal discussions. To conduct a successful appraisal discussion, you must be
aware of the fears or attitudes and create an informal environment in which a frank
but friendly exchange of views can take place. Put the appraisee at ease and
encourage self appraisal. Be a good active listener.

Reading
Bovee, Thill and Schatzman Business Communication Today
Evans DW, People, Organisations and Communication
Hamilton and Parker, Communicating for Results

References

Adler Ronald and Rodman George (1991): Understanding Human Communication.

Chicago. Holt, Rinehard and Winston.

Axerlod, and Cooper, CR (1987), Reading Critically, Writing Well: A Reader and Guide,
New York, St Martin.

123
 Ò

Bell, AH and Smith, DM (1999), Management Communication, John Wiley and sons, Inc.,
New York.

Beebe, SA and Masterson, JT (1996), Communicating in Small Groups: Principles and

Practice, Longman, New York.

Beer D and Murrey D, ( ), Writing as an Engineer, John Wiley 7 sons Inc new York.

Boone, LE and Kurtz, DL (1994), Management (4th ed), McGraw hill, New York.

Bovee, CL Thill JV and Schatzman, BE (2000), Business Communication Today, McGraw-

Hill, New York.

Conrad, C and Poole, MS 2002, Strategic Organizational Communication in a Global

Economy Fifth EditionThomson Wadsworth, USA

Devito JA, (1997), The elements of Public Speaking, 6th Edition, Longman, New york.

Evans, DW (1990), People, Organisations and Communication, Longman, London.

Hamilton, C and Parker C (1997), Communicating for results: A Guide for Business and the
Professions. 5th edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, London.

Hanrahan HE and Gibbon GJ, (1999), Report Writing and Oral Presentations for Engineers,
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

Hattersley, ME and McJannet, L (1997), Management Communication: Principles and

Practice, McGraw-Hill, Boston.

Kenrick, E (1990), Business Communication, London, Longman.

Kuiper, S & Kohut, GF, (1999), Contemporary Business Writing, South Western College
Publishing,

Lannon, JM. (1998), The Writing process, Longman. New York.

Lucas, SE (1983), The Art of Public Speaking, McGraw Hill, New York.

Murphy, HA, Hildebrandt, HW and Thomas, JP, (1997), Effective Business Communication,
7th edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, Boston.

Robbins, SP and Hunsaker, PL (1996), Training in Interpersonal Skills: Tips for Managing
People at Work. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Stewart John and Logan Carle (1993): Together: Communicating Interpersonally.

New York. Mc Graw Hill.

Thill, J and Bovee, C (1999), Excellence in Communication, New York.

VanAlystyne JS and Maddison GR, (1994), Professional and technical Writing Strategies:
Communicating in Technology and Science,3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs, Ney
Jersey 07632.

124
 Ò

Zeuschner, R (1997), Communication Today, Allyn & Bacon, Boston.

CIM Business Communication Manual

Proverbs

 When words are many, sin is not absent, but he who holds his tongue is wise 10:19.

 Reckless words pierce like a sword, but the tongue of the wise brings healing 12:
18.

125
 Ò

 He who guards his lips guards his life, but he who speaks rashly will come to ruin
13:2.

 A gentle answer turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger 15:1.

 Pleasant words are a honeycomb, and sweet to the soul and healing to the bones
16:24.

 Better a patient man than a warrior, a man who controls his temper than one who
takes a city 16:32,

 Even a fool is thought wise if he keeps silent, and discerning if he holds his tongue
17:28.

 A fool finds no pleasure in understanding but delights in airing his own opinions
18:2.

 He who answers before listening – that is his folly and his shame 18: 13.

 Do you see a man who speaks in haste? There is more hope for a fool than for him
29:20.

James 3

126