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This is a simple guide to assist you with the most used terms within this module.

Absolute zero: lowest possible point

Accuracy: careful, precise

Acronym: a word made up of the initial letters of other words

Affirmative: asserting that the answer is “yes’’

Agents of action: people or institutions that take active steps to implement policies
or plans

Analysis technique: analysis is the process in which certain procedures, including

techniques, eg, descriptive statistic techniques are used to work through the data
that have been collected

Anonymity: not known by name

Archive: safe storage of documents and records

Assumption: a basic premise that we believe is true

Authenticity: genuineness

Bar chart: graph representing the frequency distribution of categorical data

Bias: prejudice or distortion

Bipolar: having two poles or extremes

Causality: that one thing leads to another — in our case, that the presence,
absence or change of one variable determines the presence, absence or change
of another variable

Coercion: forcing

Code of conduct: rule/s or law/s that regulate behaviour

Cognitive: knowing or mentally perceiving

Coherent: a research design that is coherent shows a unity of thought or purpose

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Confidentiality: can be defined as a researcher undertaking not to publicly link a

specific response or behaviour with a particular research participant

Consent: give permission

Consistency: giving consistent results

Control group: group that does not receive the treatment

Conventions: a general agreement regarding certain rules

Competency: the legal capacity to deal with a matter

Correlating: measuring the match between one thing and another

Correlate: an association between two or more variables, determined statistically

Correlation coefficient: index of the extent of the linear relationship between two
variables

Corroborated: confirmed

Classification: arrange in groups

Credibility: having a believable status

Criterion: principle or standard according to which something is judged

Critical approach: an approach to social science that emphasises the need to

uncover hidden processes and structures within society

Cumulative frequency: number of scores below (or above) a certain value

Data: information collected positivism

Deception: to be false, misleading or deceiving

Deduction: going from the general to the specific; using general principles to
suggest specific outcomes

Dependent variable: the variable that is influenced or changed; the effect

independent

Depersonalisation: losing one’s sense of identity

Descriptive statistics: mathematical techniques used to see underlying patterns of

data

Discrete: separate
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Domain: problem, area, field or discipline being researched

Double-barreled question: a question that contains two parts; in other words, a

question that is “two questions in one’’

Element: a unit from a defined population

Epistemology: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of knowledge

Equivalence: equal in meaning

Evidence: facts indicating whether or not something is true

Ex post facto: after the fact. Ex post facto research deals with relationships between
two or more variables without any planned intervention.

Exhaustive: includes all possible responses

Experimental group: group that receives the treatment

External validity: extent to which results can be generalised to other populations or

circumstances

Feminist research: an approach advocating gender sensitivity in research, in

particular the acknowledgement of the role of women

Field research: collection of primary data in natural environments

Flexibility: flexibility is how adaptable the research process is

Format: style or way of organising information

Frequency distribution: table or graph indicating how observations are distributed

Frequency polygons: graph in which the frequencies of class intervals are

connected by straight lines

Gratifications: rewards, pleasure, enjoyment, satisfaction

Grouped frequency table: frequency distribution table with a limited number of

categories

Hard copy: printed material produced by a computer

Hawthorne effect: the effect on participants of knowing that they are being
“researched’’
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Histogram: graph representing the frequency distribution of successive scores or

class intervals

Hypothesis: a testable statement about the relationship between variables

Identity: people's understanding of who they are and what they are like, in other
words, their self-concept

Independent variable: the variable that influences or changes the dependent

variable; the cause

Indicator: an observable measure of a variable or concept

Induction: using a number of specific observations to formulate general principles

Inferences: making deductions based on, for example, what is observed

Integrity: honesty and trustworthiness

Internal validity: extent to which the study confirms the existence of a cause-effect
relationship

Interval: the difference between two points on a scale

Intervening variable: a variable that is the effect of one variable and the cause of
another variable

Irregularities: differences between expected and actual results

Jargon: technical language

Justice: to treat fairly

Justify: provide reasonable grounds

Legitimacy: acceptance of the rightfulness and responsibleness of research

Linguistic insulation: separating oneself from others by means of language

Loaded language: phrases that contain misleading implications

Manipulation of treatment conditions: deciding who receives which treatment

Mean: sum of a sample of scores divided by the number of scores in the sample

Measurement: giving data numerical values

Measurement error: an inaccuracy that influences the measurement of an attribute

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Measuring instrument: observers, questionnaires, interviews, the analysis of existing

documentation, or any standard method of data collection

Median: value or score such that half the observations fall above it and half below it

Mode: score in a sample of scores that occurs with the greatest frequency

Modernity: a belief in rationality and progress associated with confidence in science

and technology

Mutually exclusive: choosing one category automatically excludes other categories

Narrative: the story one tells about oneself

Nonprobability sampling: a procedure where we do not know whether we have

included each element of the population in a sample

Norms: Norms are rules of conduct in particular situations that are enforced by
positive and negative sanctions.

Objectivity: for positivists this means impartiality

Ontology: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of reality

Operationalise: procedure followed to make an abstract construct empirically

observable

Overtly: done in an open and unconcealed manner

Parameter: a characteristic of the elements of a population

Parsimony: using no more than is strictly needed

Plagiarism: to pretend that the thoughts, writings and inventions of others are one’s
own

Placebo(s): medicine(s) given for psychological and not physiological effect

Population: the entire group of persons or objects and events of interest to the
researcher

Positivism: a systematic way of doing research that emphasises the importance of

observable facts

Post-experimental: after an experiment has been conducted

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Postmodern research: an approach to research that claims there is no such thing as

absolute “truth’’ and that no particular theory or method is better than another at
determining the truth

Posttest only control group design: design which includes an experimental and a
control group, a treatment, and a posttest

Phenomenon: any event or experience

Prediction: statement that tells us a future outcome

Pretest-posttest control group design: subjects are measured before and after the
treatment

Primary data: information collected at the original source

Prioritise: placing in order of importance

Privacy: confidentiality

Probability sampling: sometimes called random sampling. A sampling approach

which ensures that every element in the population has an equal chance of being
selected for the sample

Probability: chance

Properties: qualities, characteristics or attributes

Proposition: an abstract statement of relationship between phenomena

Quantitative: values expressed in numbers

Random assignment: every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to any
treatment condition or group

Random error: haphazard errors due to different factors, which may cancel each
other out after a number of cases/measurements

Rank: to arrange in a hierarchy

Rationale: statements of reasons

Relativism: a belief that claims different viewpoints are all valid

Relationships: links

Reliability: when identical investigations are repeated, similar research results will be
obtained
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Replicate: repeat

Replication: The replication of inquiry provides another safeguard. Replication

means repeating a study, checking to see if the same results are obtained. If the
same results are obtained, you can feel more confident about generalising your
findings.

Representative sample: a sample that resembles the population and which enables
the researcher to accurately generalise the results

Response bias: errors due to individual responses not being truthful

Response rate: number of questionnaires returned

Research: The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

Dictionaries define “re” as a prefix meaning again and “search” as a verb meaning
to look for something. Together, the syllables form a noun which means “to look at
again”. In our case, we are taking “another look at” social events. In other words,
making a careful and planned study of them.

Relevance: relates directly to the study in hand

Sample: a subset of a population

Sampling bias: when there is a difference between sample data and population
data that can be attributed to an incorrect selection process;a threat to external
validity of a study that occurs when subjects are not randomly selected from the
population

Sampling error: differences between population parameters and sampling statistics

Sampling frame: a comprehensive list of all units (elements) from which the sample is
drawn

Secondary data: information taken from a source that was not involved in the
original investigation

Seminar: small discussion group

Semantic: the meaning of words

Science: Science is a process of inquiry — a way of learning and knowing things

about the world around us using logic, observation and theory

Scientific thinking: Scientific thinking makes sense (is logical), has a reference
(observed evidence) and gives an explanation (theory) for what we observe.
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Scientific research: Scientific research means we systematically examine and think

about a question.

Single-case experimental design: to assess interventions in educational, clinical and

counselling settings

Scope: range of situations, techniques, and observations included in the research

Stability: the quality of being constant

Stakeholders: individuals or groups who have an interest in or concern with the

research

Standard deviation: index of variability that is expressed in the same units as the
original measures

Standardised: uniform

Structured: a prescribed way of approach

Survey research: the purpose of a survey research is to describe the population’s

attitudes, opinions, etcetera based on sample results

Systematic error: bias that occurs constantly, and which distorts the measurement in
a particular direction

Tertiary data: interpretations based on secondary sources

Theory: a framework of ideas that provides an explanation of something

Time-series design: comparing a number of observations of the same group over a

period of time

Unobtrusive: not making oneself noticed

Validity: a methodological requirement for research methods (such as observation,

the use of measuring instruments and other techniques), as well as research results
(such as the analysis and interpretation of collected data and conclusions from
analyses)

Values: used here to mean measurement of amount, quantity or degree

Value free: the idea that scientific enquiry should not be influenced by the values
scientists hold dear

Value-freedom: researchers’ personal values do not influence the collection of data

(research)
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Variable: a property that changes empirically

Variance: measure of variability based on the deviation of each score in a

distribution from the mean of that distribution