HEAT

13
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. SOLVE Heat is a transfer of energy, whereas temperature is a measure of the internal energy of an object.
REFLECT It’s easy to see how these two concepts might be confused. An object with a high temperature feels
“hot” when you touch it because heat flows from it to your hand.
2. SOLVE Heat only flows when there is a temperature difference. It flows from the hotter region to the colder
region. The greater the temperature difference, the greater the amount of heat flow between the regions.
REFLECT Note that heat flow stops as soon as the two regions come to the same temperature. This will be
important in future problems when we will be considering a hot and cold object put in contact with each other and
then solving for the equilibrium temperature.
3. SOLVE Heat is not energy. It’s the flow of energy. You don’t say that a glass contains so much “water flow.” It
contains water, which can flow out.
REFLECT Notice that heat is not like other quantities that have a set amount. You can put a hot brick in a room
and heat will flow out of the brick and into the room until the brick and the room are at the same temperature. Just
because no more heat is flowing doesn’t mean the brick is “out of heat.” If you pick up the brick and put it in the
refrigerator, heat will start flowing again because there will be a temperature difference between the brick and the
fridge.
4. SOLVE Heat capacity (Equation 13.1) is a property of a specific object, whereas specific heat (Equation 13.2) is a
property of a specific material.
REFLECT Heat capacity is like mass — applying to a certain object. Whereas specific heat is like density, in that
it is characteristic of all objects of a particular material.
5. SOLVE We can invert Equation 13.2 to solve for the temperature: ΔT = Q / mc. From Table 13.1, the specific
heat of aluminum is 900 J/kg D C, whereas for iron it’s 449 J/kg D C. Therefore, for the same heat transfer and mass,
the iron will have the greater temperature increase.
REFLECT What does it mean to say that aluminum has a larger heat capacity than iron? In one sense, it takes
more heat to change the temperature of aluminum than it does for an equal amount of iron. Or equivalently, the
same amount of heat has less effect on aluminum than it does on iron.
6. SOLVE Heat transfer is not the only way to change the temperature of an object. There are mechanical actions
that can increase temperature by an observable amount. Stirring, rubbing, compressing are a few examples. The
physicist James Joule was able to show in the 19th century that one can equate mechanical work (in this case
stirring) to heat transfers between two objects.
REFLECT Often when we do mechanical work we find that some of the energy is “lost” to heat. In fact, energy is
always conserved. Some of it just ends up increasing the internal energy of the system, as characterized by the
temperature.
7. SOLVE The specific heat of water is very high, about 200 times that of air (see Tables 13.1 and 13.2).
Consequently, it can take longer (i.e., more hot, sunny days) for the lake to absorb enough heat to increase its
temperature. This works in the other direction as well: it can take longer for the water to lose enough heat to
decrease its temperature once the summer is over.

13.1
13.2 Chapter 13

REFLECT This is sometimes described as “thermal inertia.” A large lake has so much thermal inertia that it’s
very hard to “move” its temperature. Whereas the air temperature may fluctuate from day to night and from
summer to winter, lake and ocean temperatures remain relatively stable.
8. SOLVE Technically, yes. There are cases where the temperature drops when energy is added to a system. The
particles in the system are coupled together in such a way that the added energy makes them move slower relative
to each other. Examples of such systems are found in astronomy and atomic physics.
REFLECT For normal situations, the specific heat is always positive.
9. SOLVE The object with more mass has the higher heat capacity, so its temperature will change less.
REFLECT Imagine adding a drop of hot water to a bucket of cold water. It’s rather obvious that when the
combination reaches equilibrium, the temperature will be more cold than hot. The bucket’s water doesn’t change
temperature by very much, whereas the drop’s water changes a lot.
10. SOLVE The first thing is that the igloo blocks the wind. Your body gives off heat that will warm the air in your
immediate vicinity, so the igloo can keep that air from blowing away. Your body-generated heat will eventually
escape through the igloo walls, but if the snow is made thick enough, that conduction can be kept low.
REFLECT The thermal conductivity of snow depends on how packed it is. Lightly packed snow has more air
trapped in it, which makes it a better insulator than densely packed snow or ice (see Problem 13.18).
11. SOLVE Falling below 0°C would be damaging for the fruit, but spraying water can prevent that from happening.
Imagine a blanket of water around the fruit. See figure below.

Outside air
T 6 0°C

Fruit
H
T 7 0°C

Freezing water
T = 0°C

If the outside air falls below freezing, the water will remain at 0°C while it turns to ice. Therefore, the fruit’s
temperature will not fall below zero degrees.
REFLECT If the water blanket freezes completely, then the ice will begin to drop below zero degrees. Even so,
the ice will slow down the loss of heat from the fruit. This can buy enough time for the Sun to come out and start
warming back up the air. As long as the night doesn’t get too cold, the fruit will likely avoid damage.
12. SOLVE The human body’s normal temperature is 37°C, which means heat flows out of your body when you are
in a 20°C “bath” of either air or water. Air has a relatively low thermal conductivity, so the amount of heat lost is
manageable. By contrast, water’s thermal conductivity is 20 times that of air. You feel colder in the water because
you are losing heat much faster than you would in the air.
REFLECT A similar phenomenon occurs with wet clothes. Cotton and other materials have fairly small thermal
conductivities, so putting on a dry cotton shirt will decrease the flow of heat out of your body. But if the shirt gets
wet, the thermal conductivity goes up substantially.
13. As you can see from Table 13.2, the molar specific heat of all the gases is higher for constant pressure than for
constant volume. That means the temperature will climb faster at constant volume.
REFLECT Heating at constant pressure means that the gas will be able to expand and therefore do work on its
container (see Figure 13.7). As a consequence, less of the heat goes to increasing the internal energy of the gas,
which is proportional to the temperature. By contrast, when heating at constant volume, all the heat goes into the
internal energy of the gas, so the temperature rises faster.
 Heat 13.3

14. SOLVE The wind blows across the skin and carries away heat by convection. The faster the wind, the faster
convection carries away your body’s heat.
REFLECT On a cold day when there is no wind, your body warms the air around you, forming a thin layer of air
that is roughly the same temperature as your skin. There is relatively little conductive heat exchange between your
body and this air “blanket.” But as soon as the wind picks up, it blows this blanket away, so that the skin always
has cold air around it.
15. SOLVE The runner sweats, drinks, breathes, and radiates. Sweating cools the runner through evaporation (the
sweat absorbs heat from the skin as it vaporizes). Drinking brings the internal organs in contact with a cool liquid,
which induces heat conduction out of the body and into the liquid. Breathing cools through convection: the air
breathed in is cooler than the air breathed out, so there’s a net transfer of heat out of the body. Lastly, the runner’s
temperature is typically higher than his surroundings so he will radiate heat in accordance with the Stefan-
Boltzman law (Equation 13.8).
REFLECT You can get a sense of how important each of these effects is by regarding the following: Problem
13.73 (sweating), Problem 13.74 (drinking), Problem 13.100 (breathing), and Example 13.13 (radiation).
16. SOLVE Let’s study carefully Figure 13.15, which shows the phase diagram for water. At 1 atm, the melting point
is 0°C and the boiling point is 100°C. As the pressure increases, the melting point decreases while the boiling point
increases. The latter won’t occur indefinitely: At 218 atm, the boiling point hits the critical point. Above that,
there’s no longer a clear distinction between liquid and gas.
REFLECT Note: water is one of the only substances whose melting point decreases as you increase pressure. This
is related to the fact that water expands when it freezes. The implication is that if you increase the pressure on a
piece of ice, it can begin to melt in certain cases. Conversely, you can suddenly decrease the pressure on a sample
of water, and it will “magically” freeze.
17. SOLVE The two panes trap air, which has a much lower thermal conductivity than glass (see Table 13.3). That
means less heat escapes through a double-paned window than a single pane. But if the gap is too wide, convection
cells can develop between the windows (see Figure 13.2). The churning air of convection cells is more effective at
passing heat than stationary air.
REFLECT The optimum air gap is about half an inch. Less than that, and you don’t have enough of an air buffer.
More than that, and you start to have convection through air movement.
18. SOLVE Snow is not solid ice. There is plenty of air between the flakes, and the thermal conductivity of air is
much lower than that of ice, so the air-ice combination of snow is smaller than that of solid ice.
REFLECT Your own experience probably tells you that ice feels colder than snow. That’s because the ice
conducts heat away faster than snow.
19. SOLVE The curtains themselves are usually thin, but they hold air in front of the windows. This confined air acts
as insulation, since it has a low thermal conductivity. The curtains also reduce the amount of convection. Without
curtains, air currents in the room bring warm air in contact with the windows, increasing the amount of heat the
room is losing. Curtains partially block the air currents, so less warm air is cycled by the windows.
REFLECT You might think opening the curtains would be better, since it would let in some sunlight that could
help heat the room. In fact, the curtains do bring in the energy of the Sun into the room, but it’s indirectly. The
combination of curtain and window creates a kind of greenhouse effect, where the sunlight warms the curtain
material and the glass window prevents the energy radiating from the curtain from escaping.
20. SOLVE Heat is not a quantity. The pot of hot water will transfer heat to any cold object it comes in contact with.
A better way to put it is: “This pot of hot water has a lot of potential for heating.”
REFLECT You can probably think of other cases where the word “heat” is not used in a technically accurate way.
For example, “We were suffering in the heat of the day,” and “There’s no heat left in this relationship.”
21. SOLVE Your tongue exchanges heat with the bulb, where most of the mercury is. After several seconds, the
mercury in the bulb is the same temperature as your tongue (which is an accurate representation of your body’s
temperature). In response to this temperature increase, the mercury in the bulb expands and pushes a small amount
of mercury out along the thin column where the measurement is made. The mercury in the column will not be
13.4 Chapter 13

exactly the same temperature as your body, but this liquid is only a small fraction of the total mercury, so it has a
negligible effect on the measurement.
REFLECT Most liquids expand in a similar way as mercury when they are heated. The advantage of mercury is
that it remains liquid over a wide range of temperatures: from –39°C to 358°C (see Table 13.3). Some
thermometers use ethanol, which is liquid between –114°C and 78°C.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE PROBLEMS
22. SOLVE The conversion between food calories to Joules gives:

⎡ 4186 J ⎤
200 Cal ⎢ ⎥ = 837 kJ
⎣ 1 Cal ⎦

The answer is (d).

REFLECT A single candy bar contains approximately the same number of Joules as are found in the kinetic
energy of a car traveling at highway speeds.
23. SOLVE The change in gravitational potential energy is equal to:

⎡ 1 Cal ⎤
U = mgh = (60 kg)(9.80 m/s2 )(1200 m) = 706 kJ ⎢ ⎥ = 169 Cal
⎣ 4186 J ⎦
The answer is (a).
REFLECT Of course, the hike will take more energy than this, since humans are not perfectly efficient machines.
Some energy is spent on normal bodily functions.
24. SOLVE The energy needed to raise the water temperature is given by Equation 13.2 with the specific heat of
water from Table 13.1:

Q = mcΔT = (0.450 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(6 D C) = 11,300 J

The answer is (d).

REFLECT It is perhaps worth reflecting that this heat input is the same if the water starts at 0ºC, or at 90ºC.
25. SOLVE From Equation 13.2 and Table 13.1:

Q (100 cal)
ΔT = = = 4DC
mc (25 g)(1.00 cal/g D C)

The answer is (b).

REFLECT The calorie was defined to be the energy needed to raise 1 g of water by 1°C.
26. SOLVE From Equation 13.2 and Table 13.1:

Q (1 kJ)
ΔT = = = 1.1D C
mc (1.0 kg)(900 J/kg D C)

The answer is (b).

REFLECT Aluminum has a middle-of-the-road specific heat. More than iron and lead, but quite a bit less than
water.
27. SOLVE The hot water and cold water transfer heat to each other in equal and opposite amounts: Qh = −Qc . Using
Equation 13.2, this becomes:

mh cΔTh = −mc cΔTc

 Heat 13.5

Where ΔTh = T f − 45D C and ΔTc = T f − 10D C . Solving for the final temperature gives:

(2.0 kg)(45D C) + (1.2 kg)(10D C)

Tf = = 32D C
(2.0 kg) + (1.2 kg)

The answer is (a).

REFLECT The final temperature is basically like a weighted average of the two temperatures.
28. SOLVE Using Equation 13.5 and the latent heat of fusion for water from Table 13.3:

Q = mL f = (0.200 kg)(3.33 × 105 J/kg) = 6.66 × 10 4 J = 66.6 kJ

The answer is (b).

REFLECT Notice that if the ice cube were below zero, say −10°C, then more heat would be needed to warm the
ice to the melting point.
29. SOLVE We can determine the mass of the ice from Equation 13.5: m = Q f / L f . We can then plug into Equation
13.6 to find the energy to vaporize water with the same mass:

Lv (2.26 × 106 J/kg)

Qv = mLv = Q f = (6.5 kJ) = 44 kJ
Lf (3.33 × 105 J/kg)

The answer is (d).

REFLECT It takes almost 7 times more energy to boil water than melt an equal amount of ice. This trend of
greater boiling than melting energy is true of all the materials in Table 13.3.
30. SOLVE This is similar to Example 13.10, except that we have tea rather than coffee. We first calculate the energy
that the ice absorbs as it melts:

Qi = mi L f = (0.030 kg)(3.33 × 105 J/kg) = 1.0 × 10 4 J

This energy is pulled from the tea ( Qt = −Qi ), causing it to change temperature by:

Qt (−1.0 × 10 4 J)
ΔT = = = −7.5D C
mt c (0.320 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)

This implies that the tea is at 75D C − 7.5D C = 67.5D C when the ice has just finished melting. But we’re not done
because the melted ice is at 0°C, so it still needs to come to equilibrium with the tea. The two liquids exchange
equal and opposite amounts of heat according to Equation 13.2:

mt c(T f − 67.5D C) = −mi c(T f − 0D C)

Solving for the final temperature gives:

−(0.320 kg)( −67.5D C)

Tf = = 62D C
(0.320 kg) + (0.030 kg)

The answer is (d).

REFLECT We just assumed that all the ice melted — a reasonable assumption given that the amount of ice was
much less than the amount of hot tea. But in other problems, we may have to be more careful. Sometimes there’s
so much ice that the liquid cools to 0°C before all the ice melts. In this case the liquid and ice are in equilibrium
( T f = 0D C ), so no more melting occurs.
31. SOLVE The surface area of a sphere is: A = 4π r 2 . Using the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 13.8), the rate of
energy radiation from the star is:

P = eσ AT 4 = (1)(5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2K 4 ) ( 4π (1.62 × 10 9 m)2 ) (7200 K)4 = 5 × 10 27 W

13.6 Chapter 13

The answer is (a).

REFLECT This is approximately 10 times the power of the Sun (see Problem 13.82). That’s because this star is
slightly bigger and slightly hotter.
PROBLEMS
32. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are asked to convert food calories to Joules: 1 Cal = 4186 J .
SOLVE (a) For the weight-loss diet:

⎡ 4186 J ⎤
⎥ = 6.3 × 10 J
6
1500 Cal ⎢
⎣ 1 Cal ⎦

(b) For the athletic individual:

⎡ 4186 J ⎤
⎥ = 1.1 × 10 J
7
2600 Cal ⎢
⎣ 1 Cal ⎦

(c) For the Tour de France competitor:

⎡ 4186 J ⎤
⎥ = 2.5 × 10 J
7
6000 Cal ⎢
⎣ 1 Cal ⎦

REFLECT The Tour de France competitor eats twice what the normal athletic person does, and four times what a
typical diet allows. It’s claimed that Lance Armstrong in his prime could pedal his bike with 500 W of power. If
we assume that he could generate that power for 4 hours, then the mechanical energy would be:

(500 W)(4 ⋅ 60 ⋅ 60 s) = 7.2 × 106 J

Obviously much more energy would be needed to keep his body working at this high of a level.
33. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are again asked to convert food calories to Joules: 1 Cal = 4186 J.
SOLVE The candy bar has:

⎡ 4186 J ⎤
⎥ = 1.2 × 10 J
6
280 Cal ⎢
⎣ 1 Cal ⎦

REFLECT A million Joules in a single wrapper! Note that this is 10% of a normal athletic person’s caloric intake.
34. ORGANIZE AND PLAN When the car stops, its kinetic energy ( K = 12 mv 2 ) has to go somewhere. We can assume
all of it ends up heating the brakes.
Known: m = 1120 kg, v = 60 mph.
SOLVE We’ll need the velocity in SI units:

⎡ 1609 m ⎤ ⎡ 1 h ⎤
v = 60 mph ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = 27 m/s
⎣ 1 mi ⎦ ⎣ 60 ⋅ 60 s ⎦

The thermal energy in the brakes generated by the stopping is:

Eth = K = 12 mv 2 = 12 (1120 kg)(27 m/s)2 = 4.1 × 105 J

REFLECT That’s a fair amount of energy being wasted. Many hybrid electric cars have what’s called regenerative
braking that tries to recuperate the energy lost during braking and use it to recharge the battery.
35. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As we did before, we will assume that the kinetic energy of the truck is transferred to
thermal energy in the brakes when it stops.
Known: m = 34,000 kg, v = 60 mph.
SOLVE In the previous problem, we calculated the velocity in SI units. Plugging this into the kinetic energy
equation, we obtain
 Heat 13.7

Eth = K = 12 mv 2 = 12 (34,000 kg)(27 m/s)2 = 1.2 × 10 7 J

REFLECT Truckers have to be careful about overheating their brakes, so they often use engine braking to slow
down. In this case, the engine and the drive-train absorb the thermal energy associated with stopping.
36. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We will convert the gravitational potential energy ( U grav = mgh ) into food calories, using
1 Cal = 4186 J.
Known: m = 70 kg, h = 2200 m.
SOLVE The energy needed to climb 2200 meters is:

⎡ 1 Cal ⎤
U grav = mgh = (70 kg)(9.80 m/s2 )(2200 m) = 1.5 × 106 J ⎢ ⎥ = 360 Cal
⎣ 4186 J ⎦

REFLECT The energy is a little more than the energy provided by a single candy bar, so the hiker could
“recharge” some of the calories he/she expended with a little snack.
37. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’re told that the energy expended per stride is equal to the kinetic energy ( K = 12 mv 2 ),
but notice that we are not given how fast the runner is running. We’ll have to determine it from the time it takes her
to run the given distance.
Known: m = 65 kg, Δx = 1000 m, Δt = 5 min.
SOLVE The velocity of the runner is:

Δx (1000 m) ⎡ 1 min ⎤
v= = = 3.3 m/s
Δt (5 min) ⎢⎣ 60 s ⎥⎦

Using this to find the kinetic energy:

K = 12 mv 2 = 12 (65 kg)(3.3 m/s)2 = 350 J

We are told to assume this is the energy expended per stride, so the total energy is this times the number of strides,
which is the total distance divided by the stride-length:

⎛ 1000 m ⎞ ⎡ 1 Cal ⎤
E = K ⋅ N stride = (350 J) ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥ = 56 Cal
⎝ 1.5 m ⎠ ⎣ 4186 J ⎦

REFLECT The answer is reasonable, if a bit on the small side.

38. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Again, we’ll need to calculate the velocity and the number of strides.
Known: m = 65 kg, Δx = 1000 m, Δt = 12 min, Δxstride = 85 cm.
SOLVE The velocity and kinetic energy of the walker are:

Δx (1000 m) ⎡ 1 min ⎤
v= = = 1.4 m/s
Δt (12 min) ⎢⎣ 60 s ⎥⎦
K = 12 mv 2 = 12 (65 kg)(1.4 m/s)2 = 64 J

Assuming the kinetic energy is the energy expended per stride, then the total energy expended is:

⎛ 1000 m ⎞ ⎡ 1 Cal ⎤
E = K ⋅ N stride = (64 J) ⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥ = 18 Cal
⎝ 0.85 m ⎠ ⎣ 4186 J ⎦

REFLECT This answer is reasonable as well. Notice, that walking takes less energy compared to running even
though it takes longer. That’s because the energy expended scales with the velocity squared.
39. ORGANIZE AND PLAN During each repetition, you expend energy in increasing the gravitational potential of the
barbell ( U grav = mgh ). We’ll assume that you don’t expend energy letting the barbell fall back to the starting
position.
Known: m = 75 kg, h = 1.9 m, N reps = 20.
13.8 Chapter 13

SOLVE The barbell’s gravitational potential changes during each rep by:

U grav = mgh = (75 kg)(9.80 m/s2 )(1.9 m) = 1400 J

The total energy expended in Joules and Calories:

E = U grav ⋅ N reps = (1400 J)(20) = 28,000 J

⎡ 1 Cal ⎤
= 28,000 J ⎢ ⎥ = 6.7 Cal
⎣ 4186 J ⎦

REFLECT This matches data on how much energy is burned during 1 minute-worth of weight training.
40. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Using Equation 13.2 ( Q = mcΔT ), we can figure out just how much heat is needed to raise
the temperature of a pound of water by 1D F . From Table 13.1, the specific heat of water is:
c = 4186 J/(kg o C) = 1 cal/(g o C).
Known: m = 1 lb, ΔT = 1D F.
SOLVE (a) By definition, 1 lb = 0.4536 kg and 1D F = 5 D
9
C, so the Joule equivalent of 1 Btu is:

Q = mcΔT = (0.4536 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)( 95 D C) = 1055 J

(b) Doing the same with calories, but notice that the units in this case have grams, not kilograms:

Q = mcΔT = (453.6 g)(1 cal/g D C)( 59 D C) = 252 cal

REFLECT You can verify in a reference book or on the Internet that 1 Btu is indeed equal to 1055 J and 252 cal.
41. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From the preceding problem, we have the conversion: 1 Btu = 1055 J. Power is energy
divided by time.
Known: ΔE = 92 therms, Δt = 1 mo.
SOLVE The power in watts (J/s) is:

ΔE (92 therms) ⎡ 10 5 Btu ⎤ ⎡ 1055 J ⎤ ⎡ 1 mo ⎤

P= = = 3700 W
Δt (1 mo) ⎢⎣ 1 therm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 Btu ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 30 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 60 ⋅ 60 s ⎥⎦

REFLECT This is equivalent to having 37 100-Watt lightbulbs on all the time.

42. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Let’s convert everything to Joules and see how they stack up.

1 Btu = 1055 J
1 therm = 105 Btu = 1.055 × 108 J
1 cal = 4.186 J

SOLVE Smallest to largest is (c), (b), (d), (a).

REFLECT This makes clear that the Joule is a rather small amount of energy.
43. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The definition of the heat capacity is from Equation 13.1: Q = C ΔT . The value for C
found in part (a) should remain valid for the temperature increase in part (b).
Known: Q = 2.48 kJ, ΔT = 25DC for part (a); ΔT = 200DC for part (b).
SOLVE (a) From the definition of heat capacity:

Q 2.48 kJ
C= = = 99.2 J/ D C
ΔT 25DC

(b) The heat capacity is a constant of the material, so we can use it to find the heat absorbed for other temperature
increases:

Q = C ΔT = (99.2 J/ D C)(200DC) = 19.8 kJ

 Heat 13.9

REFLECT The temperature change increases by a factor of 8 between part (a) and part (b). The same 8-fold
increase should be seen in the heat absorbed and it is: (19.8 kJ)/(2.48 kJ) = 8.
44. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The rock starts off with gravitational potential energy: U grav = mrock gh. This is converted to
kinetic energy as it falls to the water; see figure below.

Ugrav

K=Q

If all this kinetic energy goes into heating the water, we can find the temperature of the water from Equation 13.2:
Q = mcΔT , where c = 4186 J/kg D C for water.
Known: mrock = 0.450 kg, h = 10.0 m, mwater = 2.5 kg .
SOLVE The heat the water receives is equal to the rock’s kinetic energy, which is equal to the gravitational
potential energy:

Q = K = Ugrav = mrock gh = (0.450 kg)(9.80 m/s2 )(10.0 m) = 44.1 J

This heat causes a rise in the water’s temperature:

Q 44.1 J
ΔT = = = 4.2 × 10 −3 D C
mwater c (2.5 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)

REFLECT This is an imperceptible temperature change, which agrees with our experience. Dropping a rock into a
bucket of water doesn’t change the temperature by any noticeable degree.
45. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is similar to Example 13.4, but in this case we don’t know the final
temperature. All we can say, then, is that the hotter water changes temperature by: ΔThot = T f − 25D C, while the
colder water changes temperature by: ΔTcold = T f − 2.0D C. We will be able to solve for T f using Equation 2.2, and
the fact that the heat lost by the hot water is gained by the cold water: Qhot = −Qcold , assuming of course that no
heat is lost to the surroundings.
Known: mhot = 18 kg, mcold = 6 kg.
SOLVE The equal but opposite heat exchange implies:

Qhot = −Qcold ⇒ mhot cΔThot = − mcold cΔTcold

Solving for the final temperature:

6 kg
T f − 25D C = − (T f − 2.0D C) ⇒ T f = 19D C
18 kg

REFLECT The final temperature is closer to the hotter temperature, which makes sense since there is three times
more hot water than cold water.
13.10 Chapter 13

46. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We will need Equation 2.2: Q = mcΔT , along with the density of water: 1.00 kg/L. Note
too that a kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy, so we’ll need to convert J into kWh.
Known: V = 189 L, R = $0.12 / kWh, ΔT = 60D C − 10D C = 50D C.
SOLVE The 189 L is equivalent to 189 kg, so the heat required to raise its temperature by 50 degrees is:

Q = mcΔT = (189 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(50D C) = 3.96 × 107 J

To convert this to kWh, recall that 1 W = 1 J/s, or equivalently 1 J = 1 W ⋅ s:

⎡ 1 W ⋅ s ⎤ ⎡ 1 kW ⎤ ⎡ 1 h ⎤
3.96 × 107 J ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = 11 kWh
⎣ 1 J ⎦ ⎣ 1000 W ⎦ ⎣ 60 ⋅ 60 s ⎦

The cost of this much energy is $1.32.

REFLECT It takes quite a lot of energy to heat water. Notice that the specific heat of water is the highest of all the
substances in Table 13.1. That’s why water heaters account for a lot of the energy bill in a house.
47. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We will follow the argument of Example 13.4. Heat is exchanged between the hot coffee
and the cold water, but the whole system does not lose or receive heat. Therefore, Qhot + Qcold = 0. The temperature
of the coffee drops, while that of the added water rises:

ΔThot = 49D C − 55D C = −6D C

ΔTcold = 49D C − 10D C = 39D C

Known: mhot = 300 g

SOLVE The heat exchange is written:

Qhot + Qcold = mhot cΔThot + mcold cΔTcold = 0

The specific heat of coffee is the same as water, so the c’s will cancel out of the equation. Solving for the cold
water mass:

ΔThot (−6D C)
mcold = −mhot = −(300 g) = 46 g
ΔTcold (39D C)

REFLECT The small amount of cold water makes sense, since the coffee temperature is only dropping a few
degrees. Note that 46 g of water is 46 mL, or about 9 teaspoons.
48. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We will use hindsight to see how accurate Joule’s measurements were. We’ll compare the
gravitational potential of 817 pounds at a height of one foot, and compare that to the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F.
Known: mweight = 817 lb, h = 1 ft, mwater = 1 lb, ΔT = 1D F
SOLVE (a) The gravitational energy of the weight in Joule’s experiment was:

⎡ 0.457 kg ⎤ ⎡ 0.305 m ⎤
U = mweight gh = (817lb) ⎢ ⎥ (9.80 m/s )(1 ft) ⎢ 1 ft ⎥ = 1116 J
2

⎣ 1 lb ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

This energy went into turning a paddle wheel and thereby heated the pound of water. Using the specific heat of
water, the heat that would be needed to raise the water’s temperature by 1°F:

⎡ 0.457 kg ⎤ ⎡ 1D C ⎤
Q = mwater cΔT = (1 lb) ⎢ ⎥ (4186 J/kg D C)(1D F) ⎢ D ⎥ = 1063 J
⎣ 1 lb ⎦ ⎣ 1.8 F ⎦

The discrepancy between these values is:

Q − U 1116 J − 1063 J
= = 5%
Q 1116 J
 Heat 13.11

(b) What mass should have Joule used to generate the expected heat input, assuming that the weight again falls 1
foot?

Q 1063 J ⎡ 1 ft ⎤ ⎡ 1 lb ⎤
mweight = = ⎢ ⎥ = 356 kg ⎢ ⎥ = 779 lb
gh (9.80 m/s )(1 ft) ⎣ 0.305 m ⎦
2
⎣ 0.457 kg ⎦

REFLECT There are several possible reasons why Joule found a larger mass than necessary in his experiment.
Some of the potential energy of the weight may have been lost, perhaps to friction in the mechanical device, or to
the heating of the surrounding. If so, only about 95% of the potential energy wound up heating the water.
49. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’ll need the equation for the gravitational potential ( U = mweight gh ) and equate it to the
heat needed to raise the given water temperature ( Q = mwater cΔT ).
Known: h = 1 m, mwater = 1 kg, ΔT = 1 K.
SOLVE Equating the gravitational potential and the heat, we can solve for the mass of the weight:

mwater cΔT (1 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(1 K)

mweight = = = 427 kg
gh (9.80 m/s2 )(1 m)

REFLECT Note that we have used the fact that for temperature changes, a Kelvin is the same as a degree Celsius
( 1 K = 1D C ). The calculated mass is equivalent to 940 pounds, which is slightly smaller than the 1,000 pounds we
found in Problem 8.48 (b) for a mass falling 1 foot to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F.
50. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The copper will lose heat as it cools, while the water will gain heat as its temperature
increases. The exchange of heat ends when the copper and the water have the same temperature. If we assume that
no heat is exchanged with the surroundings, the heat lost by the copper will be gained by the water ( QCu = −QH 2O ).
The heat lost by the copper comes from Equation 13.2: QCu = mCu cCu ΔTCu , where the specific heat of copper is
taken from Table 13.1: cCu = 385 J/kg D C. A similar expression applies for the heat gained by the water. We will
solve for the final temperature, using the temperature change for the copper: ΔTCu = T f − 150D C, and the water:
ΔTH 2O = T f − 25D C.
Known: mCu = 0.35 kg, VH 2O = 500 mL.
SOLVE (a) The density of water is: 1.00 g/mL, so the mass of water is 500 g, or 0.5 kg. The equal but opposite
heat exchange implies:

QCu = −QH 2O ⇒ mCu cCu ΔTCu = − mH 2O cH 2O ΔTH 2O

Solving for the final temperature:

(0.5 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)

T f − 150D C = − (T f − 25D C) ⇒ T f = 32.6D C
(0.35 kg)(385 J/kg D C)

(b) The amount of heat that flowed out of the copper is:

QCu = mCu cCu ΔTCu = (0.35 kg)(385 J/kg D C)( − 117.4) = −16 kJ

Equally but with the opposite sign, 16 kJ flowed into the water during the process.
REFLECT First of all, the final temperature is between the initial temperatures of the copper and the water, which
it must be. It is also closer to the water’s initial temperature, which makes sense because water has a higher heat
capacity than copper. This means the water’s temperature changes less for the same amount of heat.
51. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Water boils at 100°C, so we’ll use Equation 13.2 ( Q = mcΔT ) to calculate how much heat
is needed to bring the water up to that temperature. The time it takes to reach boiling is just the heat delivered
divided by the kettle’s power: t = Q / P, where recall that W = J/s.
Known: P = 1250 W, VH 2O = 1.0 L , Ti = 20D C, T f = 100D C.
SOLVE The temperature change in the water is: ΔT = T f − Ti = 80D C, and given that the density of water is 1.00
g/mL, the mass of 1.0 L is 1.0 kg. The heat needed to bring this much water to boil is:
13.12 Chapter 13

Q = mcΔT = (1.0 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(80 D C) = 3.3 × 105 J

The time it takes the kettle to deliver this much heat is:

Q (3.3 × 105 J)
t= = = 268 s
P (1250 W)

REFLECT This is about 4 and half minutes, which seems reasonable for bringing that much water to boil. Notice
that the time could be longer because some of the heat may escape.
52. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The energy required to melt 25 tons of ice can be found from Equation 13.5: Q = mL f .
From Table 13.3, the latent heat of fusion for water ice is: L f = 3.33 × 105 J/kg. We’ll use this to convert the given
power into watts.
Known: P = 25 ton.
SOLVE The heat required to melt one ton of ice is:

⎡ 907 kg ⎤
Q = mL f = (25 ton) ⎢ ⎥ (3.33 × 10 J/kg) = 7.55 × 10 J
5 9

⎣ 1 ton ⎦

We’re told that the definition of a ton for refrigerators is the heat required for a full day, so we just need to convert
that to seconds (recall W = J/s).

Q (7.55 × 109 J) ⎡ 1d ⎤
P= = ⎢ 24 ⋅ 60 ⋅ 60 s ⎥ = 8.74 × 10 W
4
t 1d ⎣ ⎦

REFLECT Before electric refrigerators, ice would be delivered each day to a business or home to keep food and
other products cold. It made sense then to develop a unit for the cooling power of a ton of ice.
53. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We know that the sum of the heat lost by the material and gained by the water is zero:
QM + QW = 0 , so we’ll use that to solve for the unknown specific heat: cM . The temperature changes for the
material and the water are:

ΔTM = 22.9D C − 34.5D C = −11.6D C

ΔTW = 22.9D C − 18D C = 4.9D C

Known: mM = 25.0 g, mW = 125 g.

SOLVE Using the heat exchange and Equation 13.2:

mW cW ΔTW (0.125 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(4.9D C)

cM = − =− = 8841 J/kg D C
mM ΔTM (0.0250 kg)(−11.6D C)

REFLECT Looking through Table 13.1, there’s no material that matches this specific heat. But of course this list
is not exhaustive, so we shouldn’t be concerned.
54. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In this calorimetry problem, we will identify the unknown metal by its specific heat. To
solve for that, we use the fact that the sum of the heat lost by the metal and gained by the water is zero:
QM + QW = 0 . The temperature changes for the metal and the water are:

ΔTM = 20.0D C − 115.4D C = −95.4D C

ΔTW = 20.0D C − 15.5D C = 4.5D C

Known: mM = 210 g , mW = 250 g.

SOLVE Using the heat exchange and Equation 13.2:

mW cW ΔTW (0.250 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(4.5D C)

cM = − =− = 235 J/kg D C
mM ΔTM (0.210 kg)(−95.4D C)
 Heat 13.13

This is precisely the specific heat of silver, so the unknown metal must be silver.
REFLECT We are told that the unknown metal was silvery, so the fact that the calorimetry experiment points to
silver makes perfect sense.
55. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This is a straightforward use of Equation 13.2: Q = mcΔT , where the specific heat of
mercury is from Table 13.1: c = 140 J/kg D C. The one thing we will need is the density of liquid mercury from
Table 10.1: ρ = 13,600 kg/m 3 .
Known: V = 2.30 mL, ΔT = 100D C.
SOLVE Plugging the mass of mercury (m = ρV ) into Equation 13.2:

Q = ρVcΔT = (0.0136 kg/mL)(2.30 mL)(140 J/kg D C)(100 D C) = 438 J

REFLECT This heat causes the mercury to expand slightly, which results in the liquid rising inside the
thermometer. Because this rise is uniform, we can use it to measure the temperature. In this way, the thermometer
works simply by absorbing heat (or losing heat) to the environment.
56. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The equipartition theorem states that each degree of freedom in a substance adds R/2 to
the molar specific heat, where R = 8.315 J/mol D C is the molar gas constant. Ideally, the vibrations of copper atoms
inside a solid piece of copper account for 6 degrees of freedom, so the specific of heat should be 3R. We are simply
asked to convert this into a specific heat using the molar mass of copper: M = 63.6 g/mol.
SOLVE Using the values given, the specific heat of copper is:

3R 3(8.315 J/mol D C)
c= = = 392 J/kg D C
M (0.0636 kg/mol)

This is slightly higher than the value in Table 13.1: c = 385 J/kg D C .
REFLECT The fact that the derived specific heat is slightly higher than the actual value implies that copper atoms
have slightly less than 6 degrees of freedom. They may be partly constrained in their vibrations.
57. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The nitrogen starts off colder, so it will gain heat from the helium: ( QN = −QHe ). We’ll
assume that the gases are combined under fixed pressure, so that the heat gained or lost will come from Equation
8.4: Q = ncP ΔT . The molar specific heats can be taken from Table 13.2 for nitrogen ( cN = 29.1 J/mol D C ) and for
helium ( cHe = 20.8 J/mol D C ). We’ll need to convert the given masses into moles, and write the temperature change
for the nitrogen as: ΔTN = T f − 25D C, and the helium as: ΔTHe = T f − 45D C.
Known: mN = 56 g, mHe = 12 g.
SOLVE The equal but opposite heat exchange implies:

QN = −QHe ⇒ nN cN ΔTN = −mHecHe ΔTHe

The molar masses are 28 g/mol for nitrogen gas and 4 g/mol for helium gas, so the number of moles are 2 mol of
nitrogen and 3 mol of helium. Solving for the final equilibrium temperature:

(3 mol)(20.8 J/mol D C)
T f − 25D C = − (T f − 45D C) ⇒ T f = 35D C
(2 mol)(29.1 J/mol D C)

REFLECT The answer makes sense, since the final temperature is halfway between the initial temperatures of the
nitrogen and the helium. If you assumed that the gases were mixed with constant volume, the result would be
practically the same: T f = 34D C. This is because the ratio of the molar specific heats ( cHe / cN ) is practically the
same for constant volume and constant pressure.
58. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The molar specific heat for a monatomic gas is cV = 12.5 J/mol D C for constant volume,
and cP = 20.8 J/mol D C for constant pressure. To find the number of moles, we divide the given heat capacity by
cV and use that answer to find the heat capacity at constant pressure.
Known: CV = 37.5 J/ D C.
13.14 Chapter 13

SOLVE (a) The number of moles is just:

CV 37.5 J/ D C
n= = = 3.00 mol
cV 12.5 J/mol D C

(b) The heat capacity at constant pressure is:

C P = ncP = (3.00 mol)(20.8 J/mol D C) = 62.4 J/ D C

REFLECT Recall that the heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than the heat capacity at constant volume.
This is because — in the constant pressure case — a given amount of delivered energy goes into both increasing
the thermal energy and increasing the volume of the gas (i.e., the energy does work). In the constant volume case,
the delivered energy is only used to increase the thermal energy.
59. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’ll assume a constant volume of air in the house. We can find the total number of moles
using the ideal gas law ( PV = nRT ). We could then find the number of moles of nitrogen and the number of moles
of oxygen using the percentages given. But they are both diatomic gases, so they have essentially the same molar
specific heat. In Table 13.3, the molar specific heat of air is given ( cV = 20.8 J/mol D C ), so we’ll use that to find the
energy needed to raise the air temperature by one degree Celsius (Equation 13.3).
Known: A = 190 m 2 , h = 2.3 m, ΔT = 1D C, r = 16¢ / kWh.
SOLVE (a) The volume is the area times the height (V = Ah), and we assume that the pressure is 1atm (or
101,325 Pa in SI units) and the room temperature is 20°C (or 293 K). So the total number of moles is:

PV (101,325 Pa)(190 m 2 )(2.3 m)

n= = = 18,200 mol
RT (8.315 J/mol ⋅ K)(293 K)

You could also come to a similar result by using the fact that the molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4 L/mol at
standard temperature and pressure, but that would be assuming the house is a very chilly 0°C to begin with.
Plugging the total moles into Equation 13.3:

Q = ncV ΔT = (18,200 mol)(20.8 J/mol D C)(1D C) = 3.79 × 10 5 J

(b) The cost of this much energy is:

⎡1 W ⋅ s ⎤ ⎡ 1 kWh ⎤
C = rQ = (16¢ / kWh)(3.79 × 105 J) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ (1000 W)(60 ⋅ 60 s) ⎥ = 1.7¢
⎣ 1 J ⎦⎣ ⎦

REFLECT The heating system won’t be 100% efficient, and we’ve neglected the energy needed to heat the
furniture, the floors, the walls, etc. But assuming this cost is approximate, it is interesting to consider how often a
heating system has to rewarm the air to counter heat loss from the house. Imagine the heating bill for one month is
$150, then we could think of that as the heating system turning on almost 9,000 times (or once every 5 minutes) to
reheat the air by one degree.
60. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This will require Equation 13.5: Q = mLf , with the latent heat of fusion for water from
Table 13.3: Lf = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg.
Known: m = 120 g.
SOLVE The energy to melt the ice cube is:

Q = mLf = (0.120 kg)(3.33 × 10 5 J/kg) = 4.00 × 10 4 J

REFLECT When an ice cube melts it takes this energy from the air or the liquid that it is floating in.
61. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This is like the previous problem, except that the ice first has to warm to 0°C before it
starts to melt. For this initial warming, we use Equation 13.2: Q = mcΔT , with the specific heat of ice from Table
13.1: c = 2090 J/kg D C.
Known: m = 120 g, ΔT = 25D C.
 Heat 13.15

SOLVE The energy needed to bring the ice to the melting point is:

Q = mcΔT = (0.120 kg)(2090 J/kg D C)(25D C) = 6.27 × 103 J

In the previous problem, we found the energy for the melting Q = 4.00 × 10 4 J, so the total energy is the sum:

Qtot = 6.27 × 103 J + 4.00 × 10 4 J = 4.63 × 10 4 J

REFLECT Notice that the majority of the energy is the melting. The heat required for the temperature change is a
small fraction of the total.
62. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The lead block starts out at room temperature ( Ti = 20 D C ) and is heated to its melting
point, which is 328°C from Table 13.3. The first part of the problem is to use Equation 13.2: Q = mcΔT , with the
specific heat of lead from Table 13.1: c = 128 J/kg D C. For the second part, we will use Equation 13.5: Q = mLf ,
with the latent heat of fusion for lead from Table 13.3: Lf = 2.50 × 10 4 J/kg.
Known: m = 1.0 kg, ΔT = 328D C − 20D C = 308D C.
SOLVE (a) The energy needed to bring the lead to the melting point is:

Q = mcΔT = (1.0 kg)(128 J/kg D C)(308D C) = 3.9 × 10 4 J

(b) The energy needed to melt the whole block is:

Q = mLf = (1.0 kg)(2.50 × 10 4 J/kg) = 2.50 × 10 4 J

REFLECT Compared to other metals, lead has a relatively small specific heat and melting point. Even so, notice
that it takes slightly more energy to bring the lead to the melting point than it does to melt it.
63. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The copper is in liquid form, so energy must be removed from it to cause it to solidify.
This loss of heat is from Equation 13.5: Q = − mLf , where we have included a negative sign to signify that this is
heat taken away from the copper. The latent heat of fusion for copper from Table 13.3 is: Lf = 2.05 × 10 5 J/kg.
Once it turns completely solid, the copper temperature will be at its melting point: Ti = 1084D C from Table 13.3.
As it cools to 600°C, the heat removed from the copper will be Q = mcΔT , where the specific heat of copper from
Table 13.1 is: c = 385 J/kg D C. In the end we will sum these two energies.
Known: m = 15 g, ΔT = 600D C − 1084D C = −484D C.
SOLVE The energy removed while the copper is solidifying is:

Q = − mLf = −(0.015 kg)(2.05 × 10 5 J/kg) = −3100 J

The energy removed while it is cooling is:

Q = mcΔT = (0.015 kg)(385 J/kg D C)( −484D C) = −2800 J

The total energy removed is:

Qtot = −3100 J − 2800 J = −5900 J

REFLECT The energies are all negative, as they should be, because they represent heat loss from the copper.
64. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We assume the ice is initially at the same temperature as the air: Ti = −15D C . The window
heater first has to raise the ice’s temperature to 0°C by supplying Q = mcΔT , with the specific heat of ice
c = 2090 J/kg D C. Once at the melting point, the ice will melt Q = mLf , where the latent heat of fusion for water is
from Table 13.3: Lf = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg. We’re not given the mass, but we can figure out the volume from the
dimensions given, and then convert to mass using the density of ice: ρ = 0.917 g / cm 3. Once we find the total heat
we can divide by the given time to determine the power needed.
Known: d = 1.5 mm, w = 1.4 m, h = 0.65 m, ΔT = 0D C − ( −15D C) = 15D C, t = 5min.
13.16 Chapter 13

SOLVE First, we have to find the mass of the ice:

m = ρ dwh = (0.917 g/cm 3 )(0.15 cm)(140 cm)(65 cm) = 1.3 kg

The energy needed to bring this much ice to the melting point and then melting it:

Q = mcΔT = (1.3 kg)(2090 J/kg D C)(15D C) = 4.1 × 10 4 J

Q = mLf = (1.3 kg)(3.33 × 105 J/kg) = 4.3 × 105 J

The window heater has to supply the sum of these energies in the time given, so the power is:

Qtot 4.1 × 10 4 J + 4.3 × 105 J

P= = = 1.6 kW
t 5 ⋅ 60 s

REFLECT This might be a little high for a window heater. You might need to get out of the car and scrape to help
the ice come off.
65. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The copper needs to first be heated to its melting point of 1084°C. The energy required
will be a sum of Q = mcΔT and Q = mLf , where c = 385 J/kg D C and Lf = 2.05 × 10 5 J/kg. We will divide this
energy by the furnace power to find the time.
Known: m = 52 kg, ΔT = 1084D C − 20D C = 1064D C, P = 120 kW.
SOLVE The energy needed to heat and then melt the copper ingot is:

Q = mcΔT = (52 kg)(385 J/kg D C)(1064D C) = 2.1 × 10 7 J

Q = mLf = (52 kg)(2.05 × 105 J/kg) = 1.1 × 107 J

The time to supply all this heat is:

Qtot 2.1 × 10 7 J + 1.1 × 10 7 J

t= = = 270 s
P 120,000 J/s

Where we have used the definition: 1 kW=1,000 J/s.

REFLECT This is about 4 and half minutes for a large chunk of metal. Mighty impressive, but realize that the
furnace here is about 30 times more powerful than a household oven.
66. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Adding ice causes the water’s temperature to drop, but once it drops to 0°C, the ice and
water are at the same temperature, so there’s no more exchange of heat. So what we are looking for is the amount
of ice that brings the water just to the freezing point. That means equating the heat taken in by the ice
( Qice = mice Lf ) to the heat lost by the water ( −Qwater = −mwater cΔT ), where Lf = 3.33 × 105 J/kg and
c = 4186 J/kg D C. The water temperature changes by ΔT = 0D C − 12D C = −12D C.
Known: mwater = 325 g.
SOLVE Equating the heat gain and loss ( Qice = −Qwater ) allows us to solve for the ice mass:

mwater cΔT (0.325 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(−12D C)

mice = − =− = 0.049 kg
Lf (3.33 × 105 J/kg)

REFLECT This is probably two ice cubes, which seems about right. Notice that if you put less ice than this, the
ice will all melt, but the water will still be above 0°C. If you put more ice than this, the water will reach 0°C, but
there will still be ice in the glass. It won’t melt because the water is the same temperature. (Of course, the ice will
eventually melt because of heat loss out of the glass.)
67. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This will require three steps: (1) lower the water temperature from 11°C to 0°C; (2) freeze
the water; (3) lower the ice temperature from 0°C to –14 °C. We’ll need the specific heat of water:
cW = 4186 J/kg D C, the latent heat of fusion of water: Lf = 3.33 × 105 J/kg and the specific heat of ice:
cI = 2090 J/kg D C. The water changes temperature by ΔT = −11D C, while the ice changes temperature by
ΔT = −14D C.
Known: m = 410 g.
 Heat 13.17

SOLVE Equating the heat gain and loss ( Qice = −Qwater ) allows us to solve for the ice mass:

Q1 = mcW ΔT = (0.41 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)( −11D C) = −1.9 × 10 4 J

Q2 = − mLf = −(0.41 kg)(3.33 × 105 J/kg) = −1.4 × 105 J
Q3 = mcI ΔT = (0.41 kg)(2090 J/kg D C)( −14D C) = −1.2 × 10 4 J

Notice that we included a minus sign for the freezing step, since it corresponds to a heat loss, just as the other
steps. The total energy removed from the water is:

Qtot = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = −1.7 × 10 5 J

REFLECT The value seems reasonable. The majority of energy is needed to do the freezing.
68. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Boiling the liquid helium will absorb Q = mLv (Equation 13.6), where the latent heat of
vaporization of helium is Lv = 2.09 × 10 4 J/kg from Table 13.3. For part (b), we’re told that the helium gas absorbs
this same amount of energy, and we’re asked to find how much the gas temperature rises above 4.2 K. We’ll
assume the volume remains constant during the heating, in which case we can invert Equation 13.3: ΔT = Q / ncV
and use the molar specific heat of helium from Table 13.2: cV = 12.5 J/mol D C. Notice that we’ll need the molar
mass of helium ( M = 4.0 g/mol) to determine how many moles of gas we have (n = m / M ).
Known: m = 250 g.
SOLVE (a) The energy absorbed during boiling is:

Q = mLv = (0.250 kg)(2.09 × 10 4 J/kg) = 5230 J

(b) This same heat is added to the gas, causing a temperature change:

Q MQ (4.0 g/mol)(5230 J)
ΔT = = = = 6.7 D C = 6.7 K
ncV mcV (250 g)(12.5 J/mol D C)

Notice that we have included the conversion to moles in our derivation. Also, since this is a temperature change,
6.7°C is equal to 6.7 K. We want the answer in Kelvin, in order to find the final temperature:

T f = Ti + ΔT = 4.2 K + 6.7 K = 10.9 K

REFLECT The latent heat of vaporization for helium is not especially large (it is 100 times smaller than that of
water). But the fact that helium boils at such a low temperature (just 4 degrees above absolute zero) makes it very
useful for bringing other materials down to very low temperatures.
69. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Let’s first imagine what the plot will look like. There are four main steps: (1) the
temperature will start off rising from –10°C to 0°C; (2) then it will stay at 0°C until the ice has melted; (3) next it
will rise from 0°C to 100°C; (4) lastly it will stay at 100°C until all the water has boiled away. What we have to
determine is how long each step is, which means finding the energy needed in each step and then dividing by the
power. We’ll need the specific heat of ice (cI = 2090 J/kg D C), the latent heat of fusion ( Lf = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg), the
specific heat of water (cW = 4186 J/kg D C), and the latent heat of vaporization ( Lv = 2.26 × 106 J/kg).
Known: m = 0.50 kg, ΔTI = 10D C, ΔTW = 100D C, P = 1000 W.
SOLVE The four steps each have an associated energy, which we can turn into a time by dividing by the power:

mcI ΔTI (0.50 kg)(2090 J/kg D C)(10D C)

Δt1 = = = 10 s
P 1000 W
mLf (0.50 kg)(3.33 × 10 5 J/kg)
Δt 2 = =− = 170 s
P 1000 W
mc ΔT (0.50 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(100D C)
Δt 3 = W W = = 210 s
P 1000 W
mLv (0.50 kg)(2.26 × 106 J/kg)
Δt 4 = =− = 1130 s
P 1000 W
13.18 Chapter 13

These are the duration of each step. To plot the temperature as a function of time, we’ll need to know when each
step starts and ends: (1) from 0 s to 10 s the temperature rises from –10°C to 0°C; (2) from 10 s to 180 s the
temperature stays at 0°C; (3) from 180 s to 390 s the temperature rises from 0°C to 100°C; (4) from 390 s to 1520 s
the temperature stays at 100°C. See figure below.

100°

Temperature (C)
0°

–10°

0 10 180 390 1520

t(s)

REFLECT The whole process takes about 25 minutes, but 19 of those minutes are devoted to boiling the water.
This agrees with our experience. If we put an ice cube in a pan and put it on the stove, it will melt quickly and soon
reach a boil, but for all the water to disappear into vapor takes a long time.
70. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We can do part (a) without knowing the mass. We just take the ratio of the heat of
vaporization to the heat of fusion for water. For part (b), we can invert Equation 13.5: m = QI / Lf to find the mass.
Known: QI = 9.53 kJ.
SOLVE (a) Because the mass is the same in both the melting and the boiling, we can relate the heats of
transformation and thereby solve for the energy needed to boil the water:

QI QW Lv 2.26 × 106 J/kg

= ⇒ QW = QI = (9.53 kJ) = 64.7 kJ
Lf Lv Lf 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg

(b) Finding the mass:

QI 9.53 kJ
m= = = 29 g
Lf 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg

REFLECT Boiling the water take more energy than melting because the latent heat of vaporization is almost 7
times larger than the latent heat of fusion.
71. ORGANIZE AND PLAN There are two steps here: (1) the steam condenses into water and (2) the two quantities of
water equilibrate in temperature. See figure below.

Steam 100°C
Water 100°C
Steam Water
condenses equilibrates
Water 30°C Water ?°C Water 42°C

We don’t know the temperature of the initial water after the first step when the steam condenses, but we won’t
need it. We only need to determine the total heat gained by the water in the calorimeter, which is easy to find using
Equation 13.2: QW = mW cΔTW and the full temperature change: ΔTW = 42D C − 30D C = 12D C. This heat is equal to
the total heat lost by the steam as it both condenses ( Qcond = −mS Lv ) and cools to the final temperature
 Heat 13.19

( Qcool = mS cΔTS ). In this case, the steam-supplied water starts off at 100°C and cools by:
ΔTS = 42D C − 100D C = −58D C.
Known: mW = 150 g.
SOLVE We assume no heat is lost out of the calorimeter, so the sum of the heat exchanges should be zero:

QW + Qcond + Qcool = 0

Plugging in the parameters for each of these energies, we can solve for the unknown mass:

−mW cΔTW −(150 g)(4186 J/kg D C)(12D C)

mS = = = 3.0 g
− Lv + cΔTS −(2.26 × 106 J/kg) + (4186 J/kg D C)( −58D C)

REFLECT This seems like a small amount of steam, but we have to remember that a lot of energy is given up by
condensing steam, seeing as the latent heat of vaporization is so large.
72. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’re given the thickness, d, but not the area, A, of the lake, but we’ll find that the area
cancels out of our equations. The mass of ice is equal to the density times the volume: m = ρV = ρ Ad, and the
energy needed to melt all of it is equal to: Q = mLf , where Lf = 3.33 × 105 J/kg. This heat will be provided by the
Sun. We’re given the Sun’s intensity, I, which shines over the whole surface with a power of: P = IA. To find the
time to melt the ice, we will divide the needed melt energy by this power: Δt = Q / P.
Known: d = 4.5 cm, ρ = 910 kg/m 3 , I = 150 W/m 2 .
SOLVE We worked out above the equation for the time to melt the ice, so we just need to plug in the variables:

Q ( ρ Ad )Lf (910 kg/m 3 )(0.045 m)(3.33 × 10 5 J/kg)

Δt = = = = 91,000 s
P IA (150 W/m 2 )

REFLECT Notice that the area canceled out of the equation. The result is equal to about 25 hours. Since the sun
will only shine brightly on the lake for part of the day, this corresponds to maybe 3 or 4 days.
73. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As described in the section on “Evaporative Cooling,” the body loses heat to the
evaporation of sweat according to: Q = − mS Lv , where Lv = 2.4 × 106 J/kg is the latent heat of vaporization of
water at the body temperature 37°C. The body responds to this heat loss by dropping in temperature: Q = mB cΔT ,
where the specific heat of the body is: c = 3500 J/kg D C.
Known: mB = 90 kg, ΔT = −1D C.
SOLVE Solving for the mass of sweat:

mB cΔT (90 kg)(3500 J/kg D C)(−1D C)

mS = = = 0.13 kg
− LV −(2.4 × 106 J/kg)

REFLECT This is equal to 130 mL of water or a little less than half a cup. That seems like a reasonable amount if
you consider that it would be spread over a large portion of the body.
74. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The person loses energy QB = mBcB ΔTB , where the specific heat of the body is:
cB = 3500 J/kg D C. If we assume the person’s temperature starts off at 37°C, then the water cools it to 36°C. On the
flip side, the water warms from 1°C to 36°C, thereby gaining in energy by QW = mW cW ΔTW , where the specific
heat of water is: cW = 4186 J/kg D C.
Known: mB = 62 kg, ΔTB = −1D C, ΔTW = 35D C .
SOLVE Solving for the mass of water:

mB cB ΔTB (65 kg)(3500 J/kg D C)(−1D C)

mW = − =− = 1.6 kg
cW ΔTW (4186 J/kg D C)(35 D C)

REFLECT The person needs to drink over a liter and a half of water. Compare this to the previous problem where
the amount of sweat needed to drop 1°C is much less. That’s the advantage of evaporation: it is very efficient at
cooling because it requires a lot of energy to evaporate even a relatively small amount of water.
13.20 Chapter 13

75. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The heat conduction is given in Equation 13.7: H = kAΔT / Δx. For iron, the thermal
conductivity is: k = 52 W/ D C ⋅ m, from Table 13.5. The heat flows along the length of the cylinder, through the
round face ( A = π r 2 ). The temperature difference is: ΔT = 250D C − 20D C = 230D C.
Known: Δx = 25.0 cm, r = 1.0 cm.
SOLVE Plugging the values into the heat conduction equation:

ΔT (230D C)
H = kA = (52 W/ D C ⋅ m) (π (0.01 m)2 ) = 15 W
Δx (0.25 m)

REFLECT For a metal, iron is not especially good at conducting heat. This is why you often find steel pots with
copper bottoms, since the thermal conductivity of copper is almost 8 times that of iron.
76. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The heat-flow rate through the window will be: H = kg AΔT / Δx g (Equation 13.7), where
the thermal conductivity of glass is: kg = 0.8 W/ D C ⋅ m, from Table 13.5. By changing to a double-pane window,
the heat flow should decrease, but how? Each material has to be treated separately, with the temperature change
divided into steps. There is a different temperature drop across the first pane (ΔT1 ), across the air gap (ΔT2 ), and
across the second pane (ΔT3 ), see figure below.

Glass Glass

Inside Air Outside

Ti Tig TOg TO
DT1 DT2 DT3

However, the heat flow is the same through the three materials. You can think of it in the same way as water
flowing through a hose. If you connect three different hoses together, the water flow through the first is the same as
in the second and in the third. For the heat flow, we write this as:

(Ti − Tig ) (Tig − Tog ) (Tog − To )

H = kg A = ka A = kg A
Δx g Δxa Δx g

Where the air has a thermal conductivity of ka = 0.026 W/ D C ⋅ m. We don’t know what the temperatures are inside
the window (Tig and Tog ); we only know the temperature difference between the inside and the outside:
ΔT = Ti − To = 15D C. By rearranging the above equations, we can arrive at the following expression:

⎛ Δx Δx Δx ⎞
H ⎜ g + a + g ⎟ = A(Ti − To ) = AΔT
⎜ kg ka kg ⎟⎠
⎝

See Problem 13.80 for a similar derivation.

Known: A = 1.7 m 2 , Δxg = 3.2 mm, ΔT = 15D C, Δxa = 1.0 mm.
SOLVE (a) For a single pane the heat flow is:

ΔT (15D C)
H = kg A = (0.8 W/ D C ⋅ m) (1.7 m 2 ) = 6.4 kW
Δxg (0.0032 m)
 Heat 13.21

(b) For a double pane, let’s first calculate the sum of the Δx / k ’s:

Δxg Δxa Δxg (0.0032 m) (0.001 m)

+ + = 2⋅ + = 0.046 m 2 D C/W
kg ka kg (0.8 W/ D C ⋅ m) (0.026 W/ D C ⋅ m)

This is the R-value of the double-pane window (see the following set of problems). Plugging this into the equation
for the heat flow gives:

AΔT (1.7m 2 )(15D C)

H= = = 0.55 kW
( 2 ⋅ Δx g / k g + Δx a / k a ) ( 0.046 m 2 D C/W )
REFLECT The double-pane window cuts the heat loss to less than 10% of the single-pane window. Notice that
the biggest heat savings comes from the air, which has a much smaller thermal conductivity than glass. However,
the air gap can’t be too large, otherwise convection begins to occur between the two panes.
77. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As worked out in the Example, a wooden house loses heat by: H = kw AΔT / Δxw
(Equation 13.7), where the thermal conductivity of wood is: kw = 0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m, from Table 13.5. We now
assume a layer of Styrofoam is added to the walls. Like in the previous problem, we can show that the heat flow
becomes:

AΔT
H=
( Δxw / kw + Δxs / ks )
The thermal conductivity of Styrofoam is: ks = 0.024 W/ D C ⋅ m . Once we have this, we can find the heat lost in a
day: Q = Ht , and how much it costs assuming a utility rate of r = $0.10 per kWh.
Known: A = 275 m 2 , Δxw = 1.0 cm, Δxs = 6.0 cm, ΔT = 18D C.
SOLVE If the wooden walls have Styrofoam insulation, the heat flow becomes:

AΔT (275 m 2 )(18D C)

H= = = 1.92 kW
( Δxw / kw + Δxs / ks ) ( 0.01/ 0.12 + 0.06 / 0.024 ) (m2 D C/W)
The heat lost in a day and the corresponding cost are:

Q = Ht = (1,920 W)(24 ⋅ 60 ⋅ 60 s) = 1.66 × 108 J

⎡ 1 kWh ⎤
C = Qr = (1.66 × 108 J) ⎢ ($0.10 / kWh) = $4.61
⎣ 3.6 × 106 J ⎥⎦

REFLECT The Styrofoam reduces the daily cost by a factor of 30. Even a modest investment in insulation can
have a big effect on heating bills.
78. ORGANIZE AND PLAN With the R-value so defined, Equation 13.7 for the heat conduction becomes:

AΔT
H=
R

SOLVE If you want to save energy and money, you want the heat flow to be as small as possible, which means
that you want the largest R-value you can get.
REFLECT The R-value is a resistance to heat flow. If you double the thickness of a material, you double the R-
value. Moreover, if you choose a material that has a lower thermal conductivity, you increase the R-value. For
example, a 1-cm-thick wall of fiberglass has an R-value 20 times larger than a 1-cm-thick window made of glass
(see Table 13.4).
79. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From Table 13.4, the thermal conductivities are 0.8 W/ D C ⋅ m for glass, 0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m
for wood, and 0.024 W/ D C ⋅ m for Styrofoam.
Known: Δx = 3.2 mm.
13.22 Chapter 13

SOLVE (a) For glass:

Δx 0.0032 m
R= = = 0.004 m 2 D C/W
k 0.8 W/ D C ⋅ m

(b) For wood:

Δx 0.0032 m
R= = = 0.027 m 2 D C/W
k 0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m

(c) For Styrofoam:

Δx 0.0032 m
R= = = 0.133 m 2 D C/W
k 0.024 W/ D C ⋅ m

REFLECT As we might imagine, the Styrofoam provides the best resistance (i.e., insulation) to heat flow.
80. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We can define the two materials a and b, with R-values Ra and Rb . To start off we
consider the materials separately. The temperatures on the left- and right-hand side of the materials can be defined
in the figure below:

Ra Rb

Ha Hb

TaL TaR TbL TbR

For each material, then, the heat conduction can be written as:

H a Ra = A(TaL − TaR )
H b Rb = A(TbL − TbR )

If the two materials are put together, then the faces in contact will arrive at the same temperature: TaR = TbL . It’s
like putting your hand on a wall; eventually the palm of your hand and the part of the wall you are touching come
to the same temperature. The heat conductions, as well, through each material become equal: H a = H b . That’s
because whatever heat flows through the first material has to go through the second material — there’s nowhere
else it can go!
SOLVE We define the heat conduction through the sandwiched materials as H, where by the argument above:
H = H a = H b . Adding the two equations for heat conduction together, so that TaR and TbL cancel each other out:

H ( Ra + Rb ) = A(TaL − TbR )

By definition, the R-value for the combined materials is: Ra + Rb .

REFLECT The heat flow is like an electric current and the temperature difference is like a voltage difference. By
this analogy, the R-value is like the resistance. In electronics, the current times the resistance is equal to the
voltage ( IR = V ) . This corresponds to the heat conduction equation (the only difference being the area-term). As
we will learn in Chapter 17, the total resistance of two materials in series is the sum of their resistances, just as for
the total R-value of two materials sandwiched together.
81. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We have shown that the R-value of a combination of materials is the sum of their
respective R-values. For a double-pane window, there are three materials: glass, air, and glass again. The R-value
for 3.2 mm of glass was calculated in Problem 13.79: Rglass = 0.004 m 2 D C/W. To compute the R-value of the air
 Heat 13.23

gap, we’ll need the thermal conductivity of air: kair = 0.026 W/ D C ⋅ m. We will then compare the sum to the
standard R-19 wall construction, which is defined as:

Rwall = 19 ft 2 ⋅ D F ⋅ h/Btu

Where a Btu is equal to 1055 J (see Problem 13.40). We will convert our answer into these customary units for
comparison.
SOLVE For a 2.0-mm-wide air gap, the R-value is:

Δxair 0.002 m
Rair = = = 0.077 m 2 D C/W
kair 0.026 W/ D C ⋅ m

For the double-pane window, then the R-value in SI and traditional units is:

Rdp = Rglass + Rair + Rglass = (0.004 + 0.077 + 0.004) m 2 D C/W = 0.085 m 2 D C/W
2
⎡ 3.28 ft ⎤ ⎡ 1.8 D F ⎤ ⎡ 1 h ⎤ ⎡ 1055 J ⎤
= 0.085 m 2 D C s/J ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = 0.48 ft F h/Btu
2D

⎣ 1 m ⎦ ⎣ D C ⎦ ⎣ 3600 s ⎦ ⎣ 1 Btu ⎦

REFLECT In customary units, the double-pane window has R-0.48, which is 40 times less insulating than a
standard R-19 wall.
82. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 13.8) tells us the rate at which a body radiates
energy: P = eσ AT 4 . Saying the Sun is a blackbody means that its emissivity is one, i.e.: e = 1. The Stefan-
Boltzmann constant is: σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 K 4 , and the surface area of a sphere is: A = 4π r 2 .
Known: r = 6.96 × 108 m, T = 5800 K.
SOLVE Substituting the values into the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

P = eσ AT 4 = (1)(5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2K 4 ) ( 4π (6.96 × 108 m)2 ) (5800 K)4 = 3.91 × 10 26 W

REFLECT Currently, the world uses somewhere around 15 TW ( 1.5 × 1013 W ) of power. In comparison, the Sun
emits over 10 quadrillion times the energy we use.

83. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We found the Sun’s power in the previous problem. When that radiation reaches the Earth,
the power is uniformly distributed over a sphere whose radius is equal to the Earth-Sun distance:
rAU = 1.496 × 1011 m. The power per unit area, or what’s called the intensity, is then:

Psun P
I= = sun2
A 4π rAU

Known: Psun = 3.91 × 10 26 W.

SOLVE (a) The power per unit area felt at the Earth’s orbit is:

Psun 3.91 × 10 26 W
I= = = 1,390 W/m 2
4π rAU 4π (1.496 × 1011 m)2
2

(b) The sunlight power hitting the panels in IApanel , but the panels only convert 20% into electricity power:
Ppanel = 0.2 IApanel . Solving for the area needed for 1.0 GW of electricity.

Ppanel 1.0 × 10 9 W
Apanel = = = 3.6 × 106 m 2
0.2 I 0.2(1,390 W/m 2 )

REFLECT The area is approximately a square mile. This seems like a large thing to be putting into space, but we
should compare it to the 1.3 million tons of coal or the 5 million barrels of oil that a 1GW-power-plant on Earth
requires every year. The advantage of having solar panels in space is that there’s no night and no clouds, so the
13.24 Chapter 13

panels would work all the time at their maximum efficiency. Still, putting up a square mile of solar panels is not
easy and neither is figuring out how to transmit the electricity down to Earth.
84. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The cylinder radiates energy according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 13.8):
Pout = eσ ATcyl4 . But it also receives energy from the room: Pin = eσ ATroom
4
. The net power radiated by the cylinder
is then: Pnet = Pout − Pin . We’ll assume the cylinder has an emissivity of one, i.e.: e = 1. We’ll have to determine
the surface area of the cylinder, and convert the temperatures into Kelvin.
Known: r = 2.0 cm, h = 12 cm, Tcyl = 450D C, Troom = 25D C, σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 K 4 .
SOLVE The surface area of the cylinder is made up of two circles and one rectangle:

A = 2 ⋅ π r 2 + 2π rh = 2π ( (0.02 m)2 + (0.02 m)(0.12 m) ) = 0.018 m 2

Substituting this and the other values into the net power equation:

Pnet = eσ A(Tcyl
4
− Troom
4
) = (5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 K 4 )(0.018 m 2 ) ( (723 K)4 − (298 K)4 ) = 271 W

REFLECT Observe that the Stefan-Boltzmann law doesn’t work with degrees Celsius. The net power being lost is
substantial. Consequently, the cylinder’s temperature will rapidly drop, and as it does so will the amount of
radiation.
85. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In Example 13.10, you have a cup with 300 g of coffee at 85°C. You add 400 g ice. It’s
not clear that this much ice is going to melt completely. We will start by calculating how much energy it takes to
melt the ice: Qi = mi Lf , where Lf = 3.33 × 10 5 J/kg. We will compare this to the energy it takes to cool the coffee
from 85°C to 0°C: Qc = mc c ΔT , where we assume the coffee’s specific heat is that of water: c = 4186 J/kg D C. If
Qi < Qc , then the ice melts completely and we proceed like in Example 13.10. If Qi > Qc , then the coffee cools to
0°C before all the ice melts. That’s because the coffee and ice are at the same temperature, so no more heat is
exchanged between them. If this is the case, then we will figure out much ice remains in the cup.
Known: mc = 300 g , mi = 400 g.
SOLVE First the energy it would take to melt the ice:

Qi = mi Lf = (0.400 kg)(3.33 × 10 5 J/kg) = 1.33 × 105 J

Then the energy it would take to cool the coffee to the freezing point:

Qc = mc c ΔT = (0.300 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(85D C) = 1.07 × 10 5 J

So Qi > Qc , and therefore the ice only partially melts. The coffee can only transfer Qc -worth of energy before it
reaches 0°C, which is the same temperature as the ice. The amount of ice that does end up melting is:

Qc (1.07 × 10 5 J)
m= = = 321 g
Lf (3.33 × 105 J/kg)

That means there will remain 79 g of ice along with the 0°C-coffee.
REFLECT Note that we dealt only with the positive values of heat transfer just for ease of comparison.
Technically, Qc is a negative quantity, since it’s the heat lost by the coffee. It is perhaps helpful to ask what would
have happened if you had followed the same exact steps in Example 13.10? You would have calculated the energy
to melt the ice: Qi = mi Lf , and then you would have used this to find the change in the coffee’s temperature:
ΔTc = −Qi / mc c. If you did that, you would have found ΔTc = −106D C, which doesn’t make physical sense since it
implies that the coffee cools to below zero. This would signal to you that there’s more ice than the coffee is
capable of melting.
 Heat 13.25

86. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In Problem 13.40, we showed that 1 Btu is equal to 1055 J.
SOLVE Converting to the SI unit of heat loss, Watts:

⎡ 1055 J ⎤ ⎡ 1 h ⎤
1 Btu / h = 1 Btu / h ⎢ ⎥⎢ = 0.2931 W
⎣ 1 Btu ⎦ ⎣ 3600 s ⎥⎦

REFLECT This unit of heat loss is used in defining R-values for construction materials (see Problem 13.81).
87. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The key is whether the energy to melt the ice: Qi = mi Lf is more or less than the energy to
cool the water to 0°C: Qw = mw c(25D C) . If Qi < Qw , then there is more than enough energy to melt all the ice, but
if Qi > Qw , then the water cools to 0°C before all the ice melts. Once the water reaches 0°C, it is the same
temperature as the ice and no more melting can occur.
Known: mi = mw = 250 g.
SOLVE (a) The energies we want to compare are:

Qi = mi Lf = (0.25 kg)(3.33 × 105 J/kg) = 8.33 × 10 4 J

Qw = mw c(25D C) = (0.25 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(25D C) = 2.62 × 10 4 J

Qi > Qw , which means that we are left with a water-ice mixture.

(b) The water cools to 0°C and releases Qw into the ice to melt a portion of it. The mass of melted ice is:

Qw (2.62 × 10 4 J)
m= = = 78.7 g
Lf (3.33 × 10 5 J/kg)

This melted ice increases the amount of water to 328.7 g, whereas the amount of ice drops to 171.3 g.
REFLECT Since you are starting with equal amounts of water and ice, an interesting question is at temperature
would the water need to start at in order to just barely melt all the ice (i.e., Qi = Qw ). If you work it out, you’ll find
that the water would have to start out at 80°C. To reiterate what that means: the energy that it takes to chill 80-
degree water to the freezing point is the same as the energy it takes to completely melt ice of the same mass.
88. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Your metabolism acts like an internal furnace that releases 1800 Cal of heat. If none of
this heat escapes, your temperature would increase by: ΔT = Q / mc, where the specific heat of the body is:
c = 3500 J/kg D C .
Known: Q = 1800 Cal, m = 65 kg.
SOLVE Solving for the temperature increase:

Q (1800 Cal) ⎡ 4186 J ⎤

ΔT = =− = 33D C
mc (65 kg)(3500 J/kg C) ⎢⎣ 1 Cal ⎥⎦
D

REFLECT This much of a temperature rise would kill you. Thankfully, you lose heat out of your skin, both
through conduction and through the evaporation of sweat. You also convect heat by breathing out air that has been
warmed by your body.
89. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The skillet absorbs heat according to Q = mcΔT , where c = 449 J/kg D C is the specific
heat of iron from Table 13.1. The time for the burner to produce this temperature change is: t = Q / P, where P is
the stove’s power output.
Known: m = 3.4 kg, ΔT = 130D C − 20D C = 110D C, P = 2.0 kW.
SOLVE (a) The energy needed to heat to warm the skillet is:

Q = mcΔT = (3.4 kg)(449 J/kg D C)(110D C) = 1.7 × 10 5 J

(b) The time to supply all this heat is:

Q 1.7 × 105 J
t= = = 85 s
P 2,000 J/s
13.26 Chapter 13

Where we have used the definition: 1 kW=1,000 J/s.

REFLECT An empty skillet should heat up fairly fast. According to our calculations, this skillet will take just over
a minute to reach high temperatures.
90. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The definition of the heat capacity is from Equation 13.1: C = Q / ΔT and that of the
specific heat is from Equation 13.2: c = Q / mΔT .
Known: m = 1.25 kg, ΔT = 22DC − 7.0DC = 15D C, Q = 9.0 kJ.
SOLVE (a) The wrench’s heat capacity:

Q 9.0 kJ
C= = = 600 J/ D C
ΔT 15DC

(b) The material of the wrench has a specific heat of:

Q 9.0 kJ
c= = = 480 J/kg D C
mΔT (1.25 kg)(15DC)

(c) Looking through Table 13.1, the material with the specific heat closest to the measured value is steel with
c = 500 J/kg D C.
REFLECT Steel is an alloy containing mostly iron with smaller quantities of carbon, chromium, and nickel, which
make the iron harder and less susceptible to rust. The percentages of these extra elements depends on the type on
the type of steel, so the actual specific heat of steel is not a specific number but a range of values.
91. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From Table 13.3, uranium melts at 1133°C with a latent heat of fusion:
Lf = 8.28 × 10 4 J/kg. We first need to find the total heat needed to melt the core: Q = mL f , and then we’ll divide
this by the rate at which the uranium is producing heat.
Known: m = 2.5 × 10 5 kg, P = 120 MW.
SOLVE The energy needed to melt the core is:

Q = mLf = (2.5 × 105 kg)(8.28 × 10 4 J/kg) = 2.07 × 1010 J

The time for this to occur is:

Q 2.07 × 1010 J
t= = = 173 s
P 120 × 106 J/s

REFLECT This is less than 3 minutes, which isn’t a lot of time to react. We’ve neglected the time it takes to reach
the melting point, so that should give a little more time but not much. One way to stop this is by quenching the
core with water (see Problem 13.106).
92. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The heat conduction is given in Equation 13.7: H = kAΔT / Δx. From Table 13.4, the
thermal conductivity of wood is 0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m, and for Styrofoam its 0.024 W/ D C ⋅ m.
Known: A = 1.0 m 2 , Δx = 2.0 cm, ΔT = 30D C.
SOLVE (a) For a wood slab:

ΔT (30D C)
H = kA = (0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m)(1.0 m 2 ) = 180 W
Δx (0.020 m)

(b) For a Styrofoam slab:

ΔT (30D C)
H = kA = (0.024 W/ D C ⋅ m)(1.0 m 2 ) = 36 W
Δx (0.020 m)

REFLECT The Styrofoam only lets 20% as much heat escape as the wood.
 Heat 13.27

93. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’re given the thickness of the stovetop and we can figure out its area from the
dimensions. We’re also given the temperature difference between the inside and outside surfaces. The thermal
conductivity of steel is found in Table 13.4: k = 40 W/ D C ⋅ m. That should allow us to calculate the stovetop’s heat
conduction: H = kAΔT / Δx.
For part (b), we’re told that the rate at which the stove heats the room is 3 times that of the heat flow from part (a):
Q / Δt = 3H . The room will rise in temperature at a rate of:

ΔT Q 3H
= =
Δt ncV Δt ncV

Here, the molar specific heat is for air at constant volume: cV = 20.8 J/mol D C from Table 13.2. We’ll need to
determine the number of moles from the ideal gas law: ( PV = nRT ).
Known:
For the stove: A = 90 cm × 40 cm = 0.36 m 2 , Δx = 0.45 cm, ΔT = 310D C − 308D C = 2D C.
For the room: V = 8.6 m × 6.5 m × 2.8 m = 156 m 3 , P = 1 atm, T = 20D C.
SOLVE (a) The heat flow through the stove top is:

ΔT (2D C)
H = kA = (40 W/ D C ⋅ m)(0.36 m 2 ) = 6.4 kW
Δx (0.0045 m)

(b) In the room, the pressure is 1atm (or 101,325 Pa in SI units) and the room temperature is 20°C (or 293K). By
the ideal gas law tells us that the number of moles of air in the room are:

PV (101,325 Pa)(156 m 3 )
n= = = 6,500 mol
RT (8.315 J/mol ⋅ K)(293 K)

We can plug this into the equation that we derived for the rate of temperature change:

ΔT 3H 3 ⋅ (6,400 J/s)
= = = 0.14 D C/s
Δt ncV (6,500mol)(20.8 J/mol D C)

REFLECT The result is unreasonably high. The room is not going to heat by one degree every 7 seconds. The air
next to the stove will get hot very fast, but heat will have a harder time reaching other parts of the room. We’ve
also not considered the heat escaping the room, which will limit how fast it warms up.
94. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are asked to compare the insulation provided by two materials. In Problems 13.78
through 13.81, we were introduced to the R-value of a material, which is defined as the thickness divided by the
thermal conductivity: R = Δx / k. To find the R-values for concrete and wood walls, we’ll need their respective
thermal conductivities from Table 13.4: kC = 1.28 W/ D C ⋅ m and kW = 0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m.
Known: ΔxW = 1.8 cm.
SOLVE For a concrete wall to have the same R-value of a piece of wood, its thickness would need to be:

kC (1.28 W/ D C ⋅ m)
ΔxC = ΔxW = (1.8 cm) = 19.2 cm
kW (0.12 W/ D C ⋅ m)

REFLECT To get the same insulation as a piece of wood, the thickness of a concrete wall has to be over ten times
thicker. That’s because concrete lets heat escape faster than wood does. Think of a cold concrete floor vs. a warm
wooden one.
95. ORGANIZE AND PLAN All we need is the thermal conductivity of concrete from Table 13.4: kC = 1.28 W/ D C ⋅ m.
Known: A = 8.0 m × 12 m = 96 m 2 , Δx = 23 cm, ΔT = 18D C − 10D C = 8D C
SOLVE From Equation 13.7, the heat loss is:

ΔT (8D C)
H = kA = (1.28 W/ D C ⋅ m)(96 m 2 ) = 4.3 kW
Δx (0.23 m)
13.28 Chapter 13

REFLECT We typically think the heat loss in a house is out of the ceiling or through the walls and windows. But
if the ground is cold, it can pull heat out through the floors as well. To help reduce this heat loss, one can install
some carpeting, ceramic tiles, or a wooden floor (see previous problem).
96. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The horseshoe will radiate energy in accordance with the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation
13.8): P = eσ AT 4 . We’ll assume that the horseshoe has an emissivity of one, i.e.: e = 1 . The Stefan-Boltzmann
constant is: σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 K 4 , and the surface area of a sphere is: A = 4π r 2 .
Known: A = 50 cm 2 , T = 810D C = 1083 K.
SOLVE Substituting the values into the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

⎡ 1 m2 ⎤
P = eσ AT 4 = (1)(5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2K 4 )(50 cm 2 ) ⎢ ⎥ (1083 K) = 390 W
4

⎣ 100 2 cm 2 ⎦

REFLECT The answer seems reasonable since the horseshoe has such a high temperature. Once it cools down to
room temperature it will only emit 2 W.
97. ORGANIZE AND PLAN When the car stops, it’s kinetic energy ( K = 12 mcar v 2 ) is dissipated into the brakes. We’ll
assume the energy is distributed equally to the four brakes: Q = K / 4, so the temperature change will be:
ΔT = K /(4 mbrake c). For the specific heat of steel, we use c = 500 J/kg D C from Table 13.1.
Known: mcar = 1500 kg, v = 32 m/s, mbrake = 5.0 kg
SOLVE The kinetic energy of the car before stopping is:

K = 12 mcar v 2 = 12 (1500 kg)(32 m/s)2 = 7.68 × 10 5 J

When this energy is deposited into the brakes, they will rise in temperature by:

K (7.68 × 10 5 J)
ΔT = = = 77 D C
4 mbrake c 4(5.0 kg)(500 J/kg D C)

REFLECT The answer makes sense, since car brakes tend to get extremely hot from use.
98. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The water goes from 15°C to 100°C, which means the water absorbs heat by an amount:
Q = mcΔT . The power is this energy divided by the time: P = Q / t.
Known: m = 430 g, ΔTi = 85D C, c = 4186 J/kg D C, t = 5.0 min.
SOLVE The heat needed to bring the water to boil is:

Q = mcΔT = (0.430 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(85 D C) = 1.53 × 10 5 J

The power of the oven must be:

Q (1.53 × 10 5 J)
P= = = 510 W
t (5.0 ⋅ 60 s)

REFLECT A normal household microwave oven typically has a power rating between 800 W and 1600 W. Since
there will always be some inefficiencies in transferring this power to the water, our result seems reasonable.
99. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In the “Earth’s Climate” application, we are told that the Earth receives on average 240 W
of sunlight per square meter. The Earth must emit this same power per unit area (P/A), otherwise it would continue
to heat up. By the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 13.8), the temperature of the Earth must then be T = 4 P / eσ A
to be in equilibrium.
Known: P / A = 240 W/m 2 , e = 1, σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 K 4 .
SOLVE Substituting the values into the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

P/A 240 W/m 2

T=4 =4 = 255 K = −18D C
eσ (1)(5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2K 4 )
 Heat 13.29

REFLECT This temperature is obviously not correct! The global average temperature is more like 15ºC, which is
33ºC higher than we calculated. The reason for this discrepancy is the greenhouse effect. Our planet’s atmosphere
lets sunlight in to warm up the Earth’s surface. The warm ground emits heat just as the Stefan-Boltzman law
dictates, but certain gases in the atmosphere, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap some of this heat before it can
escape into space. This causes the temperature of the Earth to be higher than it would if there were no atmosphere.
In fact, the moon and Mars are good examples of how cold it would be if Earth didn’t have its atmosphere.
100. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Assume that the volume of this air does not change once it enters your lungs. Therefore,
we can use the molar specific heat of air for constant volume from Table 13.2: cV = 20.8 J/ ( mol ⋅ o C ) . To get the
number of moles of air, we’ll need to determine the mass of the gas, m, and divide this by the molar mass of air
(i.e., how many grams per mole).
Known: ΔT = 17 o C , 1Cal = 4186 J.
SOLVE First of all, air can be approximated as 79% nitrogen (N2) and 21% oxygen (O2). N2 is (2 × 14) g/mol and
O2 is (2 × 16)g/mol, so the molar mass of air is approximately:

Mair = 0.79 × 28 g / mol + 0.21 × 32 g / mol = 29 g / mol

The total volume of air inhaled is 40 L per minute, which is 2400 L per hour or 5760 L per day. Converting this to
3
cubed meters gives 57.6 m of inhaled air per day. The total mass of inhaled air is then:
m = (1.23kg/m 3 )(57.6m 3 ) = 70.8kg. Using this to compute the number of moles of inhaled air in an entire day:

m 70.8 kg
n= = = 2440 mol
Mair 29 g/mol

With that, we are ready to calculate the energy for warming it to the body’s temperature:

( )
Q = ncV ΔT = ( 2440 mol ) 20.8 J/ ( mol ⋅ o C ) (17 o C )
= 863,000 J = 206 Cal

REFLECT Typical dietary requirements are 2200 calories per day for women and 2900 calories per day for men.
So according to this example, we use almost 10% of our food energy warming the air we breathe. This is likely an
overestimation.
101. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The lake absorbs power that is equal to the given intensity multiplied by the area: P = IA.
The energy needed to raise the temperature by the given amount is: Q = mcΔT , and the time it takes the sun to
deliver this much energy is t = Q / P. To find the mass of the water in the lake, we’ll need the volume (V = A ⋅ d )
and the density of water ( ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 ).
Known: r = 1.0 km, d = 10 m, I = 200 W/m 2 , ΔT = 15D C.
SOLVE By combining the above equations, we can solve for the time:

Q ( ρ Ad )cΔT ρ dcΔT
t= = =
P IA I
(1000 kg/m 3 )(10 m)(4186 J/kg D C)(15 D C)
= = 3.14 × 106 s
(200 W/m 2 )

REFLECT Notice that the area cancels out of the calculation. The answer implies that the lake warms up in 36
days, which seems reasonable, at least, for the top layer of the lake. The bottom of the lake will probably take
longer to warm up.
102. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Each house will require a different amount of heat (Q = mcΔT ) to raise the temperature to
a comfortable level. Typical specific heats for steel and wood are given in Table 13.1: cS = 500 J/kg D C and
cW = 1400 J/kg D C. The power output of the two furnaces is the same, so the time will be t = Q / P.
Known: P = 10 5 Btu/h, mS = 75,000 kg, mW = 15,000 kg, ΔT = 16D C.
13.30 Chapter 13

SOLVE In Problem 13.86, we showed that 1 Btu / h = 0.2931 W, so the furnace power in SI units is:
P = 2.931 × 10 4 W. The time to heat the steel house is:

ms cs ΔT (75,000 kg)(500 J/kg D C)(16 D C)

t= = = 5.7 h
P (2.931 × 10 4 W)

Likewise, the time to heat the wooden house is:

mW cW ΔT (15,000 kg)(1400 J/kg D C)(16 D C)

t= = = 3.2 h
P (2.931 × 10 4 W)

REFLECT It takes nearly twice as long to heat the steel house because it has 5 times the mass of the wood house.
Furthermore, if the steel walls and wood walls are the same thickness, the wooden house will be much better at
retaining the heat than the steel house. This is because the thermal conductivity of wood is 400 times smaller than
that of steel (see Table 13.4).
103. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This is a problem in heat conduction. The body is producing heat, which inevitably
escapes through the sleeping bag. For the temperature to remain stable inside the sleeping bag, the heat flow
( H = kAΔT / Δx ) through the sleeping bag must be equal to the 100 W that the body generates. We’re told the
body’s surface area, so we’ll assume that sleeping bag has roughly the same surface area. (Don’t be concerned that
the surface in this case is not flat.) We have the thickness of the down in the sleeping bag, and we can find the
thermal conductivity of goose down in Table 13.4: k = 0.043 W/ D C ⋅ m. All we need to find is the temperature
difference that develops between the inside and outside of the sleeping bag, given the heat that the body is
producing.
Known: H = 100 W, A = 1.5 m 2 , Δx = 4.0 cm.
SOLVE Solving for the temperature difference:

H Δx (100 W)(0.04 m)
ΔT = = = 62D C
kA (0.043 W/ D C ⋅ m)(1.5 m 2 )

If the body temperature is to remain above 37ºC, then the outside cannot dip below: 37D C − 62 D C = −25D C .
REFLECT If the outside temperature fell below –25ºC, then the heat flow from inside to outside the sleeping bag
would become greater than 100 W. This would draw more heat from the body than it is able to generate, so the
body temperature would drop.
104. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In part (a), we’re asked how fast would the runner’s temperature would rise if we
essentially heated it with P = 400 W. Inverting Equation 13.2 and dividing by the change in time gives:

ΔT Q P
= =
Δt mcΔt mc

The specific heat of the body is 3500 J/kg D C from Table 13.1. To prevent this, the runner produces sweat, which
draws heat from the body as it evaporates. Inverting Equation 13.6 and dividing by the change in time gives:

Δm Q P
= =
Δt Lv Δt Lv

For the last part, we will determine how often the runner should take a drink.
Known: m = 65 kg , P = 400 W.
SOLVE (a) Using the derived formula for the rate of temperature increase:

ΔT P (400 W)
= = = 0.0018 D C/s
Δt mc (65 kg)(3500 J/kg D C)

This says that 10 minutes of running would raise the runner’s temperature by a degree.
 Heat 13.31

(b) Using the derived formula for the mass loss rate from sweating:

Δm P (400 W)
= = = 0.17 g/s
Δt Lv (2.4 × 106 J/kg)

(c) We’re asked how long before the runner has lost 500 mL and needs to replenish her fluids. Using the result
from part (b), we know that the runner is losing 0.17 mL per second (assuming the density of sweat is the same as
water). Therefore, the time it takes to lose 500 mL is:

500 mL
τ= = 2900 s = 48 min
0.17 mL/s

REFLECT The amount of fluids lost is likely greater than we have calculated. That’s because some of the sweat
falls off your skin without evaporating. Therefore, you probably need to drink more often than this answer
suggests.
105. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’re told that basically all of the reactor’s thermal power output goes into heating the
water. Therefore, the time to achieve the desired temperature change will be:

Q mcΔT
Δt = =
P P

We’ll assume the specific heat of the water is 4186 J/kg D C, even though it will be different under the reactor’s
high pressures.
Known: m = 5.4 × 106 kg, ΔT = 350D C − 10D C = 340D C, P = 1.42 GW.
SOLVE The time for the water to reach the needed temperature is:

mcΔT (5.4 × 106 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(340D C)

Δt = = = 5400 s
P 1.42 × 109 W

REFLECT This says that it takes only 90 minutes to super-heat 5 million liters of water. That’s if you have over a
billion-watts-worth of power at your disposal.
106. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We’re simply asked how long would it take to raise the temperature of the given water
volume to the boiling point and then how long to boil it away. We’ll need the specific heat (c = 4186 J/kg D C),
latent heat of vaporization ( Lv = 2.26 × 106 J/kg) and density ( ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 ) of water.
Known: V = 420 m 3 , ΔT = 100D C − 20D C = 80D C, P = 0.3 GW.
SOLVE (a) The time for the water to reach boiling temperature is:

mcΔT (420 × 103 kg)(4186 J/kg D C)(80D C)

Δt = = = 470 s
P 0.3 × 109 W

(b) The time to boil all the water away is:

mLv (420 × 103 kg)(2.26 × 106 J/kg)

Δt = = = 3200 s
P 0.3 × 10 9 W

REFLECT The total time is a little over an hour. If the water boils all away, the reactor core will likely begin
increasing in temperature, with a serious threat of meltdown (see Problem 13.91). To avoid this, the water will
need to be cooled or constantly replenished, as is described in the following problem.
13.32 Chapter 13

107. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The water and the heat are both flowing continuously, but it might to think of the heat
transfer in discrete steps. Therefore, imagine that over a given time period, Δt, the reactor is in contact with a
certain mass of water, m, from the river. You might picture this water being collected temporarily in a huge tank
that surrounds the reactor. However the contact is made, the water absorbs a certain amount of waste heat, Q, from
the reactor. See figure below.

Over time Dt1,

a portion of the
river comes in m
contact with Q
the reactor.

The amount of waste heat is just the rate of reactor waste output multiplied by the time period: Q = PΔt. Likewise,
the amount of mass is the mass flow rate of the river multiplied by the time period: m = F Δt. This mass flow rate
is: F = ρ Av, where ρ is the density of water, A is the cross-sectional area of the river, and v is the speed of the
river flow.
You might wonder what the time period is, but it doesn’t actually matter. We are looking for the temperature
increase of the water, which is: ΔT = Q / mc. The time period cancels out of the equation.
Known: P = 2.0 GW, ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 , A = 250 m × 3.0 m, v = 1.5 m/s, c = 4186 J/kg D C.
SOLVE The water temperature rises by

P (2.0 × 10 9 W)
ΔT = = = 0.42 D C
ρ Avc (1000 kg/m )(750 m 2 )(1.5 m/s)(4186 J/kg D C)
3

REFLECT This is sometimes called thermal pollution because it is believed that temperature increases like this
can have negative effects on the ecosystem of the river. Engineers can reduce the temperature change by using
cooling towers or cooling ponds to let the water release some of its heat to the atmosphere before going back into
the lake.