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Content
Middle English (1300-1485)
THE RENAISSANCE: 1485–1660
RESTORATION TO ROMANTICISM: 1660–1789
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1789–1832
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: 1832–1900
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 1900–45
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 1945 to the present
NOTE:
1. Purple Colour is for Writers
2. Red Colour is for the Works
3. We do not guarantee that you would find everything in this
PDF. We have included only important works and writers,
along with their short summaries.
Before embarking on the study of English literature, it is crucial to

comprehend its significance and the nature of its contents. Literature,
by definition, encompasses any written material that has been officially
published, including books on various subjects. However, it is essential
to acknowledge that literature is not merely a collection of texts but is
also intricately intertwined with history. Literature serves as a reflection
of society and captures the nuances of everyday life. Therefore, it is
imperative to comprehend the historical context in which a particular
work of literature was written to gain a deeper understanding of its
meaning and significance.
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MIDDLE ENGLISH
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
Geoffrey Chaucer was a prominent figure in English literature and is
considered the first major English writer. He was known for
incorporating diverse cultural references from across Europe into his
writing, while primarily using English as his language of choice.
Chaucer was a professional courtier, working as a civil servant, with
writing being more of a hobby than a vocation. During his time, full-time
English writers were still a couple of centuries away. Born into a family
of wine traders, Chaucer was part of the new wealthy class of city
gentlemen. His work took him to various places, including Kent, France,
and Italy, where he became familiar with the works of renowned writers
like Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.
Chaucer's first published work, The Book of the Duchess, is a dream
poem that deals with the death of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster, in
1368. Blanche was the wife of John of Gaunt, the third son of King
Edward III. The poem is a piece of consolation, following the style of
French examples.
A short summary of The Book of the Duchess

The poem was written by Geoffrey Chaucer in honor of Blanche, the
wife of John of Gaunt, who died in 1368. It is written in the style of a
dream vision and portrays the narrator's journey through a landscape
where he encounters a knight mourning the loss of his lady love.
Through their conversation, the narrator learns about the knight's story
and ultimately finds solace in the fact that others have also experienced
loss and grief.
Troilus and Criseyde

Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde is a poem that draws from the
Trojan War story and Boccaccio's writing. The poem is a tragic love
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story that follows the relationship between Troilus, a Trojan prince, and
Criseyde, a widowed Trojan woman. The poem explores the themes of
love, betrayal, and fate. Troilus falls in love with Criseyde, but she is
eventually sent to the Greeks in a prisoner exchange. She promises to
return to Troilus but begins a relationship with a Greek warrior instead.
Troilus is heartbroken and eventually dies in battle.
The Legend of Good Women

The poem is a collection of stories about virtuous women from history
and mythology. Chaucer's purpose in writing the poem was to
counteract the negative portrayal of women in his earlier work, The
Canterbury Tales. The poem contains nine stories, each telling the tale
of a woman who was faithful, brave, and virtuous. The women featured
in the poem include Cleopatra, Dido, Thisbe, and Lucrece, among
others.
The House of Fame

The poem is divided into three sections, with the first section describing
the narrator's dream in which he is carried away by an eagle to the
House of Fame. In the second section, the narrator describes the
various scenes and wonders he witnesses while in the House of Fame,
including the vast number of people seeking recognition for their
achievements. In the third and final section, the narrator sees the
House of Rumor, where false stories and gossip spread, and he
ultimately wakes up, realizing the fleeting nature of fame and
reputation. The poem explores themes of truth, falsehood, fame, and
the power of rumor.
The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of linked stories told by a group of
pilgrims traveling from Southwark to Canterbury. Originally planned with
120 tales, the work was unfinished at Chaucer's death in 1400. The
starting point of the journey, the Tabard Inn at Southwark, represents
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the city and affirms the importance of drinking and
conviviality(friendliness) in society. The Canterbury Tales is a collection
of 24 stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late 14th century. The
stories are presented as a group of pilgrims who are traveling together
from Southwark to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas
Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. Each pilgrim is expected to tell two
tales on the way to Canterbury and two tales on the way back, resulting
in a total of 120 tales. Some of the most well-known tales include "The
Knight's Tale," "The Miller's Tale," "The Wife of Bath's Tale," "The
Pardoner's Tale," and "The Nun's Priest's Tale." the characters are
identified by their occupation or marital status, but the narrator's
descriptions of them and their stories reveal their individual differences
and invite the reader to recognize them as typical characters. Chaucer
doesn't take sides and doesn't judge the characters he presents, but he
allows the reader to interpret them based on the ironic gap between
how they see themselves and how others see them.
Some of the stories in Canterbury Tales

"The Knight's Tale”
It tells the story of two knights, Palamon and Arcite, who are imprisoned
in Athens after being captured in battle. They both fall in love with the
beautiful Emelye, which leads to a rivalry between them. They
eventually fight a deadly duel for her hand in marriage, but just as one
of them is about to win, Theseus, the Duke of Athens, intervenes and
declares Emelye will choose her own husband. The story ends with
Emelye marrying the knight she chooses and the two rivals reconciling
their friendship. The tale explores themes of love, friendship, rivalry,
and fate.
“The Miller's Tale”

In "The Miller's Tale," a carpenter's wife named Alison seduces a young
scholar named Nicholas while the carpenter is away. Meanwhile, the
drunken miller, who tells the story, is humiliated when he gets injured
while attempting to copy Nicholas's actions.
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"The Wife of Bath's Tale"
A knight is granted a chance to save his life if he can discover what
women desire most. With the help of an old woman he meets, he learns
that women desire sovereignty over their husbands. The old woman
then offers to be the knight's wife in exchange for his promise to do
whatever she asks. Despite her ugliness, the knight agrees, and the old
woman transforms into a beautiful and loyal wife.
"The Pardoner's Tale"

Three rioters set out to find Death and kill him after hearing that he has
caused the death of a friend. On their journey, they meet an old man
who tells them that they will find Death under a nearby tree. When they
arrive, they discover treasure instead of Death and decide to stay and
guard it. However, greed and mistrust lead to their downfall as they end
up killing each other over the treasure. The Pardoner, who tells the
story, uses it to preach against the dangers of greed and corruption.
"The Nun's Priest's Tale"

It is a fable about a rooster named Chanticleer who is deceived by a
fox. Chanticleer has a dream of being attacked by a beast and is
counseled by his favorite hen, Pertelote, that dreams are meaningless.
One day, a fox flatters Chanticleer into closing his eyes and singing and
then snatches him up in his jaws to devour him. However, Chanticleer
convinces the fox to brag about his cleverness before being eaten, and
when the fox opens his mouth to do so, the rooster escapes and flies to
safety. The tale is a commentary on the dangers of flattery and pride
and also features elements of courtly love and romance.
WILLIAM LANGLAND
William Langland is a 14th-century English poet who is best known for
his allegorical work "Piers Plowman."
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The poem begins with the narrator, Will, falling asleep on a hillside and
having a dream vision in which he encounters a series of allegorical
figures. These figures represent different aspects of medieval society
and morality, the Holy Church, Conscience, and Lady Meed (a
personification of greed). Piers serves as a moral and spiritual mentor
to Will, teaching him about the nature of sin and the importance of
personal salvation. Throughout the poem, Langland explores a wide
range of themes related to morality, spirituality, and social justice. He
critiques the corruption of the Church, the greed and excess of the
nobility, and the struggles of the poor and marginalized. The poem is
notable for its use of allegory.
NOTE
"Piers Plowman" exists in three versions, with critics placing the main
text's composition date some three or four years prior to the Peasants'
Revolt, and Geoffrey Chaucer's "Troilus and Criseyde" some four years
after. The Revolt occurred less than two hundred years after the Magna
Carta (The Magna Carta was created in response to years of political
unrest and conflict between King John and his barons. The document
was designed to establish a set of legal rights and restrictions on the
monarch's powers were signed). While "Piers Plowman" and "Patience"
dealt with intellectual problems, the peasants' concerns were much
more focused on the hardships of everyday life. Though John Ball and
other leaders of the Revolt referred to "Piers Plowman," they
themselves were not necessarily peasants.
JOHN GOWER
He is also a contemporary of Langland, Confessio Amantis" is a
collection of tales and anecdotes presented in the form of a lover's
confession to a priest.
The narrator, a lover who is suffering from unrequited love, seeks the
counsel of the priest to help him overcome his desires. The priest then
instructs the lover to confess his sins, and the lover responds by
recounting a series of tales, which serve as moral examples of good
and bad behavior.
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The tales cover a wide range of subjects, including love, morality,
politics, and religion.
Throughout the poem, He critiques the excesses of the nobility, the

corruption of the Church, and the temptations of worldly pleasures.
The theme of human nature and its flaws is prevalent in medieval
literature. Many works contrast the earthly reality of human beings with
the heavenly ideals of the church. John Gower explores this theme in
Confessio Amantis (A Lover’s Confession).
Gower’s ‘confession’ is not a sincere expression of repentance, but a
playful imitation. He tells stories about the seven deadly sins of love
(Amans), drawing heavily from the Latin poet Ovid, in a dream vision
that resembles a religious allegory. In the end, when the speaker has
confessed all his sins, he declares that he will give up love – but only
because he is too old to love anymore, not because he is virtuous. His
farewell to love is a mockery of chastity.
JOHN LYDGATE
Lydgate’s writings mainly deal with historical topics in translation. His
most famous work is The Fall of Princes (1431–38), which was widely
read and admired for more than a hundred years. His Troy Book, The
Siege of Thebes is another example of his historical translations.
Thomas Hoccleve's works reflect his personal experiences and

struggles, including the first literary account of a mental breakdown.
The Regiment of Princes (1411–12) is a Middle English poem by
Thomas Hoccleve that offers moral and political advice to the young
Henry V of England. The poem also reflects Hoccleve's personal
struggles with mental illness and his hopes for royal patronage.
SCOTTISH CHAUCERIAN
The Scottish Chaucerians are a group of writers who produced the
most remarkable works between 1400 and 1500, the period between
Chaucer's death and the start of the English Renaissance. Their style,
tone, and topics are very different from those of their English
counterparts.
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John Barbour
Work: The Bruce is the first text to celebrate Scottish nationalism, with
such sentiments as ‘A! freedom is a noble thing!’
Robert Henryson
“Testament of Cresseid” depicts the tragic fate of Chaucer's heroine,
who suffers from leprosy, poverty, and death after living a life of sexual
indulgence. The poem seems to punish the female protagonist harshly
for her moral decline.
The Moral Fables of Aesop the Phrygian, are stories with moral lessons
in the style of Aesop, but they also show a lot of compassion for the
animals.
William Dunbar
Lament for the Makers, he mourns the death of poets ('makers') who
have influenced him, such as Chaucer, Gower, and Henryson. He
reflects on the transience of life and the inevitability of death.
Gavin Douglas
1. A translation of Virgil’s Aeneid
2. The Plaice of Honour
3. King Hart
Sir Thomas Malory

Le Morte D’Arthur
Le Morte D’Arthur is a collection of stories about King Arthur and his
knights of the Round Table. It tells the legend of Arthur’s rise to power,
his conquests, his love for Guinevere, his betrayal by Lancelot and
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Mordred, and his tragic death. The book also explores the themes of
chivalry, loyalty, honor, and faith in medieval times.
John Skelton
The Bowge of Court, commenting on the court of Henry VII
Magnificence
The Renaissance (1485–1660)

In the late 15th century, two events marked the beginning of modern
times. In 1485, the Wars of the Roses ended, and William Caxton
published the first English book, "Le Morte D'Arthur." In 1492,
Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas opened new horizons.
England's Tudor dynasty emerged from the Wars of the Roses, and
Henry VIII's reign (1509-1547) was marked by his six marriages and
break with the Catholic church. The Reformation brought profound
religious changes, making England Protestant and establishing the
monarch as the head of the church. The Reformation's impact on
literature and culture was significant, leading to a reexamination of
human relationships, scientific discoveries, and the exploration of
individual expression. The English Renaissance produced renowned
writers like Shakespeare and Milton. This period also witnessed political
instability, religious conflicts, and England's rise as a maritime and
colonial power. London grew in importance, and the theater became a
platform for national debate and entertainment. The era's cultural and
intellectual developments contributed to the growth of the English
language.
POETRY
SIR PHILIP SIDNEY

Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) was an English poet, scholar, courtier,
and soldier during the Elizabethan era. He is widely regarded as one of
the most important figures in English literature and is best known for his
sonnet sequence "Astrophil and Stella" and his prose work
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"The Défense of Poesy." Here is a short summary of his major works:
Astrophil and Stella: This sonnet sequence, composed of 108 sonnets

and 11 songs, is considered one of the finest examples of Elizabethan
poetry. It tells the story of Astrophil (Greek for "star-lover") and his
unrequited love for Stella (Latin for "star"). The sonnets explore themes
of love, desire, and the complexities of human relationships.
The Defense of Poesy: Also known as "An Apology for Poetry," this
prose work was written as a response to a critical attack on poetry by
Stephen Gosson. Sidney defends the value and significance of poetry,
arguing that it has the power to inspire virtue, teach moral lessons, and
provide pleasure to the reader. He also discusses the nature of poetry
and its different forms.
Arcadia: Sidney's prose romance, often referred to as "The Old

Arcadia," is a lengthy and complex work that combines elements of
romance, pastoral fiction, and adventure. It tells the story of two
princes, Pyrocles and Musidorus, who face various challenges and
adventures as they pursue their love interests.
The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia: This revised version of the

Arcadia was dedicated to Sidney's sister, Mary Herbert, the Countess of
Pembroke. It includes revisions and expansions to the original work and
was intended for private circulation.
Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542) and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

(1517-1547) were two prominent English poets of the Tudor period.
Sir Thomas Wyatt:
"Whoso List to Hunt": is a sonnet by Sir Thomas Wyatt about an

unattainable object of desire. The speaker compares the pursuit to
hunting a deer, but faces obstacles and acknowledges his defeat.
Despite knowing he can't have her, he continues to follow her. The
poem explores themes of unrequited love and the futility of chasing the
unattainable.
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"They Flee from Me": This poem explores the fleeting nature of love
and the speaker's reflections on past relationships.
"My Galley, Charged with Forgetfulness": This sonnet presents an

extended metaphor of a ship lost at sea to express the speaker's
feelings of despair and longing caused by unrequited love.
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey:
"The Soote Season": This poem describes the beauty of spring and the
joys of nature, celebrating the season's vibrant colors, fragrances, and
sounds.
"Love, That Doth Reign and Live Within My Thought": In this sonnet,
the speaker reflects on the consuming power of love, which pervades
their every thought and emotion.
"The Frailty and Hurtfulness of Beauty": This poem explores the

transient nature of physical beauty and warns against being too
enamored with outward appearances.
Tottel's Miscellany, published in 1557, is a groundbreaking anthology of

English Renaissance poetry. Compiled by Richard Tottel, it features
works by renowned poets such as Wyatt and Surrey. The collection
encompasses diverse forms and themes, including love, courtship, and
morality. Tottel's Miscellany played a pivotal role in introducing the
sonnet and other poetic techniques, leaving a lasting impact on English
poetry.
Edmund Spenser
was an influential English poet and writer who lived during the
Elizabethan era. He is best known for his epic poem "The Faerie
Queene," which remains one of the most important works of English
literature.
The Shepheardes Calender" (1579): This was Spenser's first major

work and consists of twelve eclogues, or pastoral poems, written in a
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variety of styles and forms. Each eclogue corresponds to a different
month of the year and explores various themes, including love, politics,
and religion.
"The Faerie Queene" (1590, 1596): It tells the allegorical story of

several knights on a quest to serve the Faerie Queene, who represents
Queen Elizabeth I. The poem is divided into six books, each focusing
on a different knight and exploring various virtues such as holiness,
temperance, and chastity. "The Faerie Queene" is renowned for its rich
imagery, intricate allegory, and lush language.
"Amoretti" (1595): This collection of sonnets is a sequence of love

poems dedicated to Spenser's future wife, Elizabeth Boyle. The
sonnets chronicle Spenser's courtship, including his struggles, doubts,
and eventual triumph in winning her love. The work is notable for its
emotional depth, skillful wordplay, and exquisite language.
"Epithalamion" (1595): This is a marriage poem written in celebration of

Spenser's own wedding to Elizabeth Boyle. It is composed of 365 lines,
reflecting the days of the year, and captures the joy, anticipation, and
blessings associated with marriage. The poem showcases Spenser's
skill in using vivid imagery and musical language.
Drama
Before Shakespeare's time, the stage for English drama was set by a
rich amalgamation of influences. The emergence of the 'university wits,'
including Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, George Peele, Thomas
Nashe, and Thomas Lodge, breathed fresh life into classical models,
drawing a more extensive and diverse audience into the conflicts and
themes that the theater could vividly portray. This era witnessed a surge
in English nationalism and Protestantism, finding expression in the
vibrant and varied theater scene. John Heywood's "The Four PP," dated
from the early 1540s, represents a direct link between late medieval
morality plays and the realistic comedies that would emerge later in the
century. Heywood's other works, such as "The Play of the Weather"
(1533), featuring Jupiter as the central character, prefigure the
Jacobean masque.
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Note: Ralph Roister Doister, penned around 1552 by Nicholas Udall, is
often regarded as the earliest example of English comedy, while
Gorboduc, crafted in 1561 by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville, is
acknowledged as one of the first English tragedies. Concurrently,
Gammer Gurton’s Needle, a production that debuted at Cambridge in
1566 with an unknown author, introduced a farcical element intertwined
with a local domestic scenario that resonated closely with the
audience's daily life. Notably, these initial plays marked a departure
from direct translations of classical works, as they swiftly evolved and
took on an inherently English character and setting.
Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593)
was a significant English playwright, poet, and translator of the

Elizabethan era. He is known for his powerful and influential works,
particularly his contribution to the development of English drama.
Marlowe's writing often delved into themes of ambition, revenge, and
the darker aspects of human nature, and his characters were often
complex and morally ambiguous.
"Tamburlaine the Great" (Parts I and II, 1587 and 1590): The play
follows the rise and fall of the ambitious and ruthless Central Asian
conqueror, Tamburlaine. Through Tamburlaine's relentless pursuit of
power, Marlowe explores themes of ambition, leadership, and the
nature of tyranny, showcasing the allure and consequences of unbridled
power.
"Doctor Faustus" (c. 1588): The play revolves around Dr. Faustus, a
scholar who, dissatisfied with the limits of traditional knowledge, makes
a pact with the devil, trading his soul for unlimited knowledge and
worldly pleasures. As he descends into darkness and depravity,
Faustus grapples with the consequences of his choices, highlighting the
themes of ambition, power, and the conflict between good and evil.
"The Jew of Malta" (c. 1589): The play portrays the character of
Barabas, a wealthy Jewish merchant in Malta, who seeks revenge
against his enemies while navigating the complexities of power, greed,
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and religious prejudice. Marlowe uses this work to examine themes of
revenge, moral corruption, and the effects of religious conflict on
society.
"Edward II" (c. 1592): Marlowe's play depicts the reign and downfall of
King Edward II of England, focusing on his controversial relationship
with his favorite, Piers Gaveston. The play delves into themes of power,
sexuality, and the complexities of political intrigue, highlighting the clash
between personal desires and the responsibilities of kingship.
"Dido, Queen of Carthage" (c. 1586): Marlowe's collaboration with

Thomas Nashe, this play is based on the story of Dido, the legendary
Queen of Carthage, and her tragic love affair with the Trojan hero
Aeneas. It explores themes of love, fate, and betrayal, weaving
together elements of classical mythology and tragedy.
"The Massacre at Paris" (c. 1593): This historical drama focuses on the
events surrounding the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572,
during which thousands of Huguenots were killed in Paris. Marlowe's
play dramatizes the political and religious conflicts of the time, delving
into themes of betrayal, power, and the consequences of religious
intolerance.
Thomas Nashe (1567-1601):

Nashe was known for his satirical and picaresque style.
"The Unfortunate Traveller, or The Life of Jack Wilton," an adventurous
picaresque novel. He also wrote numerous pamphlets, including
"Pierce Penniless," which criticized the society and literary figures of his
time.
George Peele (1556-1596):
Peele was a skilled dramatist and poet.

"The Old Wives' Tale," a significant example of Elizabethan romantic
comedy. He was also known for his collaboration with William
Shakespeare on the play "Titus Andronicus."
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Robert Greene (1558-1592):
Greene was a versatile and prolific writer, known for his contributions to
multiple genres, including prose romance and drama. "Pandosto,"
which served as the source material for William Shakespeare's play
"The Winter's Tale."
John Lyly (c. 1553-1606):
Lyly was known for his wit and his work in the genre of the Elizabethan
prose romance.
"Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit," a novel that gave rise to the term
"euphuism," characterized by its elaborate style and rhetorical devices.
Thomas Lodge (c. 1558-1625):

Lodge was a playwright, poet, and author who contributed to the
development of the Elizabethan romance genre.
"Rosalynde: Euphues' Golden Legacy," a prose romance that served as
the source for William Shakespeare's play "As You Like It."
Thomas Kyd (1558-1594):
"The Spanish Tragedy." This play is one of the earliest and most
important examples of the Elizabethan revenge tragedy, which would
later influence the works of William Shakespeare and other playwrights
of the time.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and

author. He is considered one of the founders of modern empirical
science and is known for his influential works on philosophy, politics,
and science. Here are some of his notable works:
Essays (1597, expanded 1612 and 1625): Bacon's "Essays" are a

collection of 58 essays on various subjects, including studies of
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friendship, truth, beauty, and more. These essays are written in a
concise and clear style and cover a wide range of philosophical, moral,
and social topics.
Novum Organum (1620): In this work, Bacon outlines his philosophy

and methodology for the advancement of science. He criticizes the
limitations of the traditional Aristotelian method and advocates for a
new approach that emphasizes empirical observation and
experimentation. The title, "Novum Organum," refers to a new
instrument or method for acquiring knowledge.
The Advancement of Learning (1605): This work is an exploration of the

state of human knowledge and an argument for the improvement of
learning. Bacon discusses the shortcomings of existing educational
systems and proposes a new method for organizing and advancing
knowledge, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence and
practical application.
New Atlantis (1627, published posthumously): "New Atlantis" is a

utopian novel that describes a fictional island where an ideal society
thrives. It envisions a society based on scientific knowledge, religious
tolerance, and social harmony. The work also discusses various
scientific innovations and experiments, reflecting Bacon's vision for the
advancement of human civilization through the application of scientific
principles.
The Great Instauration (1620, published as part of Novum Organum):

Bacon planned a comprehensive work called "The Great Instauration,"
which would include a systematic survey of human knowledge and a
proposal for the reform of the sciences. Although the complete work
was never finished, parts of it were incorporated into "Novum
Organum."
William Shakespeare
was an English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as the
greatest writer in the English language and the world's preeminent
dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of
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Avon". His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39
plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses,
some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every
major living language and are performed more often than those of any
other playwright.
The plays
The plays of Shakespeare, in approximate order of composition:
Early plays from 1589 to 1593

1 KING HENRY VI, PART ONE
2 KING HENRY VI, PART TWO
3 KING HENRY VI, PART THREE
4 TITUS ANDRONICUS
5 THE COMEDY OF ERRORS
6 THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA
7 THE TAMING OF THE SHREW
8 KING RICHARD III
Plays from 1593 to 1598

9 KING JOHN
10 LOVE’S LABOURS LOST
11 ROMEO AND JULIET
12 A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM
13 THE MERCHANT OF VENICE
14 KING RICHARD II
15 KING HENRY IV, PART ONE
16 KING HENRY IV, PART TWO
17 THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR
Plays from 1598, with likely dates of composition
1598 18 MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING

1599 19 KING HENRY V
1599 20 JULIUS CAESAR
1600 21 AS YOU LIKE IT
1600
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22 HAMELET
1601 23 TWELFTH NIGHT
1602 24 TROILUS AND CRESSIDA
1603 25 ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL
1604 26 MEASURE FOR MEASURE
1604 27 OTHELLO
1605 28 KING LEAR
1606 29 MACBETH
1607 30 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA
1607 31 TIMON OF ATHENS
1608 32 CORIOLANUS
‘Late’ plays
1608 33 PERICLES
1610 34 CYMBELINE
1611 35 THE WINTER’S TALE
1611 36 THE TEMPEST
1613 37 KING HENRY VIII
Tragedies:
Romeo and Juliet (1597): is a tragic love story set in Verona, Italy. The
play revolves around the passionate yet forbidden romance between
Romeo and Juliet, who belong to feuding families, the Montagues and
the Capulets. Despite the enmity between their families, Romeo and
Juliet secretly marry, but their love is tested by familial conflicts and
societal pressures. Misunderstandings, duels, and tragic twists of fate
ultimately lead to the untimely deaths of the young lovers, serving as a
poignant reminder of the destructive power of hate and the enduring
nature of love.
Hamlet (1603 The play centers around Prince Hamlet of Denmark, who
is tormented by the sudden death of his father, the king, and his
mother's hasty remarriage to his uncle, Claudius, who has usurped the
throne. Fueled by a ghostly revelation that his father was murdered by
Claudius, Hamlet grapples with his own indecision and moral dilemmas
as he seeks to avenge his father's death. The play delves into complex
psychological depths, showcasing Hamlet's internal struggles, his
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philosophical contemplations, and the tragic consequences of his
actions, ultimately leading to a dramatic and devastating climax.
Othello (1603): delves into themes of jealousy, betrayal, and racial

discrimination. Set in Venice, the play revolves around the Moorish
general, Othello, and his ensign, Iago, who harbors a deep-seated
resentment and manipulates Othello into believing that his wife,
Desdemona, has been unfaithful. Othello's unchecked jealousy and
Iago's deceit lead to a series of tragic events, ultimately resulting in the
deaths of Desdemona, Othello, and others. The play is a powerful
exploration of the destructive nature of jealousy and manipulation,
highlighting the devastating consequences of mistrust and deception in
relationships.
King Lear (1606): The story follows King Lear, who decides to divide his
kingdom among his three daughters based on their professions of love
for him. However, his youngest and most beloved daughter, Cordelia,
refuses to engage in the flattery, leading to tragic consequences.
Betrayal, deceit, and a descent into madness follow as Lear is
abandoned by those he trusts, and a fierce storm serves as a metaphor
for the turmoil within the kingdom and within the king himself. The play
ultimately reflects on the fragility of human relationships and the
devastating consequences of pride and misjudgment.
Macbeth (1606): is a play that delves into themes of ambition, guilt, and
the corrupting influence of power. The story revolves around the
Scottish general, Macbeth, who is encouraged by the prophecies of
three witches and his ambitious wife, Lady Macbeth, to seize the throne
by murdering King Duncan. As Macbeth ascends to power, his paranoia
and guilt consume him, leading to a series of bloody actions to secure
his position. The play explores the psychological effects of unchecked
ambition, the erosion of morality, and the inevitable downfall that comes
with the betrayal of one's conscience.
Comedies:
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595 Set in an enchanted forest, the play

weaves together the romantic entanglements of Athenian lovers, the
antics of mischievous fairies, and the comical performances of a group
of amateur actors. The plot revolves around the events leading up to
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the wedding of Duke Theseus and Queen Hippolyta, with the
intertwining stories of the four young lovers and the magical
misadventures caused by the fairy king and queen, Oberon and Titania.
The play's lighthearted tone, fantastical elements, and comedic
misunderstandings culminate in a joyous celebration of love,
imagination, and the transformative power of the magical realm.
Much Ado About Nothing (1598): Set in the Italian town of Messina, the
play follows the romantic entanglements of several couples, including
the witty war of words between Beatrice and Benedick, and the
romantic misunderstandings between Claudio and Hero. Through
clever wordplay and comedic situations, the play examines the
complexities of relationships and the transformative power of love. With
its lively banter, mistaken identities, and humorous plot twists, "Much
Ado About Nothing" ultimately celebrates the joy and folly of love and
the triumph of wit and romance over deceit and misunderstanding.
Twelfth Night (1601): is a play that explores themes of love, mistaken

identity, and the folly of human behavior. Set in the kingdom of Illyria,
the story revolves around the twins Viola and Sebastian, who are
separated during a shipwreck. Viola, disguised as a young man named
Cesario, enters the service of Duke Orsino, who is in love with the
countess Olivia. However, Olivia ends up falling for Viola, believing her
to be a man. The play's comedic situations, romantic entanglements,
and witty dialogue culminate in a series of misunderstandings and
revelry, ultimately leading to a joyous resolution that celebrates the
transformative power of love and the absurdity of human desires.
As You Like It (1599): is a play that explores themes of love, identity,

and the natural world. The story follows Rosalind, who is banished from
the court and seeks refuge in the Forest of Arden, disguised as a young
man named Ganymede. There, she encounters her love interest,
Orlando, and orchestrates a series of comedic and romantic
escapades, including a gender-bending romance that leads to a joyful
resolution. With its exploration of the complexities of love and the
transformative power of nature, "As You Like It" celebrates the freedom
of the countryside and the resilience of human relationships.
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The Taming of the Shrew (1590-1592): examines themes of courtship,
gender roles, and marital relationships. The story revolves around the
courtship of the strong-willed Katherina, known as the shrew, and
Petruchio, a clever and determined suitor. Petruchio attempts to tame
Katherina's independent spirit through various strategies and
unconventional methods, leading to a series of humorous and
contentious interactions. Through its exploration of societal
expectations and the dynamics of power in relationships, the play
ultimately reflects on the complexities of love, marriage, and the
evolving nature of gender roles in society.
Histories:
Richard III (1592-1593): rise to power and tumultuous reign of King

Richard III of England. The play depicts Richard's ruthless ambition,
cunning manipulation, and murderous deeds as he ascends to the
throne through deceit and treachery. Richard's villainous actions include
the manipulation and betrayal of those around him, including his own
family members. Through its portrayal of political intrigue, betrayal, and
the consequences of unchecked ambition, "Richard III" offers a
compelling exploration of the nature of power and the moral
complexities of leadership in a turbulent political landscape.
Henry V (1599): portrays the events leading up to and during the Battle
of Agincourt during the Hundred Years' War. The play celebrates the
inspirational leadership and military triumphs of King Henry V of
England, highlighting his diplomatic successes and the unity of his
people in the face of adversity. Through its depiction of the challenges
of war, the play explores themes of leadership, patriotism, and the
transformative power of unity and courage, emphasizing the importance
of moral fortitude and decisive action in times of crisis.
Richard II (1595): depicts the downfall of King Richard II of England and

the rise of Henry Bolingbroke as Henry IV. The play explores themes of
power, legitimacy, and political turmoil as Richard's controversial
leadership leads to internal conflict and rebellion within his kingdom.
Through its portrayal of Richard's struggle to maintain his authority and
the challenges posed by his ambitious adversaries, "Richard II" offers a
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poignant examination of the complexities of kingship and the
consequences of political instability and internal strife.
Henry IV, Part 1 (1597 delves into the conflict between King Henry IV
and his rebellious son, Prince Hal. The play portrays Prince Hal's
transformation from a wayward youth to a noble leader as he navigates
the challenges of kingship and grapples with the expectations of his
father and the demands of his own conscience. Through its exploration
of honor, duty, and the transformative nature of leadership, "Henry IV,
Part 1" offers a compelling portrayal of the complexities of family,
loyalty, and the pursuit of power in a politically turbulent and morally
challenging environment.
Henry VI, Part, 2 (1590-1591): forms part of the trilogy chronicling the
Wars of the Roses and the reign of King Henry VI. The play continues
the saga of political unrest and military conflict as the Lancastrians and
the Yorkists vie for power and control of the throne. It portrays the
challenges faced by King Henry VI as he struggles to maintain order
and unity within his kingdom amid growing dissent and ambition among
his nobles. Through its depiction of the complexities of power struggles
and the consequences of political ambition, "Henry VI, Part 2" offers a
gripping narrative of treachery, betrayal, and the perils of divided loyalty
in times of political turmoil.
John Donne (1572-1631)
John Donne, considered the preeminent Metaphysical poet, was known

for his passionate love poetry, religious sonnets, and exploration of
complex themes like mortality, faith, and the human condition. His
works are characterized by their wit, intellectualism, and use of
conceits, often employing striking metaphors and paradoxes.
Notable Works:
"The Flea": A playful and provocative poem exploring love, sexuality,

and the power of persuasion.
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"Holy Sonnets": A series of sonnets delving into religious themes,
questioning faith, and contemplating mortality.
"Death, be not proud": A defiant sonnet challenging the power of death

and affirming the enduring nature of the soul.
George Herbert (1593-1633)
George Herbert, an Anglican priest and poet, infused his work with a
deep spirituality and devotional fervor. His poems are characterized by
their intricate structures, vivid imagery, and exploration of religious
themes like grace, salvation, and the relationship between God and
man.
Notable Works:
"The Temple": A collection of religious poems exploring various aspects

of faith and devotion, often using metaphors from nature and everyday
life.
"Easter Wings": A celebratory poem commemorating the resurrection of

Christ and the triumph of life over death.
Henry Vaughan (1621-1695)
Henry Vaughan, a Welsh poet, combined his religious faith with his love
for nature and the countryside. His poems are characterized by their
mystical quality, their use of symbolism, and their exploration of themes
like divine love, the beauty of creation, and the longing for the afterlife.
Notable Works:
"Silex Scintillans": A collection of religious poems expressing Vaughan's

profound faith and his love for nature, often using imagery from the
natural world.
"The Retreat": A poem expressing longing for a secluded life away from
the distractions of the world, seeking solace in nature and communion
with God.
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"I Saw Eternity the Other Night": A poem exploring the vastness and
mystery of eternity, contrasting it with the fleeting nature of earthly life.
Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)
Andrew Marvell, a Parliamentarian and poet, was known for his witty
and satirical verse, his exploration of political and social issues, and his
celebration of nature and love. His poetry is characterized by its
intellectual depth, its use of irony and paradox, and its rich imagery.
Notable Works:
"To His Coy Mistress": A witty and persuasive poem urging a young
woman to seize the day and embrace love before time runs out.
"The Garden": A poem celebrating the beauty and tranquility of a

garden, contrasting it with the harshness of the outside world.
"The Definition of Love": A satirical poem mocking the idea of defining

love, emphasizing its complexity and elusiveness.
Richard Crashaw (1612-1649)
Richard Crashaw, a Catholic poet, was known for his intense religious
devotion and his passionate and sensual imagery. His poems are
characterized by their mystical quality, their use of metaphors from the
body and nature, and their exploration of themes like divine love,
sacrifice, and the desire for union with God.
Notable Works:
"The Flaming Heart": A poem expressing Crashaw's passionate love for

Christ, using imagery of fire and wounds to convey his intense
devotion.
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"Upon the Name of Jesus": A poem celebrating the power and beauty
of Jesus' name, using metaphors from nature and music to convey its
significance.
THE CAVALIER POETS
Robert Herrick (1591-1674)
Robert Herrick, considered one of the leading Cavalier poets, is known

for his witty and epigrammatic poems celebrating love, beauty, and the
pleasures of life. His works are often characterized by their carpe diem
themes, urging readers to seize the day and enjoy life's fleeting
moments.
Notable Works:
"To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time": A carpe diem poem urging
young women to embrace love and pleasure before time fades.
"Delight in Disorder": A celebration of feminine beauty and the allure of

a slightly unkempt appearance.
"Corinna's Going a-Maying": A joyous springtime poem celebrating the

beauty of nature and the renewal of life.
Thomas Carew (1595-1640)
Thomas Carew, another prominent Cavalier poet, is known for his

elegant and refined style, often exploring themes of love, desire, and
the complexities of human relationships. His poems are characterized
by their graceful meter, vivid imagery, and playful use of language.
Notable Works:
"The Careless Lover": A poem mocking a lover's fickle nature and the
fleetingness of romantic passion.
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"Ask Me No More Where Jove Bestows": A witty and playful poem
exploring the nature of love and the power of beauty.
"A Song": A passionate and sensuous poem celebrating the joys of

physical love and the beauty of the beloved.
Sir John Suckling (1609-1642)
Sir John Suckling, a renowned Cavalier poet and playwright, is known

for his witty and libertine verse, often exploring themes of love,
seduction, and the fleeting nature of pleasure.
Notable Works:
"Out upon it, I have loved": A poem expressing disillusionment with love
and the futility of pursuing romantic attachments.
"Why So Pale and Wan, Fond Lover?": A witty and mocking poem
ridiculing a love-sick admirer and the irrationality of love's torments.
"The Constant Lover": A poem celebrating the enduring power of true

love, despite its challenges and setbacks.
Richard Lovelace (1618-1658)
Richard Lovelace, a prominent Cavalier poet, is known for his elegant

and passionate verse, often exploring themes of love, loss, and the
devotion to a beloved.
Notable Works:
"To Lucasta, Going to the Wars": A poem expressing unwavering love

and devotion to a woman despite the uncertainties of war.
"Tell Me Not, Sweet, I Am Unkind": A poem addressing the accusations

of unfaithfulness, emphasizing the constancy of true love.
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"The Grasshopper": A poem comparing the fleeting joys of life to the
brief lifespan of a grasshopper, emphasizing the importance of
cherishing the present moment.
Sir Charles Sedley (1639-1701)
Sir Charles Sedley, a renowned Cavalier poet and playwright, is known

for his witty, libertine, and often bawdy verse, often celebrating love,
pleasure, and the pursuit of sensual desires. His poems are
characterized by their playful use of language, light hearted tone, and
exploration of the pleasures of life.
Notable Works:
"Chloris": A witty and playful poem celebrating the beauty and allure of
a woman, using vivid imagery and suggestive language.
"Love Still Has Something of the Sea": A poem comparing love to the
sea, emphasizing its unpredictable nature, constant motion, and
unpredictable depths.
"Not, Celia, That I Juster Am": A poem acknowledging one's own faults
and imperfections while still claiming the right to love and be loved.
Ben Jonson (1572-1637)
was an English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as one of

the most important figures in English Renaissance literature. His works
are characterized by their sharp wit, satirical observations, and mastery
of language.
Every Man in His Humour (1598)
In the bustling city of London, a group of individuals, each consumed by

their own eccentric "humor" or personality trait, finds themselves
entangled in a web of misunderstandings, rivalries, and social
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aspirations. Master Knowell, a cautious and suspicious man, worries
about his son, Edward, falling into the wrong company. Meanwhile,
Wellbred, a carefree and boisterous gentleman, leads Edward into a
world of mischief and deception.
Amidst the chaos, Brainworm, a cunning servant, devises a series of

elaborate schemes to manipulate his masters and gain personal favors.
His antics lead to mistaken identities, eavesdropping, and a series of
farcical misunderstandings.
Jonson masterfully satirizes the social pretensions and exaggerated

behaviors of his characters, exposing the follies and vices of human
nature. Through his witty dialogue and sharp observations, he reveals
the underlying motivations and insecurities that drive their actions.
Volpone, or The Fox (1605-1606)
Volpone, a cunning and avaricious Venetian nobleman, feigns illness to

deceive and exploit those around him. With the help of his shrewd
servant, Mosca, he concocts an elaborate scheme to trick wealthy
individuals into believing they will inherit his vast fortune.
One by one, Volpone lures his victims, each representing a different

social type and greedy desire, into his web of deceit. He plays on their
hopes and fears, manipulating their emotions and exploiting their
weaknesses to amass their riches.
Jonson's dark comedy exposes the depths of human greed and the
destructive power of avarice. Through Volpone's cunning schemes and
the gullibility of his victims, he highlights the corrosive effects of
materialism and the pursuit of wealth at the expense of morality.
The Alchemist (1610)
In a London alleyway, a trio of con artists, led by the charismatic Face,

pose as alchemists, promising to turn base metals into gold. Their
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victims, blinded by greed and the allure of quick riches, fall prey to their
elaborate schemes and empty promises.
Face, a master of deception, plays on the hopes and fears of his marks,
convincing them of his alchemical prowess. His partners, Subtle, a
supposed alchemist, and Doll Common, a seductive accomplice, further
entice the victims into parting with their fortunes.
Jonson's hilarious satire exposes the gullibility and desperation of those

who seek wealth without effort. He ridicules the belief in alchemy and
the pursuit of quick gains, demonstrating the destructive consequences
of misplaced trust and the allure of easy money.
Bartholomew Fair (1614)
During the bustling Bartholomew Fair, a popular London festival, a

diverse cast of characters descends upon the fairground, each with
their own motives and desires. Amidst the chaos and revelry, love
blossoms, deceit flourishes, and social norms are challenged.
Jonson's riotous comedy captures the vibrant energy, boisterous

atmosphere, and underlying moral complexities of the fair. He exposes
the hypocrisy and vices of his characters, revealing the darker side of
human nature beneath the surface of festive celebrations.
George Chapman (1559-1634)
was an English dramatist, poet, and translator. He is best known for his
translations of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, which were highly influential
in English literature.
Poetry
Chapman's first published work was The Shadow of Night (1594), a

long philosophical poem. He also wrote several other poems, including
Hero and Leander (1598), a completion of Christopher Marlowe's
unfinished poem, and Euthymiae Raptus; or the Teares of Peace
(1609), a dialogue between the poet and the Lady Peace.
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Drama
Bussy D'Ambois (1607) and The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois (1613),

both of which deal with the rise and fall of ambitious courtiers. His most
famous comedies are The Blind Beggar of Alexandria (1598) and A
Humorous Day's Mirth (1599), both of which are witty and satirical.
Translation
Chapman is best known for his translations of Homer's Iliad and

Odyssey.
Here are some of Chapman's most famous works:
The Shadow of Night (1594)

Hero and Leander (1598)
Bussy D'Ambois (1607)
The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois (1613)
The Blind Beggar of Alexandria (1598)
An Humorous Day's Mirth (1599)
The Iliad (1611)
The Odyssey (1616)
Francis Beaumont (1584–1616)

was an English poet and dramatist, best known for his collaborations
with John Fletcher. Beaumont's works are characterized by their vivid
characters, their exploration of complex emotions, and their poetic
language.
The Woman Hater (1606)

Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding (1609)
Philaster, or Love Lies a-Bleeding is a tragicomedy about love, betrayal,
and the right to the throne. The play follows the story of Philaster, the
rightful heir to the throne of Sicily, who is imprisoned by the usurper, the
King of Calabria. Philaster is in love with Arethusa, the King's daughter,
but she is promised to marry Pharamond, a Spanish prince. Philaster
escapes from prison and is reunited with Arethusa, but they are
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eventually betrayed and separated. In the end, Philaster is restored to
his rightful place on the throne, and he and Arethusa are married.
The Maid's Tragedy (1610)
John Webster (c. 1580 – c. 1634)

was an English playwright and contemporary of William Shakespeare.
He is best known for his dark, intense tragedies, often featuring
complex characters, intricate plots, and themes of revenge, betrayal,
and the darker aspects of human nature. His works were characterized
by their poetic language, psychological depth, and exploration of
human emotions. Some of his notable works include:
The White Devil (1612): This play is a tragedy that delves into the
themes of love, revenge, and betrayal. Set in Italy, it tells the story of
Vittoria Corombona, a woman who marries Brachiano, the Duke of
Brachiano. The play explores the consequences of their illicit affair and
the machinations of other characters seeking revenge and power.
The Duchess of Malfi (1612-13): This play is one of Webster's most

famous works. It tells the tragic story of the Duchess of Malfi, who
secretly marries her steward Antonio. The play is known for its
exploration of themes such as corruption, power, and the oppression of
women. It is filled with complex characters, including the Duchess's twin
brother Ferdinand, who opposes her marriage and seeks to control her.
Thomas Heywood (c. 1574 – c. 1641)

was an English playwright, poet, and actor who lived during the
Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. He was a prolific writer, known for his
contributions to various genres, including drama, poetry, and prose.
Heywood's works often focused on a diverse range of subjects,
including history, romance, and domestic tragedy. Some of his
important works include:
A Woman Killed with Kindness (1603): This domestic tragedy is one of

Heywood's best-known works. The play revolves around the story of a
wife, Anne, who is seduced by a man named Wendoll. The
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consequences of her actions and the effect on her family are explored
in a poignant and powerful manner.
Thomas Dekker
was a prolific English dramatist, poet, and pamphleteer of the late 16th
and early 17th centuries.
Dekker's first play was Old Fortunatus (1599), a comedy about a man
who is granted the gift of eternal youth and wealth. He went on to write
over 20 plays, including:
The Shoemaker's Holiday (1599)

Lust's Dominion (1600)
Satiromastix (1601)
Interregnum Period (1640-1660)

In English history, the term "interregnum" is most commonly used to
refer to the period between the execution of King Charles I on 30
January 1649 and the restoration of his son, King Charles II, on 29 May
1660. This period was a time of great political and social upheaval, as
England experimented with a variety of forms of republican
government.
The Interregnum was marked by a number of significant events,

including:
The establishment of the Commonwealth of England (1649-1660)

The rule of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England (1653-1659)
The passage of the Habeas Corpus Act (1679)
The Glorious Revolution (1688)
The Interregnum was a watershed moment in English history, and it had

a profound impact on the development of English democracy. It also
had a significant impact on English literature, as writers such as John
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Milton and William Shakespeare explored the themes of political and
social upheaval.
Here are some of the key characteristics of the Interregnum:
Political instability: The Interregnum was a period of great political

instability, as England experimented with a variety of forms of
republican government. There was a great deal of conflict between the
different factions that sought to control the country.
Social change: The Interregnum was also a time of great social change,
as the traditional social order was disrupted by the English Civil War.
The rise of the Puritan movement and the decline of the aristocracy
were two of the most significant social changes that occurred during
this period.
Religious toleration: The Interregnum was a period of relative religious
toleration, as the Puritans and other religious groups were allowed to
practice their faith freely. This was a major change from the previous
era, when England was a Catholic country.
Intellectual ferment: The Interregnum was also a period of great
intellectual ferment, as new ideas about politics, religion, and society
were debated and discussed. This was a time of great creativity and
innovation.
John Milton (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674)
was an English poet, pamphleteer, and historian, who is considered

one of the greatest English writers. He is best known for his epic poem
Paradise Lost (1667), which tells the story of the Fall of Man in nine
books. Milton also wrote several other poems, including Paradise
Regained (1671) and Samson Agonistes (1671), as well as a number of
prose works, including Areopagitica (1644), a defense of freedom of
speech.
Poetry
On the Morning of Christ's Nativity (1629): This poem celebrates the

birth of Jesus Christ as the savior of humanity. The speaker describes
the heavenly joy that surrounds Christ's birth and the hope that it brings
to the world.
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Comus (1637): This masque is a dramatic allegory about the dangers of
temptation and the power of virtue. The story follows a young woman
named Lady Virtue who is tempted by the evil sorcerer Comus.
However, Lady Virtue is able to resist temptation and defeat Comus
with the help of her brothers and the spirit of chastity.
Lycidas (1637): This elegy is a poem lamenting the death of Edward

King, a young Cambridge student who drowned at sea. The speaker of
the poem mourns the loss of King and reflects on the fragility of life.
L'Allegro (1632): This poem is a celebration of the joys of life. The

speaker describes the pleasures of the senses, the joys of nature, and
the delights of human companionship.
Il Penseroso (1632): This poem is a companion piece to L'Allegro and

celebrates the joys of contemplation. The speaker describes the
pleasures of solitude, the beauty of the night sky, and the power of the
imagination.
Paradise Lost (1667): This epic poem tells the story of the Fall of Man.
The poem follows Satan as he rebels against God and tempts Adam
and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and
Evil.
Book I
The poem opens with Satan and his fellow angels lying in the fiery lake
of Hell, having been cast out of Heaven after their rebellion against
God. Satan awakens and rallies his forces, promising them revenge
against God. He proposes that they travel to the newly created Earth
and tempt Adam and Eve to disobey God, thereby bringing sin and
death into the world.
Book II
Satan and his angels travel to Earth and find the Garden of Eden,
where Adam and Eve are living in perfect harmony with each other and
with God. Satan decides to disguise himself as a serpent and tempt
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Eve to eat the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and
Evil.
Book III
Satan finds Eve alone in the Garden and begins to tempt her by
praising her beauty and intelligence. He tells her that the forbidden fruit
will make her even more beautiful and intelligent, and that it will give
her the power to become like God.
Book IV
Eve, tempted by Satan's words, eats the forbidden fruit and gives some
of it to Adam. As soon as they have eaten the fruit, they realize that
they are naked and ashamed. They try to cover themselves with fig
leaves, but they are unable to hide their shame from God.
Book V
God sends an angel to confront Adam and Eve with their sin. The angel
tells them that they will be punished for their disobedience, and that
they will be expelled from the Garden of Eden.
Book VI
Adam and Eve are driven out of the Garden of Eden and into the world.
They must now work hard to survive, and they are constantly tempted
by Satan. However, they eventually repent of their sin and are saved by
God.
Book VII
The poem shifts focus from Adam and Eve to the story of the Archangel
Gabriel. Gabriel is sent by God to warn Adam about the dangers of
Satan's temptation. Gabriel tells Adam that he must resist temptation in
order to remain in God's favor.
Book VIII
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The poem returns to the story of Adam and Eve. Adam and Eve are
now living outside of the Garden of Eden, and they are struggling to
adjust to their new life. They are constantly tempted by Satan, and they
often fall into sin. However, they eventually repent of their sins and are
forgiven by God.
Book IX
Adam and Eve are now old and frail. They know that they will soon die,
and they begin to reflect on their lives. Adam tells Eve that he regrets
disobeying God, and that he wishes they had never eaten the forbidden
fruit.
Book X
The poem ends with the death of Adam and Eve. Their bodies are
buried in the ground, and their souls are reunited with God in Heaven.
Paradise Regained (1671): This epic poem is a sequel to Paradise Lost

and tells the story of Christ's temptation in the wilderness. The poem
follows Christ as he resists the temptations of Satan and reaffirms his
faith in God.
Samson Agonistes (1671): This tragedy is a retelling of the biblical story

of Samson, a Hebrew judge who was betrayed by his wife Delilah and
blinded by the Philistines. The play explores the themes of pride,
betrayal, and redemption.
Prose
Areopagitica (1644): A defense of freedom of the press.
Of Education (1644): A treatise on education.
The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1645): A tract arguing for the
right to divorce.
Eikonoklastes (1649): A response to a book by Charles I defending his

right to rule.
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Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (1651): A defense of the English people
against the attacks of the French government.
John Bunyan (1628-1688)

was an English author, Puritan preacher, and founder of the Pilgrim's
Progress Society. He is best known for his Christian allegory The
Pilgrim's Progress, a work of literature that has been translated into
over 200 languages and remains widely read today.
Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666): A spiritual

autobiography that describes Bunyan's conversion to Christianity.
Pilgrim’s Progress,
religious allegory by the English writer John Bunyan, published in two
parts in 1678 and 1684. The work is a symbolic vision of the good
man’s pilgrimage through life. At one time second only to the Bible in
popularity, The Pilgrim’s Progress is the most
famous Christian allegory still in print. It was first published in the reign
of Charles II and was largely written while its Puritan author was
imprisoned for offenses against the Conventicle Act of 1593 (which
prohibited the conducting of religious services outside the bailiwick of
the Church of England).
Summary
Part I
Part I (1678) is presented as the author’s dream of the trials and
adventures of Christian (an everyman figure) as he travels from his
home, the City of Destruction, to the Celestial City. Christian seeks to
rid himself of a terrible burden, the weight of his sins, that he feels after
reading a book (ostensibly the Bible). Evangelist points him toward a
wicket-gate, and he heads off, leaving his family behind. He falls into
the Slough of Despond, dragged down by his burden, but is saved by a
man named Help. Christian next meets Mr. Worldly Wiseman, who
persuades him to disregard Evangelist’s advice and instead go to the
village of Morality and seek out Mr. Legality or his son Civility. However,
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Christian’s burden becomes heavier, and he stops. Evangelist
reappears and sets him back on the path to the wicket-gate. The
gatekeeper, Good-will, lets him through and directs him to the house of
the Interpreter, where he receives instruction on Christian grace. As
Christian continues his journey, he comes upon a cross and a
sepulchre, and at that point his burden falls from his shoulders. Three
Shining Ones appear and give him a sealed scroll that he must present
when he reaches the Celestial Gate
Christian continues on his way, and when he reaches the Hill Difficulty,
he chooses the straight and narrow path. Partway up he falls asleep in
an arbor, allowing the scroll to fall from his hands. When he wakes, he
proceeds to the top of the hill only to find he must return to the arbor to
find his lost scroll. He later arrives at the palace Beautiful, where he
meets the damsels Discretion, Prudence, Piety, and Charity. They give
Christian armour, and he learns that a former neighbour, Faithful, is
traveling ahead of him.
Christian next traverses the Valley of Humiliation, where he does battle

with the monster Apollyon. He then passes through the terrifying Valley
of the Shadow of Death. Shortly afterward he catches up with Faithful.
The two enter the town of Vanity, home of the ancient Vanity Fair,
which is set up to ensnare pilgrims en route to the Celestial City. Their
strange clothing and lack of interest in the fair’s merchandise causes a
commotion, and they are arrested. Arraigned before Lord Hate-good,
Faithful is condemned to death and executed, and he is immediately
taken into the Celestial City. Christian is returned to prison, but he later
escapes.
Christian leaves Vanity, accompanied by Hopeful, who was inspired by

Faithful. Christian and Hopeful cross the plain of Ease and resist the
temptation of a silver mine. The path later becomes more difficult, and,
at Christian’s encouragement, the two travelers take an easier route,
through By-path Meadow. However, when they become lost and are
caught in a storm, Christian realizes that he has led them astray. Trying
to turn back, they stumble onto the grounds of Doubting Castle, where
they are caught, imprisoned, and beaten by the Giant Despair. At last,
Christian remembers that he has a key called Promise, which he and
Hopeful use to unlock the doors and escape. They reach the Delectable
Mountains, just outside the Celestial City, but make the mistake of
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following Flatterer and must be rescued by a Shining One. Before they
can enter the Celestial City, they must cross a river as a test of faith,
and then, after presenting their scrolls, Christian and Hopeful are
admitted into the city.
Part II
The Pilgrim's Progress
In Part II (1684) Christian’s wife, Christiana, and their sons as well as
their neighbour Mercy attempt to join him in the Celestial City. The
psychological intensity is relaxed in this section, and the capacity for
humour and realistic observation becomes more evident. Christian’s
family and Mercy—aided (physically and spiritually) by their guide
Great-heart, who slays assorted giants and monsters along the way—
have a somewhat easier time, because Christian has smoothed the
way, and even such companions as Mrs. Much-afraid and Mr. Ready-
to-halt manage to complete the journey. Whereas most of the people
encountered by Christian exemplify wrong thinking that will lead to
damnation, Christiana meets people who, with help, become worthy of
salvation. When they reach the Celestial City, Christiana’s sons and the
wives they married along the way stay behind in order to help future
pilgrims.
Restoration to Romanticism
1660–1789
The Restoration in 1660 reestablished the monarchy under Charles II,
supplanting Cromwell's Commonwealth and the Puritan ideals with a
comparatively powerless monarch influenced by French culture. It
initiated the shift from monarchical authority to a parliamentary
system, laying the groundwork for the development of the Whigs and
Tories, both benefitting from a system that promoted social stability
over dissent. In terms of intellectual thought, the era favored reason
and empiricism over the speculative approach of the Renaissance.
This period witnessed the emergence of a Protestant, middle-class
society that remained relatively unaffected by the earlier upheavals of
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the seventeenth century. The overthrow of James II in 1688, known
as the 'Glorious' or 'Bloodless' Revolution, underscored the newfound
emphasis on reason and control, in contrast to the passionate fervor
of the Renaissance. Commerce, respectability, and institutional
development became the focal points of society, leading to the
establishment of the Royal Society in 1662 for the advancement of
natural knowledge, and the subsequent founding of the Bank of
England in 1694, which would go on to hold significant future
importance.
John Dryden (1631-1700)

was an English poet, playwright, literary critic, and translator. He was a
dominant figure in English literature of the Restoration period, and his
works had a profound influence on the development of English poetry.
Poetry
Absalom and Achitophel (1681): A satiric poem about the Monmouth

Rebellion, a political uprising against King James II.
Mac Flecknoe (1682): A satiric poem attacking Thomas Shadwell,

Dryden's literary rival.
The Hind and the Panther (1687): A poem defending Dryden's

conversion to Catholicism.
Alexander's Feast (1697): An ode celebrating Alexander the Great's
victory at the Battle of Gaugamela.
Plays
The Wild Gallant (1669): A comedy about a young man who tries to
seduce a wealthy widow.
The Conquest of Granada (1670): A heroic drama about the Spanish

conquest of Granada.
Marriage à la Mode (1672): A comedy about the follies of marriage.
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All for Love (1677): A tragedy about the love affair between Antony and
Cleopatra.
Literary Criticism
Of Dramatic Poesie (1668): An essay on the nature of drama, in which

Dryden argues that English drama is superior to French drama.
The Preface to Fables Ancient and Modern (1700): An essay on the

nature of translation, in which Dryden argues that a good translation
should be both faithful to the original text and pleasing to the reader.
William Congreve (1670-1729)

was an English playwright, poet, and Whig politician. His works, which
form an important component of Restoration literature, were known for
their use of satire and the comedy of manners genre. Notable plays he
wrote include The Old Bachelor (1693), The Double Dealer (1694),
Love for Love (1695), The Mourning Bride (1697) and The Way of the
World (1700).
William Congreve's Important Works

The Old Bachelor (1693): Congreve's first play, The Old Bachelor, was
written to amuse himself while convalescing. It was produced at the
Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1693 and was a critical and commercial
success. The play is a comedy of manners, and it satirizes the follies
and pretensions of the upper classes. The central character, Heartwell,
is a wealthy but jaded bachelor who is finally persuaded to marry by his
friend, Bellmour.
The Double Dealer (1694): The Double Dealer was Congreve's second
play, and it was also a critical and commercial success. The play is a
complex comedy of entanglement, and it satirizes the hypocrisy and
deceit of the upper classes. The central character, Maskwell, is a
cunning and deceitful man who tries to double-cross everyone around
him.
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Love for Love (1695): Love for Love was Congreve's third play, and it
was his most popular play during his lifetime. The play is a witty and
sophisticated comedy, and it satirizes the vanity and extravagance of
the upper classes. The central character, Valentine, is a young man
who is trying to win the heart of a wealthy heiress named Angelica.
The Way of the World (1700): The Way of the World was Congreve's
last major play, and it is considered to be his masterpiece. The play is a
complex and witty comedy of manners, and it satirizes the affectations
and pretensions of the upper classes. The central character, Mirabell, is
a young man who is trying to win the heart of a wealthy heiress named
Millamant.
Aphra Behn (1640-1689)

was an English playwright, poet, translator, and novelist. She is
considered to be the first professional female writer in the English
language. Behn's works are known for their wit, their realism, and their
exploration of gender and social issues.
The Rover (1677): A romantic comedy about a group of English

Cavaliers who are captured by pirates in the Mediterranean.
Oroonoko (1688): A novel about an enslaved African prince who is sold

into slavery in Surinam.
Enlightenment Period
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an

intellectual and philosophical movement that originated in Europe in the
17th century and lasted until the 18th century. It was characterized by a
belief in the power of reason, skepticism, and progress.
Key Ideas of the Enlightenment
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Reason: The Enlightenment thinkers believed that reason was the key
to understanding the world and improving human society. They rejected
traditional sources of authority, such as religion and superstition, and
instead emphasized empirical observation and logical reasoning.
Skepticism: The Enlightenment thinkers were skeptical of all claims that

were not based on evidence. They questioned traditional beliefs and
institutions, and they insisted on proof before accepting anything as
true.
Alexander Pope
An Essay on Criticism (1711)
Genre: Critical essay

Themes: Nature of poetry, role of critics, importance of taste
An Essay on Criticism is a didactic poem in which Pope offers advice to
aspiring poets and critics. He argues that true taste is rare and that
critics must be careful not to judge poetry unfairly. He also emphasizes
the importance of following the rules of art, but he also allows for some
creative freedom.
The Rape of the Lock (1712, 1714)
Genre: Mock-heroic poem

Themes: Social satire, vanity, triviality
The Rape of the Lock is a satirical poem that tells the story of a society
obsessed with trivial matters. The poem is written in the style of an epic,
but it uses this style to mock the superficiality of the characters and
their world.
An Essay on Man (1733–1734)
Genre: Philosophical poem

Themes: Nature of man, place of man in the universe, limits of human
knowledge
An Essay on Man is a philosophical poem that explores the nature of
man and his place in the universe. Pope argues that man is a limited
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creature who cannot fully understand the world around him. However,
he also argues that man is capable of great things, and he should strive
to live a virtuous life.
The Dunciad (1728)
Genre: Satirical poem

Themes: Literary criticism, satire, mediocrity
The Dunciad is a satirical poem that attacks the state of English
literature. Pope mocks a number of contemporary writers, whom he
accuses of being untalented and unoriginal. The poem is full of vitriol
and invective, but it is also witty and clever.
Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

was an Anglo-Irish satirist, author, essayist, political pamphleteer (first
for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet, and Anglican cleric who
became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, hence his common
sobriquet, "Dean Swift". He is best known for his works such as A Tale
of a Tub (1704), An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity (1712),
Gulliver's Travels (1726), and A Modest Proposal (1729).
A Tale of a Tub (1704)
A Tale of a Tub is a satirical work that attacks the Roman Catholic

Church and the Church of England. The story is told in the style of a
religious allegory, but it is actually a complex and ironic critique of
religious hypocrisy and fanaticism.
Gulliver's Travels (1726)
Gulliver's Travels is a novel that tells the story of Lemuel Gulliver, a

sailor who travels to four fantastical lands: Lilliput, Brobdingnag,
Laputa, and Houyhnhnmland. The novel is a satire of human nature,
and it explores themes of power, corruption, and the relationship
between humans and animals.
A Modest Proposal (1729)
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A Modest Proposal is a satirical essay in which Swift proposes that the
Irish people should sell their children to the wealthy as food. The essay
is a shocking and provocative indictment of the English government's
exploitation of Ireland.
Richard Steele
was a playwright, essayist, and politician. He was a Whig and a
supporter of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was also a friend of
Isaac Newton and John Locke. Steele's most famous works include:
The Tender Husband (1705): A comedy about marriage.

The Tatler (1709-1711): A periodical that Steele founded with Joseph
Addison.
Joseph Addison
was a poet, essayist, and playwright. He was a Tory and a supporter of
the monarchy. He was also a friend of Alexander Pope and Jonathan
Swift. Addison's most famous works include:
The Spectator (1711-1712): A periodical that Addison and Richard

Steele continued together after The Tatler ceased publication.
Cato (1713): A tragedy about the Roman statesman Cato the Younger.
Steele and Addison began collaborating on The Tatler in 1709. The

periodical was a great success, and it helped to popularize the essay
form. Steele and Addison wrote about a variety of topics, including
politics, fashion, and literature. They also wrote about social issues,
such as the role of women and the importance of education.
The Tatler ceased publication in 1711, but Steele and Addison

continued their collaboration on The Spectator, which ran from 1711 to
1712. The Spectator was even more successful than The Tatler, and it
is considered to be one of the most important works of English
literature.
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Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
was a prolific English writer who is considered one of the greatest
figures of the English Enlightenment. He was a poet, playwright,
essayist, critic, lexicographer, biographer, and editor.
Major Works
A Dictionary of the English Language (1755): Johnson's monumental
work, the first comprehensive English dictionary, was a landmark in
lexicography. It is still considered to be a valuable resource for the
study of English language and literature.
The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749): A satirical poem that explores the
theme of human vanity and the futility of worldly pursuits.
Rasselas: Prince of Abissinia (1759): An allegorical novella that tells the

story of Prince Rasselas, who seeks happiness by traveling the world.
The novella is a critique of the pursuit of happiness and a meditation on
the nature of human existence.
Note:
Life of Samuel Johnson (1791): Boswell's famous biography of
Johnson is one of the most important works of biographical
literature. It provides a vivid and insightful portrait of Johnson's
life and character.
Other notable works
The Rambler (1750-1752): A series of periodical essays that explore a

wide range of topics, including literature, philosophy, and politics.
The Idler (1758-1760): Another series of periodical essays that

continued the tradition of The Rambler.
The Lives of the Poets (1779-1781): Johnson's critical biography of the

most important English poets from Chaucer to Dryden.
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Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)
was an English writer and journalist who is considered one of the
pioneers of the English novel. He is best known for his novel Robinson
Crusoe (1719), which is considered one of the most influential novels
ever written.
Major Works
Robinson Crusoe (1719): A novel about a man who is shipwrecked on a
desert island and struggles to survive. The novel is a classic of
adventure literature and a meditation on human nature and the quest
for meaning.
Moll Flanders (1722): A novel about a woman who is born into poverty
and becomes a prostitute and thief. The novel is a gritty and realistic
portrayal of the lives of the poor and marginalized in 18th-century
England.
A Journal of the Plague Year (1722): A fictionalized account of the
Great Plague of London in 1665. The novel is a chilling and
suspenseful story that offers a vivid portrayal of the horrors of the
plague.
Roxana is born into a poor family in London. She is forced to work as a
servant, but she is determined to escape her humble beginnings. She
eventually becomes the mistress of a wealthy merchant, who provides
her with a comfortable life. However, Roxana's fortune is not without its
risks. She is constantly pursued by men who want to take advantage of
her, and she is always on the lookout for the next opportunity to
improve her position.
Roxana's story is a cautionary tale about the dangers of ambition and

the pursuit of wealth. It is also a celebration of female strength and
resilience. The novel has been praised for its vivid characters, its fast-
paced plot, and its exploration of complex social and moral issues.
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Henry Fielding (1707-1754)
Henry Fielding was an English writer and magistrate known for his wit,
satire, and realism in his works. He is considered one of the founders of
the English novel and a key figure in the development of literary
realism. His most famous work is the novel The History of Tom Jones, a
Foundling, published in 1749, which is considered a masterpiece of
comic fiction.
Fielding's other notable works include:
Shamela (1741) by Henry Fielding is a short novel that satirizes Samuel

Richardson's novel Pamela. It tells the story of a servant girl named
Pamela Andrews who tries to resist the advances of her master, Mr. B.
However, Pamela is eventually seduced by Mr. B, and they marry.
Joseph Andrews (1742): A comic novel that parodies Samuel

Richardson's novel Pamela.
The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749) by Henry Fielding is a

comic novel that tells the story of a young man named Tom Jones who
is raised as a foundling by a wealthy man. Tom is a kind-hearted but
impulsive young man who gets into many scrapes and adventures. He
eventually falls in love with Sophia Western, but their relationship is
complicated by the interference of others.
Amelia (1752): A novel that tells the story of a virtuous woman who
suffers misfortune and hardship.
Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)

was an English writer and printer best known for his epistolary novels,
which are considered masterpieces of English literature. He is
considered one of the founders of the English novel.
Richardson's most famous works are:
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Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (1740–1761): A novel in the form of letters
between a young servant girl named Pamela and her employer, Mr. B.
Pamela resists Mr. B's advances, and he eventually marries her as a
reward for her virtue.
Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady (1747–1749): A novel in the

form of letters between a young woman named Clarissa Harlowe and
her family and friends. Clarissa is forced to marry a man she does not
love, and she eventually dies from her heartbreak.
The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753–1754): A novel in the form

of letters between a wealthy gentleman named Sir Charles Grandison
and his family and friends. Sir Charles is a model of Christian virtue,
and he is eventually rewarded with a happy marriage.
Tobias Smollett (1721-1771)

was a Scottish novelist, surgeon, critic, and playwright. He is best
known for his picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick
Random (1748), The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751), and The
Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771).
Major Works
The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748): A picaresque novel about

a young man who struggles to make his way in the world. The novel is
full of adventure, humor, and satire.
Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

was an Anglo-Irish novelist and clergyman who is best known for his
novels The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759–
1767) and A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy (1768). He
is considered one of the most important figures in the development of
the English novel.
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Major Works
The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759–1767)

Sterne's most famous novel, Tristram Shandy is a comic and
experimental novel that tells the story of the narrator's life from
conception to adulthood. The novel is full of digressions, asides, and
unconventional storytelling techniques.
Charlotte Lennox (1729-1804)

was a Scottish-born English novelist, poet, and essayist. She is best
known for her novel The Female Quixote (1752), which is considered
one of the earliest feminist novels in English literature. Lennox was also
a prolific writer of poetry and essays, and she was a member of the
literary circle known as the Bluestockings.
The Female Quixote (1752)
Lennox's most famous novel, The Female Quixote is a satire of the

novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. The novel tells the story of
Arabella, a woman who becomes obsessed with the chivalric romances
of Spain and sets out to right wrong in the real world.
Thomas Gray (1716-1771)

was an English poet, known for his elegies, odes, and sonnets. He was
part of a group of English poets from the 18th century who are now
collectively known as the Romantic Poets.
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751): Gray's most famous

poem, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard is an elegy for the
common man, celebrating the simple beauty of rural life.
Oliver Goldsmith (1728–1774)

was an Anglo-Irish novelist, playwright, and essayist, who is noted for
his novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), his pastoral poem The
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Deserted Village (1770), and his plays The Good Natur'd Man (1768)
and She Stoops to Conquer (1773). He is thought by some to have
written the classic children's tale The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes
(1765).
Major Works
The Citizen of the World (1762)
The Vicar of Wakefield (1766)
The Deserted Village (1770)
The Good-Natur'd Man (1768)
She Stoops to Conquer (1773)
William Blake (1757-1827)

was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. He is known for his
unique and visionary style, as well as his complex and often
contradictory beliefs. Blake's work has had a profound influence on
later artists and writers.
Poetry
Songs of Innocence (1789): This collection of poems celebrates the

joys of childhood and nature.
Songs of Experience (1794): This collection of poems is darker and

more complex than Songs of Innocence, exploring themes of loss,
betrayal, and despair.
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790): This prose poem is a radical
and subversive work that challenges traditional religious and social
norms.
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Romanticism
Romanticism in English literature emerged in the late 18th and early
19th centuries, marking a significant shift in literary expression and
themes. It represented a reaction against the prevailing Enlightenment
ideals of reason, rationality, and order, emphasizing instead emotion,
imagination, and individualism.
Key Characteristics of Romanticism in English Literature
Emphasis on Emotion and Imagination: Romanticism placed a strong

emphasis on the power of emotion and imagination, rejecting the
Enlightenment's focus on reason and logic. Romantic writers believed
that emotions and imagination were essential sources of knowledge
and truth.
Celebration of Nature: Romantic writers saw nature as a source of

beauty, inspiration, and spiritual connection. They often used nature
imagery to convey their emotions and ideas.
Individualism and Rebellion: Romanticism emphasized the individual's

unique experiences and feelings. Romantic writers often portrayed
rebellious characters who challenged societal norms and authority.
Interest in the Supernatural and Exotic: Romantic writers were

fascinated by the supernatural, the exotic, and the unfamiliar. They
often incorporated these elements into their works, creating a sense of
mystery and wonder.
William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850)
was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge,
helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint
publication Lyrical Ballads (1798). Wordsworth is best known for his
meditative nature poems and for his autobiography in verse, The
Prelude. Wordsworth was born in Cockermouth, Cumberland, England,
and educated at Hawkshead Grammar School and St John's College,
Cambridge. After graduating, he traveled in France and Germany,
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where he was deeply influenced by the French Revolution. He returned
to England in 1793 and settled in the Lake District, where he began to
write poetry in earnest.
Lyrical Ballads
In 1798, Wordsworth and Coleridge published a volume of poetry called

Lyrical Ballads. The volume was intended to be a manifesto for a new
kind of poetry that would use the language of ordinary people to speak
about ordinary subjects. Wordsworth's contributions to Lyrical Ballads
included "The Ruined Cottage" and "Lines Written a Few Miles above
Tintern Abbey." Lyrical Ballads was not a commercial success, but it
was critically acclaimed and had a profound influence on the
development of English poetry. The volume helped to establish
Wordsworth as a leading figure in the Romantic movement.
The Prelude
Wordsworth's magnum opus is The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical

poem of his early years. He began writing The Prelude in 1798 and
worked on it intermittently for the rest of his life. The poem was not
published until after Wordsworth's death in 1850. The Prelude is a long
and complex poem, but it is also a deeply personal and moving one. In
the poem, Wordsworth traces the development of his own poetic
sensibility and his relationship with nature. He also reflects on the
events of his own life, including the French Revolution and the death of
his brother.
Poems in Two Volumes (1807), which includes the famous poem "I
Wandered Lonely as a Cloud"
The Excursion (1814), a long narrative poem
The Recluse (1814), a philosophical poem
The Sonnets (1845)
Shorter Poems
 Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey (1798): This poem
is a meditation on the power of memory and the beauty of nature.
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 I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (1807): This poem is a celebration
of the beauty of daffodils.
 Resolution and Independence (1807): This poem tells the story of

an old man who finds inspiration in a leech-gatherer.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (19 October 1772 – 25 July 1834)

was an English Romantic poet, philosopher, literary critic, journalist,
and Unitarian minister. He was best known for his poems "The Rime of
the Ancient Mariner" and "Kubla Khan," and for his association with the
early Romantic movement and the Lake Poets.
 Kubla Khan (1816): This visionary poem is Coleridge's most

famous work. It was inspired by a dream that Coleridge had after
taking opium.
 Biographia Literaria (1817): This work of literary criticism is

considered one of the most important works of its kind in English
literature. In it, Coleridge explores the nature of poetry and
imagination.
 The Friend (1809–1810): This series of essays is a wide-ranging

exploration of politics, religion, and philosophy.
 Lay Sermons (1817): This collection of sermons is a thoughtful

exploration of Christian faith.
 Aids to Reflection (1825): This book is a philosophical exploration

of the nature of religion.
Robert Southey (12 August 1774 – 21 March 1843)

was an English poet, author, historian, and essayist. He was appointed
Poet Laureate in 1813 and is best known for his epic poems Joan of
Arc (1796) and Thalaba the Destroyer (1801), as well as his
biographies of Nelson (1813) and Wesley (1820).
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Joan of Arc (1796): This epic poem tells the story of Joan of Arc, the
Maid of Orléans, who led the French army to victory against the English
in the Hundred Years' War.
Thalaba the Destroyer (1801): This epic poem tells the story of
Thalaba, an Arab warrior who is sent on a mission to destroy the
idolaters of his people.
Percy Bysshe Shelley (4 August 1792 – 8 July 1822) was an

English Romantic poet, considered among the major figures of the
Romantic Movement and one of the most influential English-language
poets. His poetry is characterized by its lyrical beauty, radical social
and political ideas, and its exploration of a wide range of philosophical
and spiritual themes.
Queen Mab (1813): This long poem is a radical political and

philosophical treatise.
Prometheus Unbound (1820): This dramatic poem is a retelling of the

Greek myth of Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and gave it to
humanity.
Ode to the West Wind (1819): This ode is a meditation on the power of
nature and the role of the poet as a social reformer.
The Mask of Anarchy (1819):
Ozymandias (1818): This sonnet is a meditation on the transience of

power and the futility of ambition.
To a Skylark (1820): This ode is a celebration of the skylark's song and

its ability to inspire the poet.
The Triumph of Life (1822): This unfinished poem is an allegory of the

human condition.
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George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron
(22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), commonly known as Lord Byron,
was an English poet, peer, and satirist, who is considered among the
major figures of the Romantic Movement and one of the most influential
English-language poets.
Important Works of Lord Byron
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–18): This long poem tells the story of
a disillusioned young man who travels the world in search of meaning
and adventure.
The Corsair (1814): This narrative poem tells the story of Conrad, a
pirate who is haunted by his past.
Lara (1814): This narrative poem tells the story of Lara, a mysterious
nobleman who is consumed by guilt and remorse.
The Giaour (1813): This narrative poem tells the story of Giaour, a
Turkish warrior who falls in love with a Christian woman.
The Bride of Abydos (1813): This narrative poem tells the story of
Selim, a Turkish prince who falls in love with a Greek woman.
John Keats (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821)

was an English Romantic poet who was considered one of the major
figures of the Romantic Movement and one of the most influential
English-language poets. His work is characterized by its sensuous
imagery, its exploration of beauty and mortality, and its celebration of
the human spirit.
Important Works of John Keats
Endymion (1818): This long poem tells the story of Endymion, a

shepherd who falls in love with Cynthia, the moon goddess.
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The Eve of St. Agnes (1820): This narrative poem tells the story of
Madeline, a young woman who dreams of her true love on the eve of
St. Agnes.
Hyperion (1820): This unfinished epic poem tells the story of the Titans,
who are overthrown by the Olympians.
Ode to a Nightingale (1820): This ode is a meditation on the power of

poetry to transport the reader to another world.
Ode on a Grecian Urn (1820): This ode is a meditation on the

relationship between art and life.
Ode to Psyche (1820): This ode is a celebration of love and beauty.
La Belle Dame sans Merci (1820): This ballad tells the story of a knight
who is seduced by a fairy.
The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream (1821): This poem is a reworking of

Keats's earlier poem "Hyperion."
The Eve of St. Mark (1821): This poem is a fragment of a longer work
that Keats never completed.
To Autumn (1820): This ode is a celebration of the beauty of autumn.
Sir Walter Scott (15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832)

was a Scottish historical novelist, poet, and playwright. Best known for
his historical novels, which include Waverley (1814), Ivanhoe (1819),
and Rob Roy (1817), he is considered one of the founders of the
historical novel genre.
Important Works of Walter Scott
Waverley (1814): This novel is set during the Jacobite Rebellion of

1745 and tells the story of Edward Waverley, an English soldier who
fights for the Scottish rebels.
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The Heart of Midlothian (1818): This novel is set in Scotland in the early
18th century and tells the story of Jeanie Deans, a young woman who
sets out to save her sister from execution for murder
Ivanhoe (1819): This novel is set in England in the 12th century and
tells the story of Ivanhoe, a Saxon knight who fights for Richard the
Lionheart against the Norman invaders.
Quentin Durward (1823): This novel is set in France in the 15th century
and tells the story of Quentin Durward, a Scottish archer who fights for
Louis XI against the Duke of Burgundy.
Thomas De Quincey (August 15, 1785 – December 8, 1859)

was an English writer, essayist, and literary critic, best known for his
autobiographical account of opium addiction, Confessions of an English
Opium-Eater (1821).
Confessions of an English Opium-Eater (1821): This autobiographical

account of opium addiction is De Quincey's most famous work. It is a
groundbreaking work of literature that explores the effects of drugs on
the mind and body.
On Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts (1827): This essay is a

dark and humorous exploration of murder.
The English Mail-Coach (1849): This essay is a nostalgic and evocative

description of a journey by stagecoach.
Jane Austen (16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817)

was an English novelist known for her wit, irony, and observations of the social
class of the Regency era in England. Her works are considered classics in
English literature.
Important Works of Jane Austen
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 Pride and Prejudice (1813): This novel is a witty and insightful portrayal of
love and marriage in Regency-era England. It tells the story of Elizabeth
Bennet, a spirited young woman who must overcome her pride and
prejudice to find true love.
 Sense and Sensibility (1811): This novel is a contrast of two sisters: Elinor
Dashwood, who is rational and sensible, and Marianne Dashwood, who is
romantic and passionate. The novel explores the importance of both sense
and sensibility in finding happiness and fulfillment in life.
Emma (1815): This novel tells the story of Emma Woodhouse, a clever
and interfering young woman who meddles in the lives of her friends
and neighbors. The novel explores the dangers of arrogance and the
importance of self-awareness.
Mansfield Park (1814): This novel tells the story of Fanny Price, a
young woman who is raised by her wealthy uncle and aunt. The novel
explores the themes of duty, family, and social class.
Northanger Abbey (1818): This novel is a satire of Gothic novels. It tells

the story of Catherine Morland, a young woman who is obsessed with
Gothic literature and who imagines that she has found mystery and
intrigue in her everyday life.
Persuasion (1818): This novel tells the story of Anne Elliot, a young
woman who is persuaded to break off her engagement with a man she
loves. The novel explores the themes of love, regret, and second
chances.
Horace Walpole (24 September 1717 – 2 March 1797)

was an English writer, connoisseur, and collector known for his novel
The Castle of Otranto (1764), the first Gothic novel in the English
language and one of the earliest literary horror stories.
Important Works of Horace Walpole
The Castle of Otranto (1764): This novel is a pioneering work of Gothic

fiction. It tells the story of Manfred, a nobleman who is haunted by a
supernatural curse.
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Strawberry Hill (1747): Walpole's Gothic Revival villa, located in
Twickenham, England, became a center for the Gothic Revival
movement in architecture and design.
Richard Brinsley Sheridan (30 October 1751 – 7 July 1816)

was an Irish-born playwright, politician, and theatre manager, best
known for his comedies The Rivals (1775), The School for Scandal
(1777), and The Critic (1779). He was also a member of the British
Parliament from 1780 to 1812.
Important Works of Richard Brinsley Sheridan
The Rivals (1775): This comedy of manners tells the story of Jack
Absolute, a young man who pretends to be a wealthy suitor in order to
win the love of Julia.
The School for Scandal (1777): This comedy of manners satirizes the
social and political life of 18th-century London. The play tells the story
of Charles Surface, a young man who is trying to keep up with the
appearance of wealth and respectability.
The Critic (1779): This farce is a satire of theatre criticism. The play tells
the story of Mr. Puff, a theater manager who tries to persuade a wealthy
critic to give his play a good review.
Victorianism
Victorianism was a wide-ranging cultural movement that originated in
the United Kingdom during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901).
The movement had a profound impact on British society and culture,
and its influence was felt throughout the British Empire and beyond.
Characteristics of Victorianism
Victorianism was characterized by a number of key features, including:
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Strict moral values: Victorians believed in hard work, thrift,
respectability, and piety. They were also very conservative in their views
on sexuality and gender roles.
Rapid industrialization: The Victorian era saw a dramatic increase in

industrialization, as Britain transformed from a predominantly
agricultural society to an industrial powerhouse. This led to a massive
increase in wealth and productivity, but also to social problems such as
pollution, child labor, and slum conditions.
Social reform: The Victorian era was a time of great social reform.
Reformers such as Charles Dickens and Elizabeth Fry campaigned for
improved working conditions, education for the poor, and prison reform.
Their efforts led to a number of important reforms, including the Factory
Act of 1833, which limited child labor, and the Public Health Act of 1848,
which improved sanitation and public health.
Alfred Lord Tennyson

was a renowned English poet who produced numerous influential works
during his prolific career. Among his most celebrated pieces are:
In Memoriam A.H.H. (1850): A long elegy composed over 17 years in

memory of Tennyson's close friend Arthur Henry Hallam. It delves into
themes of grief, faith, and the immortality of the soul.
Idylls of the King (1859): A cycle of narrative poems based on the

Arthurian legends, portraying King Arthur's noble reign, his knights'
chivalry, and the moral dilemmas they face.
The Charge of the Light Brigade (1854): A stirring ballad

commemorating the heroic but ill-fated cavalry charge during the Battle
of Balaclava in the Crimean War. It captures the bravery and sacrifice of
the soldiers.
Ulysses (1833): A dramatic monologue spoken by the aging Greek hero

Odysseus, reflecting on his past adventures, his yearning for further
exploration, and his acceptance of mortality.
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Locksley Hall (1842): A narrative poem exploring themes of love, loss,
and disillusionment, told through the first-person perspective of a man
reminiscing about his past romance.
The Lady of Shalott (1833): A ballad about a woman cursed to weave a

tapestry while reflecting the outside world only in a mirror, symbolizing
her isolation and yearning for love.
Crossing the Bar (1889): A short, meditative poem that contemplates

death and the anticipation of crossing over to the unknown, often
interpreted as a metaphor for the soul's journey.
Robert Browning (1812-1889)

was an English poet and playwright whose dramatic monologues put
him high among Victorian poets.
Pauline (1833): Browning's first major work, this long poem tells the
story of a young poet's spiritual and emotional development.
Men and Women (1855): A collection of Browning's most famous

dramatic monologues, this work includes such classics as "My Last
Duchess," "Andrea del Sarto," and "Fra Lippo Lippi."
Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882)

was an English poet, painter, translator, and illustrator who was a
leading figure in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
The Blessed Damozel (1847-1870): A long poem about a woman who

is in love with an angel.
Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830-1894)

was an English poet who was known for her romantic, devotional, and
children's poems. She was a sister of the artist and poet Dante Gabriel
Rossetti.
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Goblin Market and Other Poems (1862): This collection of poems
includes some of Rossetti's most famous works, such as "Goblin
Market" and "Remember."
Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889): was an English poet and

Jesuit priest whose innovative use of language and rhythm made him
one of the most influential poets of the late 19th century.
The Wreck of the Deutschland (1875): A long poem about the

shipwreck of a German ship in 1875.
The Windhover (1877): A sonnet about a kestrel
Charles Dickens (1812-1870): was a renowned English novelist,

journalist, and social critic who produced iconic works that continue to
be widely read and admired today. His novels are known for their vivid
characters, humor, social commentary, and exploration of human
nature.
Pickwick Papers (1836): Dickens's first novel, a humorous and episodic

account of the adventures of the Pickwick Club, a group of gentlemen
who travel around England in search of adventure.
Oliver Twist (1838): A novel about a young orphan who is raised in a

workhouse and then sold to a criminal gang.
Nicholas Nickleby (1839): A novel about a young man who is sent to

work in a Yorkshire boarding school after his father's death.
The Old Curiosity Shop (1841): A novel about a young girl and her
grandfather who run a curiosity shop in London.
A Christmas Carol (1843): A novella about a miserly old man who is

visited by three ghosts on Christmas Eve.
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Dombey and Son (1848): A novel about a proud and wealthy
businessman who is ruined by his pride.
David Copperfield (1850): A semi-autobiographical novel about a young

man's coming of age.
Bleak House (1853): A novel about a lawsuit that drags on for years
and affects the lives of many people.
Hard Times (1854): A novel about the effects of industrialism on the

working class.
Great Expectations (1861): A novel about a young man who is raised in

poverty and then given a fortune by an unknown benefactor.
Mary Ann Evans, better known by her pen name George

Eliot
was a renowned English novelist, poet, journalist, translator, and one of
the leading writers of the Victorian era. She was known for her
psychological depth of her characters, her descriptions of English rural
life, and her insightful exploration of social and moral issues.
Adam Bede (1859): Set in rural England in the early 19th century, this
novel explores themes of love, betrayal, and redemption. Adam Bede, a
carpenter, falls in love with Hester, a servant girl, but she becomes
pregnant by another man and is forced to leave the village. Adam
eventually marries Hetty Sorrel, a young woman who is seduced by the
local squire. The novel follows the lives of these characters as they deal
with the consequences of their actions.
The Mill on the Floss (1860): This novel tells the story of Maggie
Tulliver, a young woman who is torn between her love for her brother,
Tom, and her duty to her family. Maggie makes a series of mistakes that
lead to her downfall, but she ultimately finds peace and redemption.
Silas Marner (1861): Set in rural England in the 18th century, this novel
tells the story of Silas Marner, a weaver who is falsely accused of theft
and exiled from his village. Silas eventually finds happiness when he
adopts a young orphan girl.
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Felix Holt, the Radical (1866): Set in the industrial Midlands of England
in the 1830s, this novel tells the story of Felix Holt, a radical reformer
who fights for social change.
Middlemarch (1871-1872): This novel is set in the fictional town of

Middlemarch in the early 19th century. It follows the lives of a group of
interconnected characters as they deal with love, loss, ambition, and
social change.
Daniel Deronda (1876): This novel tells the story of Daniel Deronda, a
young man who is torn between his Jewish heritage and his desire to
assimilate into English society.
Charlotte Brontë
(1816-1855) was an English novelist, poet, and one of the leading

figures of the Victorian era. She is best known for her novel "Jane Eyre"
(1847), which is considered a classic of English literature. Brontë's
novels are characterized by their passionate storytelling, their complex
characters, and their insightful exploration of social and psychological
issues.
Jane Eyre (1847): Brontë's most famous novel is a coming-of-age story

about an orphaned girl who is raised in a harsh boarding school and
then goes on to work as a governess for a wealthy family. The novel is
known for its passionate love story, its exploration of social class and
gender roles, and its unique and memorable characters.
Shirley (1849): Set in Yorkshire, England, during the Luddite riots of the
early 19th century, this novel tells the story of Shirley Keeldar, a proud
and independent woman who becomes involved in the struggle
between the workers and the mill owners.
Villette (1853): This novel is set in a fictional town in Belgium and tells
the story of Lucy Snowe, a young woman who goes to work as an
English teacher at a girls' school. The novel is known for its complex
and introspective narrator, its vivid descriptions of life in a foreign
country, and its exploration of themes of love, loss, and identity.
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The Professor (1857): This novel tells the story of William Crimsworth, a
young man who travels to Brussels to study and then becomes involved
in a love triangle with a wealthy widow and her cousin.
Emily Jane Brontë
(1818-1848) was an English novelist and poet who produced some of

the most remarkable and enduring works of Victorian literature.
Although she only published one novel, Wuthering Heights (1847), her
unique and passionate writing style, coupled with her complex
characters and exploration of profound human emotions, has secured
her place among the greatest writers of the English language.
Wuthering Heights (1847)

Emily Brontë's sole novel, Wuthering Heights, is a masterpiece of
Gothic literature that has captivated readers for generations. Set on the
rugged moors of Yorkshire, England, the novel tells the story of the
passionate and destructive love between Heathcliff, a mistreated
foundling, and Catherine Earnshaw, the daughter of a wealthy
landowner. Their intense bond, marked by both love and hatred,
endures through years of separation and betrayal, shaping the lives of
their children and leaving an indelible mark on the generations that
follow.
Anne Brontë
(17 January 1820 – 28 May 1849) was an English novelist and poet.
She was the youngest of the six Brontë children, and the only one to
survive into adulthood. Her two most famous works are her novels
Agnes Grey (1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848).
Agnes Grey (1847): Anne Brontë's first novel, Agnes Grey, is a realistic
and unsentimental depiction of the life of a governess in early 19th-
century England. The novel follows Agnes Grey, a young woman who is
forced to work as a governess to support herself after her father's
death. She experiences the harsh realities of working for a wealthy
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family, including the demands of her employers, the challenges of
disciplining children, and the loneliness of her position.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

(22 May 1859 – 7 July 1930) was a British writer and physician, most
famous for creating the character Sherlock Holmes.
A Study in Scarlet (1887)
This novel introduces Sherlock Holmes and his friend and biographer,
Dr. John Watson. Holmes is a brilliant detective who uses his unique
powers of observation and deduction to solve crimes. Watson is a loyal
companion who is often in awe of Holmes's abilities. The novel is set in
London and follows Holmes and Watson as they investigate the murder
of a man named Joseph Bartholomew.
The Sign of the Four (1890)

This novel is a sequel to A Study in Scarlet. Holmes and Watson are
hired by a young woman named Mary Morstan to investigate the
disappearance of her father, who went missing years ago after finding a
treasure hoard. The novel is set in London and includes elements of
adventure and suspense.
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1892)

This collection of short stories features twelve of Sherlock Holmes's
most famous cases. The stories are told from Watson's perspective and
showcase Holmes's brilliance and ingenuity as he solves a variety of
crimes, including murder, blackmail, and theft.
The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1894)

This collection of short stories features nine more of Sherlock Holmes's
most famous cases. The stories are told from Watson's perspective and
further demonstrate Holmes's extraordinary detective skills.
The Hound of the Baskervilles (1902)
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This novel is considered to be one of the best of Sherlock Holmes's
adventures. Holmes and Watson are hired by a man named Sir Charles
Baskerville to investigate the death of his uncle, who was killed by a
mysterious hound. The novel is set on Dartmoor and features elements
of horror and suspense.
The Return of Sherlock Holmes (1903)

This collection of short stories features thirteen more of Sherlock
Holmes's most famous cases. The stories are set after Holmes's
supposed death in the story "The Final Problem" and showcase his
return to crime-solving.
Thomas Hardy (2 June 1840 – 11 January 1928)

was an English novelist and poet. A Victorian realist in the tradition of
George Eliot, he was influenced both in his novels and in his poetry by
Romanticism, including the poetry of William Wordsworth. He was
highly critical of much in Victorian society, especially on the declining
status of rural people in Britain, such as those from his native South
West England.
Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891)
Tess of the d'Urbervilles is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the story
of Tess Durbeyfield, a young woman who is forced into prostitution and
eventually murdered. The novel is set in England in the late 19th
century and explores themes of class, gender, and fate.
Far from the Madding Crowd (1874)
Far from the Madding Crowd is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the
story of Bathsheba Everdene, a young woman who inherits a farm and
must learn to run it herself. The novel is set in England in the mid-19th
century and explores themes of independence, love, and betrayal.
The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886)
The Mayor of Casterbridge is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the

story of Michael Henchard, a man who rises to prominence in the town
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of Casterbridge only to have his past catch up with him and destroy his
reputation. The novel is set in England in the early 19th century and
explores themes of ambition, guilt, and redemption.
Jude the Obscure (1895)
Jude the Obscure is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the story of
Jude Fawley, a man who dreams of becoming a scholar but is thwarted
by his poverty and lack of social standing. The novel is set in England in
the late 19th century and explores themes of education, class, and
social mobility.
Return of the Native (1878)
The Return of the Native is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the story
of Clym Yeobright, a young man who returns to his native village after a
time away and tries to reform the community. The novel is set in
England in the mid-19th century and explores themes of change,
tradition, and the conflict between the individual and society.
The Woodlanders (1887)
The Woodlanders is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the story of

Giles Winterborne, a man who lives in the woods with his wife and
daughter. The novel is set in England in the mid-19th century and
explores themes of nature, isolation, and love.
Under the Greenwood Tree (1872)
Under the Greenwood Tree is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the
story of Dick Dewey, a young man who falls in love with Fancy Day, a
dairymaid. The novel is set in England in the early 19th century and
explores themes of love, courtship, and rustic life.
The Trumpet-Major (1880)
The Trumpet-Major is a novel by Thomas Hardy that tells the story of

John Lews, a young man who is in love with two women. The novel is
set in England in the early 19th century and explores themes of love,
rivalry, and the Napoleonic Wars.
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Wessex Tales (1888)
Wessex Tales is a collection of short stories by Thomas Hardy that are

set in the fictional county of Wessex. The stories explore a variety of
themes, including love, loss, and the human condition.
William Wilkie Collins

(8 January 1824 – 23 September 1889) was an English novelist,
playwright, and journalist. He is best known for his sensation novels,
which were characterized by their suspenseful plots, vivid characters,
and exploration of social issues.
Important Works
The Woman in White (1860): This novel is considered one of the first
sensation novels, and it is one of Collins's most famous works. The
novel tells the story of Laura Fairlie, a young woman who is haunted by
a mysterious woman in white.
No Name (1862): This novel is another example of Collins's sensation

fiction. The novel tells the story of Magdalen Vanstone, a young woman
who is raised in secrecy and must discover her true identity.
Armadale (1866): This novel is a complex and suspenseful tale of love,

betrayal, and revenge. The novel tells the story of Allan Armadale, a
young man who is haunted by the sins of his father.
The Moonstone (1868): This novel is often considered Collins's

masterpiece. The novel tells the story of the theft of a priceless
diamond, and it follows the complex chain of events that leads to the
diamond's recovery.
John Ruskin (February 8, 1819 – January 20, 1900) was an English

polymath, art critic, and one of the most influential figures in the history
of aesthetic thought. He was also a social reformer and philanthropist.
Modern Painters (1843-1860)
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Modern Painters is a five-volume work of art criticism by John Ruskin,
in which he analyzed the principles and development of landscape
painting. Ruskin believed that landscape painting should be focused on
the accurate and detailed representation of nature, and he criticized the
work of many of his contemporaries who he felt had strayed from this
ideal.
The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849)
The Seven Lamps of Architecture is an essay by John Ruskin in which

he outlined the principles of good architecture. Ruskin believed that
architecture should be both beautiful and functional, and he criticized
the work of many of his contemporaries who he felt had neglected one
or the other of these qualities.
The Stones of Venice (1851-1853)
The Stones of Venice is a three-volume work of art history and criticism

by John Ruskin, in which he analyzed the architecture of Venice.
Ruskin believed that Venetian architecture was the most perfect
example of Gothic architecture, and he praised it for its beauty, its
craftsmanship, and its symbolism.
Matthew Arnold
(December 24, 1822 – April 15, 1888) was an English poet, literary
critic, and cultural critic of the Victorian era, best known for his verses
and his essay, "Culture and Anarchy."
Dover Beach (1867)

Dover Beach is one of Arnold's most famous poems. It is a meditation
on the decline of faith and the rise of skepticism in the Victorian era.
The poem is set on the Dover coast, and it describes the view of the
sea from the cliffs.
Empedocles on Etna (1852)

Empedocles on Etna is a long philosophical poem by Arnold. It is based
on the life of the Greek philosopher Empedocles, who committed
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suicide by jumping into the crater of Mount Etna. The poem is a
meditation on the nature of reality, the meaning of life, and the
possibility of happiness.
The Scholar-Gipsy (1853)

The Scholar-Gipsy is a narrative poem by Arnold. It is about a young
man who leaves Oxford to live a wandering life in the countryside. The
poem is a celebration of the beauty of nature and the simple life.
Thyrsis (1866)
This is an elegy by Arnold. It is a lament for the death of Arnold's friend,
the poet Arthur Hugh Clough. The poem is set in the countryside, and it
describes the beauty of the natural world.
To Marguerite: Continued (1852)

To Marguerite: Continued is a sonnet by Arnold. It is a love poem, but it
is also a poem about the passage of time and the inevitability of
change.
Culture and Anarchy (1869)

Culture and Anarchy is a collection of essays by Arnold. It is a critique
of Victorian society, and it argues for the importance of culture and
education.
Literature and Dogma (1870)

Literature and Dogma is a collection of essays by Arnold. It is a critique
of religion, and it argues for the importance of literature in providing a
moral framework for life.
Last Essays on Church and Religion (1877)

Last Essays on Church and Religion is a collection of essays by Arnold.
It is a further exploration of Arnold's religious views, and it argues for a
more liberal and open-minded approach to religion.
Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde

(October 16, 1854 – November 30, 1900) was an Irish poet, playwright,
and aesthete who rose to fame in the 1890s for his epigrams and plays,
before his imprisonment for homosexuality.
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The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891)
The Picture of Dorian Gray is a novel by Oscar Wilde that tells the story
of a young man named Dorian Gray who sells his soul in exchange for
eternal youth and beauty. The novel is a cautionary tale about the
dangers of vanity and the corrupting influence of wealth and power.
The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy by Oscar Wilde that tells

the story of two young men who both use the name "Ernest" in order to
escape their social obligations. The play is a witty and satirical look at
Victorian society.
Salomé (1893)
Salomé is a play by Oscar Wilde that tells the story of the biblical
Salome, who demands the head of John the Baptist on a platter. The
play is a dark and provocative work that explores themes of lust,
obsession, and violence.
A Woman of No Importance (1893)

A Woman of No Importance is a play by Oscar Wilde that tells the story
of a woman who is mistaken for the mistress of a married man. The
play is a comedy about social hypocrisy and the importance of
reputation.
An Ideal Husband (1895)

An Ideal Husband is a play by Oscar Wilde that tells the story of a man
who is blackmailed over a secret from his past. The play is a political
drama about corruption and the nature of truth.
The Soul of Man Under Socialism (1891)

The Soul of Man Under Socialism is an essay by Oscar Wilde that
argues for the importance of socialism and individualism. The essay is
a controversial work that challenges conventional ideas about society
and economics.
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The Critic as Artist (1891)
The Critic as Artist is an essay by Oscar Wilde that argues that art is
autonomous and should not be judged by moral or social standards.
The essay is a defense of aestheticism, a movement in art that
emphasizes beauty for its own sake.
Modernism
Modernism in English literature was a broad and complex movement
that flourished from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. It was
characterized by a rejection of traditional forms and values, and a
search for new ways of expressing the experience of the modern world.
Key Characteristics of Modernism
Experimentation: Modernist writers were willing to experiment with new

forms of writing, such as stream-of-consciousness narration, multiple
narrators, and non-linear plots.
Fragmentation: Modernist writers often reflected the fragmented and

chaotic nature of the modern world in their work. Their characters were
often alienated and isolated, and their narratives were often disjointed
and inconclusive.
Symbolism: Modernist writers often used symbols to convey complex

ideas and emotions. They often drew on mythology, history, and religion
for their symbols.
Subjectivity: Modernist writers were interested in the subjective

experience of the individual. They often explored themes of
consciousness, identity, and perception.
Anti-Romanticism: Modernist writers rejected the Romanticism of the

19th century, which they saw as sentimental and unrealistic. They
instead sought to portray the modern world in all its harshness and
complexity.
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Influences on Modernism
The Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution led to rapid social

and economic change, which had a profound impact on the arts.
Modernist writers were often concerned with the alienating effects of
industrialism and the loss of traditional ways of life.
The World Wars: The World Wars led to a widespread sense of

disillusionment and despair, which is reflected in much modernist
literature. Modernist writers often grappled with themes of violence,
loss, and the meaning of life.
New Scientific Discoveries: New scientific discoveries, such as relativity

and quantum mechanics, challenged traditional notions of reality.
Modernist writers were often interested in exploring the implications of
these discoveries for art and literature.
Freudian Psychoanalysis: Freudian psychoanalysis challenged

traditional notions of the human mind, and it had a significant impact on
modernist literature. Modernist writers were often interested in exploring
the unconscious mind and the hidden depths of human personality.
Joseph Conrad
(born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski; 3 December 1857 – 3 August

1924) was a Polish-born English novelist and short story writer. He is
regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language, though
he did not speak English fluently until his twenties
Almayer's Folly (1895)
Set in the Dutch East Indies, Almayer's Folly tells the tale of Kaspar
Almayer, a man consumed by his obsession with finding a hidden
treasure. Driven by greed and desperation, Almayer's obsession leads
to his downfall and the destruction of his family.
Heart of Darkness (1899)
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Considered Conrad's masterpiece, Heart of Darkness is a novella that
narrates the journey of Charles Marlow, a sailor who ventures deep into
the Congo River in search of a mysterious ivory trader named Kurtz.
Marlow's encounter with Kurtz and the harrowing experiences he
witnesses expose the dark heart of colonialism and the depths of
human depravity.
Lord Jim (1900)
Lord Jim revolves around Jim, a young and idealistic sailor who
commits an act of cowardice early in his career. Haunted by his guilt,
Jim embarks on a quest for redemption, seeking to regain his honor
and self-respect. As he travels across the globe, Jim faces various
challenges and confronts his inner demons, ultimately grappling with
the complexities of morality and the consequences of his actions.
Nostromo (1904)
Nostromo is a political novel set in the fictional South American country

of Costaguana. It centers on the corrupt dealings surrounding the
exploitation of a valuable silver mine and the intricate web of
relationships and motivations among the characters involved. The novel
explores themes of greed, betrayal, and the destructive power of
political ambition.
The Secret Agent (1907)
Mr. Verloc, a seemingly ordinary shop owner in London, is secretly an

agent for a foreign power. Caught in a web of espionage and intrigue,
Verloc becomes entangled in a plot to carry out a terrorist attack. The
novel delves into the murky world of espionage and political
maneuvering, exposing the moral ambiguities and hidden dangers
lurking beneath the surface of society.
Under Western Eyes (1911)
Under Western Eyes follows the story of Razumov, a Russian student

who becomes involved in a political assassination. After betraying his
former associates to the authorities, Razumov is exiled to Siberia,
where he faces the consequences of his actions and grapples with his
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identity as a double agent. The novel explores the themes of loyalty,
betrayal, and the complexities of political ideologies.
George Orwell (born Eric Arthur Blair; 25 June 1903 – 21

January 1950)
was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is

characterized by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to
totalitarianism, and support of democratic socialism.
Down and out in Paris and London (1933)
Orwell's first book, Down and Out in Paris and London, is a memoir of
his experiences living in poverty in Paris and London. The book is a
stark and unflinching portrait of the hardships of poverty and the social
injustices that lead to it.
Burmese Days (1934)
Burmese Days is a novel set in British Burma in the 1920s. The novel
tells the story of John Flory, a British colonial official who is struggling to
come to terms with his life in Burma.
Animal Farm (1945)

Animal Farm is a satirical novella that tells the story of a group of farm
animals who overthrow their human masters and establish a society of
their own. The book is an allegory for the Russian Revolution and the
rise of communism.
Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
Nineteen Eighty-Four is a dystopian novel that tells the story of Winston

Smith, a man who lives in a totalitarian state where the government
controls every aspect of people's lives. The book is a warning about the
dangers of totalitarianism and the importance of individual freedom.
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Homage to Catalonia (1938)
Homage to Catalonia is a memoir of Orwell's experiences fighting in the

Spanish Civil War on the side of the Republicans. The book is a
powerful indictment of fascism and a moving tribute to the courage of
the people who fought against it.
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce

(2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and
short-story writer. He is considered one of the most innovative writers of
the 20th century.
Joyce's work is characterized by its stream-of-consciousness style, its

use of multiple perspectives, and its extensive use of literary allusions.
Dubliners (1914)
This collection of fifteen short stories captures the daily lives of ordinary
people in Dublin, Ireland, at the turn of the 20th century. The stories are
characterized by their realism, their use of irony and symbolism, and
their exploration of themes such as alienation, poverty, and the search
for meaning in life.
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)
A semi-autobiographical novel that tells the story of Stephen Dedalus, a

young man growing up in Dublin. The novel is a coming-of-age story
that explores themes of education, religion, and the development of
artistic consciousness.
Ulysses (1922)
A modernist novel that follows the protagonist, Leopold Bloom, as he

wanders through Dublin on a single day in 1904. The novel is known for
its stream-of-consciousness style, its use of multiple perspectives, and
its extensive use of literary allusions.
Finnegans Wake (1939)
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An experimental novel that is considered to be one of the most difficult
works of literature ever written. The novel is a linguistic tour de force
that uses a wide variety of literary techniques, including puns, wordplay,
and neologisms.
Exiles (1918): A play about a triangle of love and betrayal.
Virginia Woolf (née Adeline Virginia Stephen; 25 January

1882 – 28 March 1941)
was an English novelist, essayist, publisher and critic. She is regarded
as one of the most important modernist writers of the 20th century and
a major figure in the development of 20th-century feminism. Woolf
wrote innovative novels, short stories, essays, and biographies, and
she was a significant literary critic and publisher, co-founding the
Hogarth Press in 1917 with her husband Leonard Woolf.
The Voyage Out (1915)
Woolf's first novel, The Voyage Out, is a story about a young woman
named Rachel who travels to South America in search of a new life.
The novel is a coming-of-age story that explores themes of love, loss,
and identity.
Night and Day (1919)
Night and Day is a novel about two women, Katherine Hilbery and
Cassandra Ottway, who are friends but also rivals. The novel is a study
of female friendship and the challenges of being a woman in the early
20th century.
Jacob's Room (1922)
Jacob's Room is a novel about the life and death of Jacob Flanders, a
young man who is killed in World War I. The novel is told from the
perspective of Jacob's friends and family, and it is a moving meditation
on loss and memory.
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Mrs. Dalloway (1925)
Mrs. Dalloway is a novel about a day in the life of Clarissa Dalloway, a

middle-aged woman who is preparing for a party. The novel is a stream-
of-consciousness novel, and it gives us a glimpse into Clarissa's
thoughts and memories.
To the Lighthouse (1927)
To the Lighthouse is a novel about the Ramsay family, who are

spending a summer at their vacation home on the Isle of Skye. The
novel is a complex and challenging work, but it is also one of Woolf's
most beautiful and rewarding novels.
Orlando (1928)
Orlando is a fantasy novel about Orlando, a young man who is

transformed into a woman. The novel is a playful and subversive work
that explores themes of gender identity and the passage of time.
The Waves (1931)
The Waves is a novel about six friends who are reflecting on their lives.
The novel is a stream-of-consciousness novel, and it is a beautiful and
moving meditation on the human condition.
The Years (1937)

The Years is a novel about the Pargiter family, who are traced over a
period of 100 years. The novel is a sprawling and ambitious work, and it
is a fascinating exploration of the social and historical changes of the
20th century.
Between the Acts (1941)
Between the Acts is Woolf's last novel. It is a short and experimental

work, set on a country estate in England during the Second World War.
The novel is a meditation on the nature of art and the role of the artist in
society.
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David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 – 2 March
1930)
was an English novelist, short story writer, poet and essayist. His
modernist works reflect on modernity, social alienation and
industrialization while championing sexuality, vitality and instinct.
Sons and Lovers

is a semi-autobiographical coming-of-age story that explores the
relationship between a young man, Paul Morel, and his mother,
Gertrude. The novel is set in the working-class mining community of
Eastwood, Nottinghamshire, and it paints a vivid picture of the social
and economic conditions of the time.
Paul is a sensitive and intelligent young man who is struggling to find

his place in the world. He is deeply attached to his mother, who is a
strong and domineering woman. However, as Paul grows older, he
begins to resent his mother's interference in his life and he seeks to
establish his own independence.
The Rainbow
is a novel that traces the lives of three generations of women from the
Brangwen family. The novel is set in England from the mid-19th century
to the early 20th century, and it charts the changing social and
economic landscape of the country.
The Brangwen women are all strong and independent characters who
are determined to live their lives on their own terms. However, they also
face a number of challenges, including poverty, social ostracism, and
personal loss.
Women in Love
is a novel that follows the lives of two couples, Ursula Brangwen and
Gudrun Gudrunson, and Gerald Crich and Birkin. The novel is set in
England and Germany in the years leading up to World War I, and it
explores the themes of love, sexuality, and the nature of relationships.
Ursula and Gudrun are both intelligent and independent women who
are looking for something more than the conventional roles that they
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are expected to play. They are also both attracted to men who are
unconventional and challenging.
Lady Chatterley's Lover

is a novel that tells the story of Constance Chatterley, a young woman
who is married to a wealthy but impotent man. Constance begins an
affair with Mellors, the gamekeeper on her husband's estate.
The novel is notable for its frank portrayal of sexuality, and it was
banned in several countries when it was first published. However, Lady
Chatterley's Lover is now considered one of Lawrence's most important
works. It is a powerful and moving novel that explores the themes of
love, class, and social convention.
Other Important Works
In addition to the novels listed above, Lawrence also wrote a number of

other important works, including:
The White Peacock (1911)

England, My England (1915)
Aaron's Rod (1922)
Kangaroo (1923)
The Plumed Serpent (1926)
Mornings in Mexico (1927)
Etruscan Places (1932)
Aldous Huxley (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963)

was an English novelist, essayist, literary critic, utopianist, peace
activist, and philosopher. He is best known for his dystopian novel
Brave New World (1932), and for his novel The Doors of Perception
(1954), which introduced Aldous Huxley's own brand of psychedelic
philosophy.
Brave New World

is a dystopian novel set in a futuristic World State where people are
genetically engineered and conditioned from birth to fit into a rigid social
hierarchy. The novel follows the story of Bernard Marx, an Alpha-Plus
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intellectual who does not fit in with his social caste, and Lenina Crowne,
a Beta-Plus woman who is his assigned sexual partner.
The World State is a utopia of sorts, where people are free from
disease, want, and war. They are also denied the experience of love,
art, and spirituality.
Brave New World is a cautionary tale about the dangers of conformity,

totalitarianism, and scientific progress without moral guidance. It is
considered one of the most important works of dystopian fiction ever
written.
The Doors of Perception (1954)
The Doors of Perception is a non-fiction book that recounts Huxley's

experiences with mescaline, a psychedelic drug. The book is divided
into two parts: the first part describes Huxley's experiences with
mescaline under controlled conditions, and the second part discusses
the wider implications of his experiences.
Huxley argues that mescaline can open up new ways of seeing the
world and can help us to understand our own consciousness better. He
also suggests that mescaline may have religious or spiritual
significance.
Graham Greene
was an English novelist, short-story writer, essayist, and screenwriter.
He was known for his novels, which are often set in exotic locations and
explore themes of morality and religion. Greene was a
The Power and the Glory (1940): Set in Mexico during the 1930s, when
the Catholic Church was persecuted by the government, this novel
follows the story of a whiskey-priest, a flawed but compassionate man
who continues to minister to his flock despite the danger to his own life.
The Quiet American (1955): Set in French Indochina during the early
1950s, in the lead-up to the First Indochina War, this novel explores the
themes of colonialism, idealism, and disillusionment through the story
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of Thomas Fowler, an aging British journalist, and Alden Pyle, a young
and idealistic American CIA agent.
Our Man in Havana (1958): Set in Cuba during the late 1950s, in the
lead-up to the Cuban Revolution, this darkly comic spy novel follows
the story of Wormley, a British spy who is forced to fabricate
increasingly elaborate reports of his activities in order to keep his job.
Brighton Rock (1938): Set in pre-war Brighton, this novel explores the
themes of morality, religion, and the nature of evil through the story of
Pinkie Brown, a young sociopath who is determined to become the
leader of a local gang.
The Heart of the Matter (1948): Set in British West Africa during World
War II, this novel follows the story of Scobie, a married Catholic man
who has an affair with a young widow and must make a difficult
decision that could have devastating consequences for himself and
others.
The End of the Affair (1951): Set in England during World War II, this
novel follows the story of Bendrix, a writer who has an affair with Sarah
Miles, a married woman, and must later confront the consequences of
their relationship.
E. M. Forster was an English novelist, essayist, short story writer, and

critic who wrote some of the most significant works of English literature
of the 20th century. His novels are characterized by their sharp social
commentary, their exploration of human relationships, and their
distinctive blend of humor and seriousness.
A Room with a View

is a novel that explores the themes of love, freedom, and personal
growth in late 19th-century England. The novel centers on Lucy
Honeychurch, a young woman who is expected to conform to the
expectations of her social class. However, Lucy is drawn to George
Emerson, a free-spirited man who challenges her conventional views.
Lucy's journey of self-discovery takes her from the stifling atmosphere
of her family's home to the more open and vibrant world of Florence,
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Italy. In Florence, Lucy confronts her own prejudices and learns to
embrace her independence.
A Room with a View is a delightful and insightful novel that celebrates
the power of love and the importance of personal fulfillment. It is
considered one of Forster's most popular works.
Maurice (1914)
Maurice is a novel that explores the themes of homosexuality,
friendship, and self-acceptance in early 20th-century England. The
novel centers on Maurice Hall, a young man who is struggling to come
to terms with his sexuality. Maurice's journey of self-discovery includes
a number of formative experiences, including his friendship with the
more open-minded Alec Scudder and his experiences at Cambridge
University.
Other Important Works
Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905)

A Passage to India (1924)
Aspects of the Novel (1927)
H. G. Wells was an English writer, essayist, journalist, and sociologist.

He is best known for his science fiction novels, but he also wrote a
number of other works, including nonfiction, short stories, and novels.
Here are some of H. G. Wells's most important works with summaries:
The Time Machine (1895)
The Time Machine is a science fiction novel that tells the story of an
inventor who travels through time to the future. The novel is notable for
its exploration of themes of evolution, technology, and the future of
humanity.
The Invisible Man (1897)
The Invisible Man is a science fiction novel that tells the story of a man
who becomes invisible after a scientific experiment. The novel is
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notable for its exploration of themes of identity, alienation, and the
power of invisibility.
Rudyard Kipling
was an English writer, poet, and novelist. He is best known for his
works of fiction, including The Jungle Book, Kim, and The Man Who
Would Be King. Kipling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in
1907.
The Jungle Book

is a collection of seven stories about Mowgli, a young boy who is raised
by animals in the Indian jungle. The stories are notable for their vivid
descriptions of the jungle and its inhabitants, as well as their exploration
of themes of friendship, loyalty, and the law of the jungle.
Kim
is a novel that tells the story of Kim, an orphaned boy who is raised in
India by an Irish couple. Kim becomes a skilled spy for the British
government, and his adventures take him all over India. The novel is
notable for its exploration of Indian culture and society, as well as its
themes of identity, loyalty, and the importance of friendship.
Plain Tales from the Hills (1888)

Just So Stories (1902)
Puck of Pook's Hill (1906)
Rewards and Fairies (1910)
George Bernard Shaw

was an Irish playwright, critic, Nobel Prize laureate and political activist.
Here are some of most important works of George Bernard Shaw, with
summaries:
Pygmalion (1913)
Pygmalion is a play that tells the story of Eliza Doolittle, a cockney
flower girl who is transformed into a duchess by a linguistics professor
named Henry Higgins. The play is a comedy of manners that explores
themes of class, gender, and the nature of social mobility.
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The Arms and the Man
is a play that tells the story of Raina Petkoff, a young Bulgarian woman
who falls in love with a Swiss mercenary named Captain Bluntschli. The
play is a comedy of mistaken identity that satirizes the romanticism and
chivalry of war.
Caesar and Cleopatra
is a play that tells the story of the relationship between Julius Caesar
and Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. The play is a historical drama that
explores themes of power, love, and betrayal
Saint Joan
is a play that tells the story of Joan of Arc, a young French peasant girl
who led the French army to victory against the English in the Hundred
Years' War. The play is a historical drama that explores themes of faith,
courage, and martyrdom.
Candida
is a play that tells the story of a woman named Candida who is loved by
both a socialist poet named Eugene Marchbanks and a wealthy banker
named James Morell. The play explores themes of love, marriage, and
the role of women in society.
Mrs. Warren's Profession
is a play that tells the story of a woman named Vivie Warren who
discovers that her wealthy mother is a madam who runs a brothel. The
play explores themes of prostitution, class, and the role of women in
society.
The Philanderer
is a play that tells the story of a man named Jack Tanner who is a
womanizer and a freethinker. The play explores themes of love,
marriage, and the nature of morality.
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Thomas Stearns Eliot (September 26, 1888 – January 4,
1965)
usually referred to as T. S. Eliot, was an American-British poet,
playwright, literary critic, and editor. He was one of the major figures of
modernism and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. His works
are widely considered to be among the greatest in English literature.
The Waste Land (1922)

The Waste Land is a long poem that explores themes of
disillusionment, alienation, and the loss of meaning in modern life. The
poem is divided into five sections, each of which is set in a different
time and place. The poem is written in a fragmented style, and it uses a
variety of literary and historical references.
Ash Wednesday (1930)

Ash Wednesday is a long poem that explores themes of spiritual
renewal, forgiveness, and the search for meaning in life. The poem is
written in a formal style, and it uses a variety of religious and literary
references.
Four Quartets (1935-1942)

Four Quartets is a long poem that explores themes of time, memory,
and the nature of human experience. The poem is divided into four
sections, each of which is set in a different time and place. The poem is
written in a meditative style, and it uses a variety of philosophical and
religious references.
The Hollow Men (1925)

The Hollow Men is a short poem that explores themes of emptiness,
despair, and the loss of faith in humanity. The poem is set in a barren
landscape, and it is written in a bleak and pessimistic style.
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (1917)

The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock is a long poem that explores
themes of loneliness, self-consciousness, and the fear of aging. The
poem is written in a conversational style, and it uses a variety of literary
and historical references.
Portrait of a Lady (1915)
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Portrait of a Lady is a long poem that explores themes of love, loss, and
the impossibility of communication. The poem is written in a lyrical style,
and it uses a variety of literary and historical references.
Wystan Hugh Auden

often referred to as W. H. Auden, was a distinguished British-American
poet, playwright, literary critic, and librettist. He was a prominent figure
in the mid-20th century literary landscape, renowned for his versatility,
technical prowess, and profound exploration of diverse themes. His
poetry, characterized by its intellectual depth, social commentary, and
blend of traditional and experimental forms, has garnered widespread
acclaim and enduring influence.
Poetry
Poems (1930)
Look, Stranger! (1936)
The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (1947)
Collected Shorter Poems 1927–1957 (1966)
William Butler Yeats

(1865-1939) was an Irish poet, playwright, and prose writer who was a
leading figure in the Irish Literary Revival. He was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Literature in 1923.
Poetry
The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889)

The Countess Kathleen and Various Legends and Lyrics (1892)
The Tower (1928)
The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1933)
Celtic Twilight (1895)
The Secret Rose (1899
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Dylan Thomas
a Welsh poet, playwright, and screenwriter, was a major figure in 20th-

century poetry. He is best known for his lyrical, evocative poetry that
explored themes of love, loss, death, and the human condition. His
work is characterized by its use of vivid imagery, musicality, and
symbolism.
18 Poems (1934)**
Twenty-Five Poems (1936)**
The Map of Love (1939)**
Deaths and Entrances (1946)**
In Country Sleep and Other Poems (1952)**
A Child's Christmas in Wales (1955)**
Under Milk Wood (1954)**
Collected Poems 1934–1953 (1952)**
Postmodernism
Postmodernism is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of
literary movements and styles that emerged in the mid-20th century in
response to the perceived failures of modernism. Postmodernist
literature is characterized by its skepticism towards traditional forms
and values, its embrace of pastiche and intertextuality, and its blurring
of the boundaries between genres.
Key characteristics of postmodern literature:
Rejection of grand narratives: Postmodernists reject the idea that there

is a single, objective truth or reality. They believe that all knowledge is
subjective and constructed, and that there are multiple perspectives on
every issue.
Playfulness and irony: Postmodernists often employ humor, irony, and

self-referentiality to undermine traditional literary forms and
expectations. They may parody existing genres, or they may mix
different genres together in unexpected ways.
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Pastiche and intertextuality: Postmodernists often borrow and
repurpose elements from other texts, creating a collage of different
styles and voices. This can be seen in the use of pastiche, which is the
imitation of the style of another author or work, and in intertextuality,
which is the deliberate use of references to other texts.
Blurring of boundaries: Postmodernists often blur the boundaries

between genres, such as fiction and nonfiction, or high and low culture.
They may also challenge the boundaries between art and life.
Agatha Christie
the renowned "Queen of Crime," stands as the world's best-selling
novelist, with her books selling over two billion copies worldwide. Her
intricate plots, compelling characters, and masterful storytelling have
captivated readers for generations, and her works continue to be
adapted for stage, screen, and television.
The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920): John Christie, a wealthy man, is
found poisoned in his home. His Belgian friend Hercule Poirot is called
in to investigate, and soon uncovers a web of secrets and lies.
The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926): A wealthy man is found murdered

in his home, and Poirot is called in to investigate. This case proves to
be one of Poirot's most challenging, as it involves a twist that no one
could have predicted.
The Big Four (1927): Poirot receives a letter from a mysterious criminal
mastermind called "The Big Four," who threatens to kill four people.
Poirot sets out to foil the killer's plan, but he soon realizes that he is up
against a formidable foe.
The Mystery of the Blue Train (1928): A young woman is found

murdered on the Blue Train, a luxury train traveling from Calais to Paris.
Poirot is called in to investigate, and soon discovers that there are
many suspects on board.
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Peril at End House (1932): An elderly woman is found murdered in her
home, and Poirot is called in to investigate. This case proves to be one
of Poirot's most baffling, as there seems to be no motive for the murder.
Lord Edgware Dies (1933): A famous actor is found murdered in his

home, and Poirot is called in to investigate. This case proves to be one
of Poirot's most entertaining, as it involves a lot of deception and
trickery.
Murder on the Orient Express (1934): A wealthy businessman is found

murdered on the Orient Express, a train traveling from Istanbul to Paris.
Poirot is called in to investigate, and soon discovers that there are
many suspects on board.
And Then There Were None (1939): Ten strangers are invited to a
remote island, where they are each murdered one by one. Poirot is
called in to investigate, and soon discovers that the murders are
connected to a nursery rhyme.
The Mousetrap (1952): A group of people are stranded in a snow-

covered inn, where one of them is a murderer. Poirot is called in to
investigate, and soon discovers that the killer is among them.
Jeanette Winterson
is a renowned English author known for her captivating prose,
imaginative storytelling, and exploration of themes such as identity,
sexuality, and technology.
Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit

is a semi-autobiographical coming-of-age story that follows the life of
Jeanette, a young girl growing up in a strict Pentecostal household in
northern England. The novel explores themes of religion, sexual
identity, and rebellion, and it received critical acclaim for its honest and
poignant portrayal of a young woman challenging societal norms.
Written on the Body

marks a departure from Winterson's previous works as it eschews
traditional narrative structure and explores the themes of love, loss, and
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mortality through a non-gendered first-person narrator. The novel's
innovative approach to storytelling and its exploration of non-binary
identity garnered critical acclaim.
CHRISTOPHER ISHERSWOOD
Novels
All the Conspirators (1928)

The Young Lions (1940)
The World in the Evening (1954)
A Single Man (1964)
Novellas
Mr. Norris Changes Trains (1935)

Goodbye to Berlin (1939)
The Berlin Stories (1945)
The Scarlet Ibis (1950)
J K ROWLING
Harry Potter Series

Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (1997)
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (1998)
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (1999)
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000)
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (2003)
Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2005)
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (2007)
Other Works
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (2001)
Quidditch Through the Ages (2001)
The Tales of Beedle the Bard (2008)
Sir William Gerald Golding
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was an English novelist, playwright, and poet who won the Nobel Prize
in Literature in 1983. He is best known for his novel Lord of the Flies
(1954), a dark and allegorical tale of a group of British schoolboys who
are evacuated from their boarding school during World War II and
stranded on a remote island. The novel explores themes of human
nature, good versus evil, and the fragility of civilization.
Lord of the Flies (1954)

Summary: A group of British schoolboys are evacuated from their
boarding school during World War II and crash-land on an uninhabited
island. The boys must fend for themselves and establish their own
society, but they soon descend into violence and chaos. The novel
explores themes of good versus evil, the nature of human nature, and
the fragility of civilization.
The Spire (1964)

Summary: A medieval cathedral builder becomes obsessed with
constructing an impossibly tall spire. His ambition leads him to neglect
his family and community, and ultimately to his own downfall. The novel
explores themes of ambition, pride, and the destructive power of
obsession.
Darkness Visible (1979)

Summary: A group of people are trapped in a cathedral during a nuclear
war. They must confront their own mortality and come to terms with the
horrors of the world around them. The novel explores themes of faith,
hope, and the human spirit in the face of disaster.
Sir Kingsley William Amis

was an English novelist, short-story writer, essayist, literary critic, and
memoirist. He was a prolific and versatile writer, known for his sharp
wit, social commentary, and sharp prose.
Lucky Jim (1954)

Summary: A young, cynical history lecturer at a provincial university
rebels against the established order.
One Fat Englishman (1963)
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Summary: A middle-aged Englishman travels to France with his
girlfriend and his wife's brother, and his experiences force him to
confront his own limitations.
The Green Man (1969)

Summary: A man with a mysterious illness moves to a small English
village and begins to have an affair with a local woman.
The Alteration (1976)

Summary: An alternative history novel in which England has become a
Catholic theocracy.
Jake's Thing (1978)

Summary: A man believes that he has the power to levitate and begins
to use his power to influence the world around him.
The Old Devils (1986)

Summary: A group of old friends reunite and confront their pasts.
Muriel Spark
was a Scottish novelist and short-story writer best known for her witty
and insightful works that often explored religious themes and the
human condition. She was born in Edinburgh in 1918 and died in
Florence, Italy, in 2006.
Here are some of her most important works with summaries and
without pictures:
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1961)

Summary: A charismatic and unconventional schoolteacher named
Miss Jean Brodie inspires a group of young girls in 1930s Edinburgh.
The Ballad of Peckham Rye (1960)

Summary: A young man named Dougal Douglas struggles to find his
place in the world after he is released from a psychiatric hospital.
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Harold Pinter
was an English playwright, screenwriter, and actor who won the Nobel
Prize in Literature in 2005. He is widely regarded as one of the most
important playwrights of the 20th century. His work is characterized by
its sparse dialogue, its exploration of social and political issues, and its
use of silence and pauses to create tension and unease.
The Birthday Party (1958): A play about two strangers who arrive at a
seaside boarding house and take over the lives of the two residents,
Stanley and Meg.
The Caretaker (1960): A play about two tramps who arrive at a derelict
house and try to take it over from the confused and disoriented old man
who lives there.
The Homecoming (1964): A play about a man who returns home after
fifteen years to find that his family has changed in ways he never could
have imagined.
The Dumb Waiter (1960): A play about two men who are waiting for
instructions in a basement kitchen, but they are never given any clear
orders.
No Man's Land (1974): A play about two old men, Hirst and Spooner,
who are trapped in a conversation that seems to go nowhere.
Samuel Beckett (13 April 1906 – 22 December 1989)
was an Irish-born British playwright, novelist, short story writer, poet,

translator, and theatre director. He wrote in both English and French,
and he is best known for his absurdist plays, which explore the themes
of meaninglessness, alienation, and the futility of human endeavour.
Waiting for Godot (1952): A play about two tramps, Vladimir and
Estragon, who wait for the arrival of a man named Godot, who never
arrives. The play is considered one of the most important and influential
plays of the 20th century.
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Endgame (1957): A play about four characters, Hamm, Clov, Nagg, and
Nell, who are trapped in a room together. The play is a bleak and
pessimistic exploration of aging, isolation, and the futility of human
endeavour.
Krapp's Last Tape (1958): A play about a man named Krapp who listens
to a recording of himself from 30 years ago. The play is a meditation on
the passage of time, regret, and the impossibility of recapturing the
past.
Happy Days (1961): A play about a woman named Winnie who is

buried up to her waist in sand. The play is a darkly comic exploration of
the human condition, and it is often interpreted as a commentary on the
absurdity of life.
Tom Stoppard
is a British playwright, screenwriter, and director. He is best known for

his witty and insightful plays that often explore themes of language,
identity, and the nature of reality. He has won numerous awards for his
work, including the Tony Award, the Olivier Award, and the BAFTA
Award.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1967): A play about two minor
characters from Shakespeare's Hamlet. The play follows the two
characters as they wander around Denmark, trying to understand their
place in the world. The play is a darkly comic exploration of the nature
of free will and the absurdity of existence.
Jumpers (1972): A play about a group of philosophers who are

discussing the nature of reality. The play is full of clever wordplay and
philosophical puzzles, and it ultimately questions the very possibility of
knowledge.
Travesties (1974): A play about three people who are all writing a
biography of the poet James Joyce. The play is a witty and insightful
exploration of the nature of history and the relationship between fact
and fiction.
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The Real Inspector Hound (1977): A play within a play, in which a group
of theatre critics attends a performance of a murder mystery. The play
is a hilarious satire of the theatre world, and it also explores the nature
of spectatorship.
The Invention of Love (1997): A play about the life of the poet Lord
Byron. The play is a moving and insightful exploration of love, loss, and
the pursuit of truth.
Arcadia (1993): A play that interweaves two stories: one set in the 18th
century and one set in the 20th century. The play is a witty and
insightful exploration of the nature of time and change.
John Osborne (12 December 1929 – 30 December 1994)
was an English playwright, screenwriter, and actor. He is best known as

the founding figure of the British theatre movement known as the Angry
Young Men.
Look Back in Anger (1956): A play about a young man named Jimmy
Porter who is angry and disillusioned with society. The play is set in a
working-class flat in Birmingham, England, and it explores themes of
class, social mobility, and the individual's struggle against society.
The Entertainer (1957): A play about a washed-up music hall comedian

named Archie Rice. The play is set in a seaside resort in England, and
it explores themes of aging, alienation, and the impossibility of escape.
Seamus Heaney
(13 April 1939 – 30 August 2013) was an Irish poet and playwright who
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1995. He is known for his
poems that explore rural Ireland, the Troubles in Northern Ireland, and
the human condition.
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Death of a Naturalist (1966): A collection of poems that explore the
poet's childhood in rural Ireland. The poems are often set in fields,
forests, and streams, and they celebrate the natural world.
Wintering Out (1972): A collection of poems that explore the poet's

response to the Troubles in Northern Ireland. The poems are often dark
and pessimistic, and they reflect the poet's uncertainty and fear.
North (1975): A collection of poems that explore the poet's Irish identity.
The poems are often set in the poet's homeland, and they reflect the
poet's sense of belonging and displacement.
Field Work (1979): A collection of poems that explore the poet's

relationship to the natural world. The poems are often set in the
countryside, and they reflect the poet's sense of renewal and hope.
Beowulf (1999): A translation of the Old English epic poem Beowulf.

Heaney's translation is highly praised for its faithfulness to the original
text and its lyrical beauty.
Philip Larkin (9 August 1922 – 2 December 1985)
was an English poet, novelist, and librarian. He is considered one of the

most important and influential poets of the 20th century.
"Church Going" (1951)

"Toads" (1955)
"The Whitsun Weddings" (1964)
"Annus Mirabilis" (1967)
"High Windows" (1974)
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Jeremy Halvard Prynne (born 24 June 1936)
is a British poet and academic. He is considered one of the most
important and influential British poets of the second half of the 20th
century.
Kitchen Poems (1968)

The White Stones (1969)
To Pollen (1975)
Her Weasels Wild Returning (1993)
Not-You (1993)
STREAK --- WILLING --- ENTOURAGE ARTESIAN (2005)
The Stone Saw (2015)
Geoffrey Hill (18 June 1932 – 30 June 2016)

was an English poet, critic, and translator. He was considered one of
the most important and influential poets of the 20th century.
For the Unfallen (1958)

King Log (1968)
Mercian Hymns (1999)
Speech! Speech! (2005)
The Triumph of Love (1985)
Broken Hierarchies (2012)
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THE RENAISSANCE: 1485–1660

RESTORATION TO ROMANTICISM: 1660–1789

THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1789–1832

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: 1832–1900

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 1900–45

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 1945 to the present

Before embarking on the study of English literature, it is crucial to

A short summary of The Book of the Duchess

Troilus and Criseyde

The Legend of Good Women

The House of Fame

The Canterbury Tales

Some of the stories in Canterbury Tales

“The Miller's Tale”

"The Pardoner's Tale"

"The Nun's Priest's Tale"

Throughout the poem, He critiques the excesses of the nobility, the

Thomas Hoccleve's works reflect his personal experiences and

Sir Thomas Malory

The Renaissance (1485–1660)

SIR PHILIP SIDNEY

Astrophil and Stella: This sonnet sequence, composed of 108 sonnets

Arcadia: Sidney's prose romance, often referred to as "The Old

The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia: This revised version of the

Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542) and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

Sir Thomas Wyatt:

"Whoso List to Hunt": is a sonnet by Sir Thomas Wyatt about an

"My Galley, Charged with Forgetfulness": This sonnet presents an

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey:

"The Frailty and Hurtfulness of Beauty": This poem explores the

Tottel's Miscellany, published in 1557, is a groundbreaking anthology of

The Shepheardes Calender" (1579): This was Spenser's first major

"The Faerie Queene" (1590, 1596): It tells the allegorical story of

"Amoretti" (1595): This collection of sonnets is a sequence of love

"Epithalamion" (1595): This is a marriage poem written in celebration of

Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593)

was a significant English playwright, poet, and translator of the

"Dido, Queen of Carthage" (c. 1586): Marlowe's collaboration with

Thomas Nashe (1567-1601):

George Peele (1556-1596):

Peele was a skilled dramatist and poet.

John Lyly (c. 1553-1606):

Thomas Lodge (c. 1558-1625):

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and

Essays (1597, expanded 1612 and 1625): Bacon's "Essays" are a

Novum Organum (1620): In this work, Bacon outlines his philosophy

The Advancement of Learning (1605): This work is an exploration of the

New Atlantis (1627, published posthumously): "New Atlantis" is a

The Great Instauration (1620, published as part of Novum Organum):

The plays of Shakespeare, in approximate order of composition:

Early plays from 1589 to 1593

Plays from 1593 to 1598

Plays from 1598, with likely dates of composition

1598 18 MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING

Othello (1603): delves into themes of jealousy, betrayal, and racial

A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595 Set in an enchanted forest, the play

Twelfth Night (1601): is a play that explores themes of love, mistaken

As You Like It (1599): is a play that explores themes of love, identity,

Richard III (1592-1593): rise to power and tumultuous reign of King

Richard II (1595): depicts the downfall of King Richard II of England and