Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Children and Youth Services Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth

School engagement, self-esteem, and depression of adolescents: The role of T

sport participation and volunteering activity and gender differences
⁎
Hyejin Banga, , Doyeon Wonb, Sanghyun Parkc
a
Department of Counseling, Recreation, and School Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, USA
b
Department of Kinesiology, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, USA
c
Department of Sport Industry Studies, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Using a multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) model, this study examined the relationships between
Adolescents school engagement, self-esteem, and depression in adolescents and concurrently evaluated the effects of cov-
Extracurricular activities ariates, including adolescents’ sport participation, volunteering activity, and gender, on the study variables. A
School engagement sample of adolescents (N = 273) was drawn from the data collected by the Youth Development Study (ages
Self-esteem
11–18). Results provided evidence for the full mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between school
Depression
Multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC)
engagement and (low) depression in the presence of the covariates. Among the covariates, sport participation
model was a significant predictor of self-esteem, whereas volunteering activity was a significant predictor of school
engagement. Male gender was significantly associated with self-esteem, and female gender was positively as-
sociated with school engagement. The results demonstrated no significant gender differences in depression.
These findings highlight the important role of extracurricular activities (i.e., sport participation and volunteering
activity) in reducing depressive symptoms by enhancing school engagement and self-esteem and suggest that
schools and community organizations develop effective strategies for attracting and sustaining adolescents’
participation in their after-school programs.

1. Introduction that experienced depression have recurrences during their adulthood

Depression in adolescence has become a serious issue that can have
a profound impact on an adolescent's life. Recent data from the 2017
National Surveys on Drug Use and Health show that 13.3% of adoles-
cents aged 12 to 17 (3.2 million adolescents) experienced major de-
pressive symptoms in the past 12 months, and 9.4% of adolescents (2.3
million adolescents) had major depressive symptoms with severe im-
pairment in the past year (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, 2018). The occurrence of depression in adolescents is
of major concern because the depressive episodes are negatively asso-
ciated with long-term psychosocial outcomes, including educational
attainment, income, employment, pregnancy/parenthood, marital and
relationship status, social support, and loneliness, (Auerbach et al.,
2014; Clayborne, Varin, & Colman, 2019) or, the worst-case scenario,
suicide. Particularly, academic failure and school dropout are critical
consequences for adolescents because these behavioral problems can
cause the adolescent being passively or actively rejected, excluded by
their peers, and diverted from a normal developmental trajectory
(Mulvey, Boswell, & Zheng, 2017). Almost two-thirds of adolescents
(Fergusson & Woodward, 2002). Before adolescence, the rates of de-
pression are similar for boys and girls. Yet, starting in early adolescence
(with the onset of puberty), girls are twice as likely to develop de-
pression as boys (McGuinness, Dyer, & Wade, 2012). Although research
on the prevalence and correlates of depression has identified important
age-related variations across development, there has been very little
research reported on extracurricular activities for adolescents against
developing depressive symptoms. The identification and promotion of
extracurricular activities as protective factors are important because
they can significantly decrease the probability of further episodes. The
present study focuses on investigating extracurricular activities, the
pathways, and gender differences in increasing school engagement and
self-esteem and decreasing depressive symptomsin adolescents.
Consequently, the aims of the present study are: (a) to investigate
the relationships between school engagement, self-esteem, and de-
pression among adolescents and (b) to explore the effects of covariates,
namely sport participation, volunteering experience, and gender, on the
study variables. As shown in Fig. 1, two hypotheses were constructed to
test the full mediation in which school engagement affects self-esteem

⁎
Corresponding author at: 11200 SW 8th Street, ZEB 339A, Miami, FL 33199, USA.
E-mail addresses: bangh@fiu.edu (H. Bang), doyeon.won@tamucc.edu (D. Won), tkdlight@naver.com (S. Park).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105012
Received 24 January 2020; Received in revised form 7 April 2020; Accepted 9 April 2020
Available online 13 April 2020
0190-7409/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Bang, et al.
Fig. 1. Research model. Note. Sport = Sport participation, Volunteering = Volunteering activity, Male = Male gender.
that, in turn, affects depression (H1 & H2) while additional seven hy-
potheses were suggested to examine the influences of three covariates
on the predictor and outcome variables (H3 to H9). In the following
section, the hypotheses are developed in detail.
1.1. The link between self-esteem and depression
Several theoretical models suggest that low self-esteem and de-
pression are related, playing a key causal role in its etiology (Abramson,
Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978; Beck, 1967; Seligman, 1975). Self-esteem
is defined as one's sense of self-worth, reflecting a positive or negative
attitude toward oneself (Rosenberg, 1965). According to Beck (1967)
cognitive theory, the activation of negative self-schemas leads to biased
attention, interpretation, and memory, which eventually heighten the
incidence of depressive symptoms. That is, the existence of negative
self-schemas activated by negative life events (such as loss, failure or
rejection) fosters the proliferation of dysfunctional attitudes, such as “If
I fail something, it means I’m a total failure” (Marchetti, Loeys, Alloy, &
Koster, 2016). The distorted sense of reality is expressed in three main
dysfunctional belief themes, which Beck called the ‘cognitive trial’,
suggesting that negative thoughts are about the self, the world, and the
future (Beck, Epstein, & Harrison, 1983). For example, adolescents’
poor school performance can lead to feelings of failure and a belief that
they may have little chance of success, and they are ignored by their
peers. Finally, they may not enjoy the classes and cannot see the value
of doing work for improving academic performance or feel no benefits
from attending the classes.
The cognitive theory has received empirical support in adolescent
populations. Tripković, Roje, Krnic, Nazor, and Karin (2015) found a
significant association between low self-esteem and clinically sig-
nificant depression among early adolescents aged 13 years old. A short-
term longitudinal study of Abela and D'Alessandro (2002) using high
school seniors found that dysfunctional attitudes predicted increases in
depressed mood immediately following a negative college admissions
outcome. Moreover, among the negative outcomes, students’ negative
views of the future played a significant role in the process by which
dysfunctional attitudes influence increases in a depressed mood. Fur-
ther, Abela et al. (2011) used two separate samples (urban vs. rural) of
Chinese adolescents (10th to 12th graders) to support cognitive vul-
nerability factors as predictors of increases in depressive symptoms
when experiencing higher than average levels of negative events.
Cognitive vulnerabilities to depression, such as dysfunctional attitudes
and negative cognitive style, were associated with greater increases in
depressive symptoms following the occurrence of higher than average
2
Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012
levels of negative events in both urban and rural samples (Abela et al.,
2011). The evidence of these studies indicates that low self-esteem is a
lasting vulnerability for developing depressive symptoms, emphasizing
that adolescents with low self-esteem are at greater risk for depression,
especially when facing stressful life events. Therefore, identifying ef-
fective prevention actions focusing on self-esteem enhancement is im-
perative to reduce the risk of depression (Fiorilli, Capitello, Barni,
Buonomo, & Gentile, 2019).
H1: Self-esteem positively influences adolescents’ depression (i.e.,
decreases depression).
1.2. School engagement and self-esteem
School engagement is generally defined as students’ sense of be-
longing at school and acceptance of school values and a behavioral
component regarding participation in school activities (Finn, 1989).
Young adolescents’ school engagement is considered as a key factor in
enhancing adolescents’ psycho-social and education outcomes, such as
school adjustment, self-esteem, and academic achievement (Mihalec-
Adkins & Cooley, 2019; Virtanen, Kiuru, Lerkkanen, Poikkeus, &
Kuorelahti, 2016). According to Ryan and Deci (2009), when students
develop a feeling of belonging at school, they tend to internalize the
school-related values and goals, leading to school engagement. Speci-
fically, students' sense of connection to their schools creates a context in
which they attempt to meet the school's expectations of them and to
build healthy in-school relationships, promoting the adoption and in-
ternalization of practices related to behavioral and cognitive engage-
ment (Markowitz, 2017). This process helps decrease the likelihood of
delinquent behavior and enhance students' self-esteem and further de-
pressive symptoms (Markowitz, 2017). Several studies have indicated
that school belonging and feeling connectedness are negatively asso-
ciated with low self-esteem (Begen & Turner-Cobb, 2015; Korpershoek,
Canrinus, Fokkens-Bruinsma, & de Boer, 2019; Watson, 2017). Harter
(2003) noted that having high-quality relationships with others (e.g.,
peers and teachers) at school, signifying quality school engagement, can
cause adolescents’ self-worth because it improves their perception of
being accepted and valued by others. Thus, school engagement is ex-
pected to build healthy self-esteem in adolescents.
H2: School engagement positively influences adolescents’ self-es-
teem.
H. Bang, et al.
1.3. Extracurricular activities as protective factors
Extracurricular activities have long been recognized for playing an
important role in the social, emotional, and cognitive development of
youth, including high self-esteem. Prior research found a linear re-
lationship between age and self-esteem over time, suggesting that
changes in the initial level of self-esteem and the growth of self-esteem
over time are affected by the type of extracurricular activities in which
adolescents participate (Kort-Butler & Hagewen, 2011). Although there
are many different types of extracurricular activities and programs, two
of the most beneficial extracurricular activities for adolescents to build
self-esteem are sport participation and volunteering activity (Gomez-
Baya, Mendoza, de Matos, & Tomico, 2019; Padilla-Walker, Carlo, &
Memmott-Elison, 2017).
1.3.1. Sport participation
The positive developmental outcomes from adolescents' sport par-
ticipation and prosocial behavior indicate vital implications for im-
proving their school lives (Bang, Chang, & Lee, 2020; Mahoney & Vest,
2012; Spivak & Durlak, 2015). Participation in any type of sports and
physical activities helps adolescents learn the values of teamwork,
make lasting friendships, improve communication skills, and apply
academic skills in other areas, delivering a truly well-rounded educa-
tion (NHSAW, 2004). Undoubtedly, the effect seems to become ap-
parent in extracurricular school sport settings. School sport teams
provide opportunities for students to represent their school and com-
munity outside school, which makes it possible for students to develop a
positive self-image, a healthy body, and a sense of belonging to a
meaningful team and the school (Yanık, 2018). Bohnert, Wargo Aikins,
and Arola (2013) study examined the facilitating effects of organized
activities on adolescents' social adjustment from middle school (8th
grade) to high school (9th grade). They found that participation in
sports helped students with friendships during the transition, which led
to greater feelings of school engagement and further increased self-
esteem (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006).
Sports participation is beneficial for not only adolescents' physical
fitness, but also their self-esteem. Studies reported that sport partici-
pation improves feelings of physical competence, satisfaction with
physical appearance and body image, which can lead to increased
global self-esteem (Findlay & Bowker, 2009; Gomez-Baya et al., 2019;
Zamani Sani et al., 2016). From a different perspective, Chan (1999)
noted that adolescents who participate in sports, especially team sports,
compete with others to achieve a certain goal. Working together and
collaborating within a team to reach a common goal help an adolescent
develop social confidence and boost self-esteem (Chan, 1999). More-
over, adolescents' interaction with persons, objects and symbols in the
sport environment can become sources to determine their sport com-
petence (e.g., peer comparison processes and evaluative feedback from
coaches, parents, peers, and spectators). The perceived sport compe-
tence eventually produces psychological benefits that represent self-
esteem enhancement (Sonstroem, 1997). Several empirical studies
found evidence for the relationship from sport participation to self-es-
teem. Daniel and Leaper (2006) longitudinal study showed that ado-
lescent girls and boys who spent more time in active sports reported
higher self-esteem, through the mediating variable of perceived peer
acceptance. Similarly, Chen, Chen, Lin, & Chen's study (2012) using a
Taiwanese college student sample found that sport participation was
positively associated with self-esteem through peer acceptance and
sport self-concept. In sum, adolescents who participate in sports are
likely to have higher levels of school engagement and self-esteem in
comparison to their non-participating counterparts.
H3: Adolescents’ sport participation is positively associated with
school engagement.
H4: Adolescents’ sport participation is positively associated with
self-esteem
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Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012
1.3.2. Volunteering activity
Youth volunteering provides many social benefits that affirm a
young person's attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and
learning, civic engagement, social skills, and academic performance
(Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). Especially, the social skills acquired
through volunteering activities can enhance adolescents’ ability to de-
velop meaningful relationships with their peers and teachers at school.
Relationships with peers and teachers have a major impact on a stu-
dent’s engagement at school as his or her motivation is influenced by
his or her peers’ motivation, learning behavior or social support and
teachers’ motivation and perceived support (Raufelder, Regner, Drury,
& Eid, 2016). Longitudinal findings provide evidence that students’
perception of peers as positive motivators predicts higher behavioral
and emotional school engagement (Bakadorova & Raufelder, 2017).
High-quality student-teacher relationships also foster both students'
school engagement and academic skills (Maldonado-Carreño &
Votruba-Drzal, 2011; Roorda, Koomen, Spilt, & Oort, 2011).
Volunteering as a prosocial activity can create a context in which
adolescents can develop confidence and self-esteem and learn new skills
in their abilities. According to Santrock (2001), prosocial orientation
and empathy emerge in early childhood and peak in early adolescence.
The prosocial moral reasoning, empathy, and perspective-taking es-
tablish a strong foundation for emotional development that enables
adolescents to build a realistic and coherent sense of identity in the
context of interacting with others and learning to deal with stress and
negative emotions (Santrock, 2001). Thus, prosocial behaviors, any big
or small kindness with no obvious benefit, can boost adolescents' feel-
ings of self-worth and more global self-esteem and further improves
academic performance, antisocial impulse regulation, and high-quality
relationships with peers, family, and members of their social sphere
(Padilla-Walker & Carlo, 2014; Padilla-Walker et al., 2017). Many
previous studies supported the positive relationship between youth
volunteering activities and their increased feelings of self-regard (Astin,
Sax, & Avalos, 1999; Johnson, Beebe, Mortimer, & Snyder, 1998;
Zuffianò et al., 2014). Zuffianò et al. (2014) noted that as adolescents
grow into young adulthood, they face several challenges (e.g., in-
dependent living, labor market entrance, parenthood, etc.) that can
simultaneously improve and damage individuals’ sense of being com-
petent and valued. However, adolescents who are more likely to exhibit
prosocial behavior tend to have high levels of self-esteem because they
live in supportive social environments (e.g., friends, family, etc.) that
can help them construct positive images of themselves (Zuffianò et al.,
2014). Overall, adolescents who participate in volunteering activities
are likely to have higher levels of school engagement and self-esteem in
comparison to their non-participating counterparts.
H5: Adolescents’ volunteering activity is positively associated with
school engagement.
H6: Adolescents’ volunteering activity is positively associated with
self-esteem.
1.4. Gender differences
While we propose that sport participation and volunteering activity
are associated with reduced levels of depression in adolescence, ques-
tions remain regarding whether male and female adolescents show
differences in the levels of depression, self-esteem, and school engage-
ment. Epidemiological studies suggest a female preponderance in the
prevalence of depression in adolescents after puberty when girls are
twice as likely to be affected as boys (McGuinness et al., 2012). This
gender difference in adolescent depression is particularly relevant to
the presence of possible gender differences in self-esteem during ado-
lescence. Self-esteem research consistently indicates that girls present
lower self-esteem than boys, which underscores the more negative side
effect of low self-esteem in adolescent girls (Moksnes & Espnes, 2012).
Moreover, girls are more likely than boys to have academic engagement
H. Bang, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012

and achievement (Bugler, McGeown, & St. Clair-Thompson, 2015;
Havik & Westergård, 2019), indicating girls’ higher levels of school
engagement. Therefore, this study posits that gender differences exist in
depression, self-esteem, and school engagement among adolescents.
H7: There are gender differences in the rates of school engagement.
Female adolescents are likely to have a higher level of school en-
gagement.
H8: There are gender differences in the rates of self-esteem. Male
adolescents are likely to have a higher level of self-esteem.
H9: There are gender differences in the rates of depression. Female
adolescents are likely to have a higher level of depression.
2. Method
2.1. Data
We analyzed survey data from the Youth Development Study (YDS),
a longitudinal cohort study that began in 1988, when participants were
ninth-graders (14–15 years old) in the St. Paul, Minnesota, public
school system. Specifically, this wide-ranging study covers three gen-
erations: teenagers who attended the 9th grade in the 1987–88 aca-
demic year (Generation 2), the parents of the Generation 2 cohort
(Generation 1), and the children of Generation 2 who were age 11 or
older in 2008 (Generation 3). Generation 1 answered the survey from
1988 to 2004, Generation 2 answered the survey from 1988 to 1991,
and Generation 3 answered the survey from 2009 to 2011. In the cur-
rent study, we used the third wave (2011) data set of Generation 3. This
data set consists of the responses of 445 adolescent children. In our
study, we selected 273 young adolescents (from age 11 to 18) by ex-
amining a survey item, BTHYS3: “what your birth date: year.” Table 1
shows descriptive statistics for 273 young adolescents. The majority of
the respondents were female (n = 145; 53.1%), White (n = 170;
62.3%) and living with both parents (n = 256; 93.8%).
2.2. Variables
The model of this study consisted of three latent variables (i.e.,
school engagement, self-esteem, and depression) and three covariates
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics (N = 273).
Variable Category n %
Gender Female 145
Male 128
Race White 170
African American 55
American Indian or Alaska native 13
Asian 24
Pacific Islander 1 0.4
Others 10
(sport participation, volunteering activity, and gender).
In the case of latent variables, school engagement was measured by
three items using a 4-point Likert-type scale (from “not at all true” to
“very true”). The three items included: (1) “I really like going to
school”, (2) “I work hard in school because it is so interesting”, and (3)
“school helps me to improve my ability to think and to solve problems.”
The information of the YDS lacked sources of scale validity evidence for
these items included. The three items were selected as measures of
school engagement because the items were worded to reflect the in-
dicators of engagement (i.e., affective, behavioral, and cognitive)
identified by previous research (Hart, Stewart, & Jimerson, 2011).
Self-esteem was measured by seven items, derived from the
Rosenberg self-esteem scale (Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, &
Rosenberg, 1995), using a 4-point Likert-type scale (from “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree”). The self-esteem items used in this study
are the following: (1) “I feel I have a number of good qualities”, (2) “I
certainly feel useless at times”, (3) “I feel I do not have much to be
proud of”, (4) “I take a positive attitude toward myself”, (5) “on the
whole, I am satisfied with myself”, (6) “I wish I could have more respect
for myself”, and (7) “at times I think I am no good at all”, and negative
items were reverse coded. The Rosenberg self-esteem scale has been
shown to have high internal reliability in prior research (Falci, 2011).
Depressive symptoms were measured by five items derived from the
General Well-being Scale of the Current Health Insurance Study Mental
Health Battery (Ware, Johnson, Davis-Avery, & Brook, 1979), asking
respondents how much of the time during the past month they have felt
depressed. The five items consisted of: (1) “Been under any strain,
stress, or pressure?”, (2) “Felt downhearted and blue?”, (3) “Been
moody or brooded about things?”, (4) “Felt depressed?”, (5) “Been in
low or very spirits?”), based on a 5-point Likert-type scale (from “no
time” to “all of the time”). Low depression was transformed by rever-
sing the original depression scale. The depression scale has been shown
to have good reliability in past research (Falci, Mortimer, & Noel,
2010). Moreover, confirmatory factor analysis,reliability estimates, and
average variance extracted (AVE) values for the three latent variables
indicated a unidimensional index with good reliability and validity. The
composite reliability coefficients (C.R.) and Raykov's Reliability rhos (ρ)
of the three variables were higher than the acceptable 0.70 cut-off, and
AVE values were higher than the minimum threshold of 0.50 (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981; see Table 3). Accordingly, the instruments would ade-
quately serve the same purpose of measuring adolescents’ school en-
gagement, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms in the present study.
Covariates were recoded as dummy variables. Adolescents’ sport
participation was identified by using a question in the YDS data set; “list
all the sports that you played during the past year, not including phy-
53.1
46.9
sical education classes.” The variable was coded “1” if an adolescent
participated in at least one sport activity. Similarly, volunteering ac-
62.3
tivity was coded “1” if a respondent participated in any kind of vo-
20.2
4.7 lunteer activity (“Have you done any volunteering in the past year?”).
8.8 Gender was coded “0” for females and “1” for males. Table 2 presents
the correlation analyses for all variables.
3.6

Living with Both parents 256 93.8

Only father 2 0.8
Only mother 9 3.3 Table 2
Missing 6 2.1 Correlations of latent variables and covariates.
Subjective health Excellent 66 24.2 1 2 3 4 5 6
Very good 102 37.4
Good 74 27.1 1. School engagement 1
Fair 23 8.4 2. Self-esteem .336*** 1
Poor 5 1.8 3. Low depression .232** .666*** 1
Missing 3 1.1 4. Sport participation .122 .222** .129* 1
An allowance from parents Do not receive 197 72.1 5. Volunteering activity .174* .072 −.025 .212*** 1
Under $20 per a week 62 22.7 6. Male gender −.195** .189** .143* −.001 −.047 1
$21–50 per a week 2 0.8
Over $50 per a week 2 0.8 * p < .05.
Missing 10 3.6 ** p < .01.
*** p < .001.

4
H. Bang, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012

2.3. Missing data procedure
Inevitably, longitudinal data have missing values because of the loss
of samples. In the YDS dataset, we found substantial numbers of missing
values because the G3 dataset was composed of children in the G2
dataset. Among the total of 445 respondents of the third wave in G3, the
responses from 100 respondents (22.4%) were removed because they
did not respond during the third wave. Another 72 observations
(16.1%) were removed because they (age 18 or older) were not young
adolescents. Because the remaining 273 observations still have some
missing values, we used a full-information maximum likelihood (FIML)
method with an assumption of MAR (missing at random). Specifically,
among the 15 items of the three latent variables (i.e., school engage-
ment, self-esteem, and depression), no item was found to have more
than 10 missing values (3%). FIML is known as an efficient and un-
biased method of estimating parameter (Little & Rubin, 2019).
2.4. Data analysis
Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses were conducted using
AMOS 24.0 program. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was per-
formed to assess the adequacy of the measurement model, including the
three latent variables (i.e., school engagement, self-esteem, and de-
pression), prior to the addition of covariates. In assessing goodness of fit
for the measurement and structural models of the study, multiple sta-
tistics were employed (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 2015), such as
comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), using above
0.90 as a cutoff for a good model fit (Kelloway, 1998; Kline, 2015), and
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized
Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) with a cutoff of 0.08 or less in-
dicating a good model fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Steiger, 1998).
Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model, which is a special
application of SEM, was performed to investigate the relationships
between observed covariates (sport participation, volunteering activity,
and gender) and latent variables.
3. Results
3.1. Confirmatory factor analysis
CFA was performed to evaluate the measurement model. As shown
in Table 3, the results of the CFA analysis exhibited that the
measurement model was a good fit to the data, χ2 = 231.079, df = 87,
p = .000, CFI = 0.943, TLI = 0.931, SRMR = 0.052, RMSEA = 0.069.
We also reported other statistics such as unstandardized factor loading
(b), standard error (s.e.), standardized factor loading (β), residual var-
iance, composite reliability (C.R), average variance extracted (AVE),
and Raykov (2001) reliability (ρ). We tested convergent validity and
discriminant validity of measurement scales based on the results of
CFA. In the case of convergent validity, all C.R values (0.821–0.909)
were greater than the criterion of 0.70, suggested by Fornell and
Larcker (1981) while all AVE values (0.595–0.641) were greater than
the criterion of 0.50, suggested by Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black
(1998), indicating reasonable convergent validity. Moreover, dis-
criminant validity can be supported when the squared AVE values are
greater than inter-construct correlations (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The
range of inter-construct coefficients (ranged from 0.177 to 0.622) was
much less than the squared AVE value (ranged from 0.771 to 0.890).
Overall, all statistics indicated acceptable reliability and validity. Also,
correlation coefficients between the three variables were ranged from
0.177 to 0.622. All correlation coefficients were under 0.80, suggesting
that multicollinearity did not affect the analysis in this study.
3.2. Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model
A MIMIC model was constructed to investigate the effects of cov-
ariates on the factor structure (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). The MIMIC
model is an effective method to estimate group differences on latent
variables and allows simultaneous analysis of latent variables and
covariates. The MIMIC modeling technique is a useful alternative to
multigroup analysis whereas multigroup modeling requires bigger
sample sizes in comparison to a MIMIC approach. In this study, three
observed variables, namely sport participation, volunteering activity,
and gender, were used as covariates. Based on the literature, we made
two hypotheses (H1 & H2) between the three latent variables (school
engagement, self-esteem, and low depression) to investigate a full
mediation relationship between the latent variables. We also built seven
hypotheses (H3 to H9) between the three covariates and the three latent
variables (see Fig. 2).
The model was a fairly good approximation to the data,
χ2 = 249.679, df = 129, p = .000, CFI = 0.943, TLI = 0.928,
SRMR = 0.053, RMSEA = 0.059 (see Table 4). The addition of the
covariates did not affect the loadings of indicators on the latent vari-
ables while two of our hypotheses on the associations between the three

Table 3
Confirmatory Factor Analysis.
Variables and items b s.e. β Residual
variance

School engagement (C.R. = 0.821, AVE = 0.615, ρ = 0.755)

I really like going to school. 1 0.648 0.341
I work hard in school because it is so interesting 1.523 0.172 0.899 0.136
School helps me to improve my ability to think and to solve problems 0.952 0.108 0.560 0.488

Self-esteem (C.R. = 0.909, AVE = 0.595, ρ = 0.848)

I feel I have a number of good qualities 1 0.432 0.238
I certainly feel useless at times. (R) 2.228 0.308 0.660 0.351
I feel I do not have much to be proud of. (R) 2.313 0.310 0.716 0.277
I take a positive attitude toward myself. 1.759 0.251 0.611 0.284
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 1.954 0.264 0.700 0.217
I wish I could have more respect for myself. (R) 2.305 0.326 0.622 0.459
At times I think I am no good at all. (R) 3.079 0.396 0.818 0.256

Low depression (C.R. = 0.898, AVE = 0.641, ρ = 0.917)

Been under any strain, stress, or pressure? (R) 1 0.708 0.627
Felt downhearted and blue? (R) 1.216 0.078 0.875 0.285
Been moody or brooded about things? (R) 1.040 0.076 0.770 0.469
Felt depressed? (R) 1.335 0.084 0.898 0.269
Been in low or very low spirits? (R) 1.224 0.078 0.879 0.279
Model fit: χ2 = 231.079, df = 87, p = .000, CFI = 0.943, TLI = 0.931, SRMR = 0.052, RMSEA = 0.069

Note: R = reverse coding.

5
H. Bang, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012

Fig. 2. Structural model. Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. Sport = Sport participation, Volunteering = Volunteering activity, Male = Male gender.

latent variables were also supported in the presence of the covariates.
School engagement predicted some of the variability of self-esteem
(β = 0.371, p < .001) while self-esteem was significantly associated
with low depression (β = 0.662, p < .001), supporting Hypothesis 1
and 2. Of the three covariates, sport participation was a significant
predictor of self-esteem (β = 0.180, p = .005) while it was not sig-
nificantly associated with school engagement, thus supporting Hy-
pothesis 4, but not Hypothesis 3. Volunteering activity was a significant
predictor of school engagement (β = 0.147, p = .028) but not self-
esteem, thus supporting Hypothesis 5 but not Hypothesis 6. Male
gender was positively associated with self-esteem (β = 0.261,
p < .001) while it was negatively associated with school engagement
(β = -0.189, p = .005), supporting both Hypothesis 7 and 8. In the case
of school engagement, female adolescents reported a higher level of
school engagement in comparison to their male counterparts. However,
there was no gender effect on depression, not supporting Hypothesis 9.
A Sobel test was conducted to test the mediating effect of self-es-
teem in the relationship between school engagement and low depres-
sion (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Findings suggested that self-esteem
significantly mediated the relationship between school engagement and
low depression (Z = 3.3382, p < 0.001), confirming a full mediation
relationship between the three latent variables.
4. Discussion
examine the effects of gender on school engagement, self-esteem, and
depression. In general, findings supported the mediating role of self-
esteem in the relationship between school engagement and depression
and the assertion that sport participation, volunteer activity, and ado-
lescents’ gender have a distinct pattern of associations with the three
latent variables. Specifically, school engagement was influenced by
volunteering participation and genderwhile self-esteem was influenced
by sport participation and gender.
4.1. Theoretical implications
4.1.1. The effect of self-esteem on low depression
In support of Beck (1967) cognitive theory, adolescents who had
higher levels of self-esteem appeared to have lower rates of depression.
That is, the adolescents' positive cognitions or beliefs about themselves
were shown to be affecting their good mental health, making them less
likely to experience feelings of inadequacy, depressed mood, and
hopelessness. Concerning adolescents’ self-esteem, Kort-Butler (2012)
emphasized the importance of participation in extracurricular activ-
ities. Extracurricular activities provide a context for self-assessment
outside of school and family settings of which the expectations are re-
latively restricted, thereby allowing adolescents to develop a positive
identity of themselves on which self-esteem is anchored (Kort-Butler,
2012).

The present study applied a MIMIC analysis to simultaneously in-
vestigate the relationships between school engagement and self-esteem
and between self-esteem and depression among young adolescents as
well as the relationships between two latent variables (school engage-
ment and self-esteem) and extracurricular activities (sport participation
and volunteering activity). Another goal of the present study was to
4.1.2. The effects of sport participation on school engagement and self-
esteem
Our findings revealed that higher levels of adolescents’ sport par-
ticipation positively influenced self-esteem that was linked to low levels
of depression. Consistent with previous research (Chen, Chen, Lin, &
Chen, 2012; Daniel & Leaper, 2006), the findings add to a growing body

Table 4
Hypotheses Testing.
b s.e. Β t p

H1: Self-esteem → Low depression 2.341 0.395 0.662 5.926 .000

H2: School engagement → Self-esteem 0.173 0.042 0.371 4.132 .000
H3: Sport participation → School engagement 0.089 0.064 0.092 1.393 .164
H4: Sport participation → Self-esteem 0.082 0.029 0.180 2.785 .005
H5: Volunteer activity → School engagement 0.148 0.068 0.147 2.197 .028
H6: Volunteer activity → Self-esteem −0.014 0.029 −0.030 −0.492 .623
H7: Male → School engagement −0.182 0.065 −0.189 −2.788 .005
H8: Male → Self-esteem 0.117 0.032 0.261 3.673 .000
H9: Male → Low depression 0.029 0.083 0.018 0.344 .731
Model fit: χ2 = 249.679, df = 129, p = .000, CFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.928, SRMR = 0.053, RMSEA = 0.059

Note: Gender (female = 0, male = 1).

6
H. Bang, et al.
of literature on sport participation that helps build adolescents' self-
esteem. Organized sports contribute to positive youth development by
offering opportunities to learn athletic skills, peer relationships, and
nonacademic competencies (Smith, 2003), thereby resulting in greater
self-esteem (Chen et al., 2012). Furthermore, sport participation can
enhance feelings of physical competence and satisfaction with physical
appearance (Bowker, 2006), leading to higher general self-esteem
(Jackson & Marsh, 1986). The unique aspects of goal setting and
achievement in sporting contexts can also explain this finding. Re-
gardless of sport participants' ability or potential, sports require goal-
setting, which helps participants to focus the attention on the targeted
goal and boost the motivation, concentration, and effort (Locke &
Latham, 1985). It means sports offer a sense of accomplishment that is
an important part of adolescents' sense of self-worth. For instance,
seeing one's extra hard effort rewarded and achieving one's short- or
long-term goals can build self-esteem.
However, the direct effect of sport participation on school engage-
ment was not significant in this study. The finding indicated that sports
as a strategy to counter school disengagement was not an effective one
with the sample of the current study. This may suggest that partici-
pating in sports does not automatically enhance young adolescents’
school engagement. Rather, to enhance adolescents’ school engage-
ment, a concerted effort is needed to effectively implement the ‘sport’
strategy in partnership with students, parents, teachers, and other re-
lated stakeholders because adolescents tend to engage more in activities
involving both adults and peers (Shernoff & Vandell, 2007).
4.1.3. The effects of volunteering activity on school engagement and self-
esteem
Our findings also advance knowledge on the role of volunteering
activity in enhancing young adolescents’ school engagement, which
predicted their self-esteem. According to Conner (2011), adolescent
volunteering could offer an opportunity for developing vocational and
social skills, including team working skills, problem-solving skills,
planning and organizational skills, task skills, communication skills,
community support, and career aspirations. Those skills developed
through volunteering enable adolescents to achieve psychosocial ad-
justment in the school environment. (The National Youth Agency,
2007). For example, adolescents' exposure to different people through
volunteering enhances their ability to manage relationships with
people, which can positively influence their relationship with peers and
teachers at school. Strong relationships with peers and teachers in-
crease student motivation for staying engaged in and connected to
school (Bakadorova & Raufelder, 2017). Further, adolescents’ high le-
vels of school engagement influenced by the quality and stability of
adolescents’ relationships with others at school, school adjustment, and
classmate support have a protective effect on self-esteem (Birkeland,
Breivik, & Wold, 2014; Harter, 2003).
Interestingly, volunteering activity was not directly associated with
self-esteem that predicted lower depressive symptoms. Probably, ado-
lescents’ perceived benefits of volunteering activities would be more
concerning their own learning, such as learning to respect others,
learning kindness, respect, and empathy, and developing a civic iden-
tity. Rather than having immediate feelings of high self-worth, which
results from their volunteering activities that hardly accompany a real
sense of accomplishment, it might be more plausible for adolescents to
bring such increased abilities to a school setting where they spend
significant time. Then, their personal abilities valued at school would
help them feel good about themselves. Besides, the non-significant di-
rect effect of volunteering activity on self-esteem may be inconsistent
with previous studies due to a multitude of parameters simultaneously
estimated by the model of the current study. This study tested various
hypotheses through one model, including the effects of sport partici-
pation on school engagement and self-esteem, which differs from other
adolescent development studies. Considering the finding that the direct
effect of sport participation on self-esteem was significant in the model,
7
Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012
it is possible that the SEM analyses based on the covariances of all the
indicator variables might not sufficiently identify certain relationships
(e.g., the relationship between volunteering activity and self-esteem) in
the model.
4.1.4. Gender differences
This study found gender differences in the rates of school engage-
ment and self-esteem. Female adolescents were more likely to be en-
gaged in school than male adolescents were, which agrees with pre-
vious research. Female adolescents tend to have higher levels of
academic motivation than male adolescents, resulting in working
harder with goals of performing better academically than male ado-
lescents. (Bugler et al., 2015; Havik & Westergård, 2019). Such gender
gap in academic motivation would explain gender differences in school
engagement, such that female adolescents report higher school en-
gagement. In contrast with school engagement, male adolescents at-
tained higher self-esteem scores than female adolescents did. This
finding confirms previous results (Bleidorn et al., 2016; Polce-Lynch,
Myers, Kliewer, & Kilmartin, 2001). Polce-Lynch et al. (2001) noted
that girls are more likely than boys to be emotionally expressive, in-
fluenced by social media, and have a negative body image, struggling
with low self-esteem. This gender gap that emerges in adolescence often
persists throughout early and middle adulthood (Bleidorn et al., 2016).
Surprisingly, this study found no gender differences in depression. Re-
garding this finding, we may need to call attention to limitations in the
measures of depression used in the study. Although self-report instru-
ments have been widely used to measure depression, there might be a
possibility of providing invalid responses among adolescents who un-
dergo mostly a critical period in the effects of early life stress, especially
on sensitive questions for which they may respond in a socially ac-
ceptable way (Demetriou, Ozer, & Essau, 2015). Moreover, the 5-item
scale to measure depression in the study might not sufficiently capture
depressive symptoms of both male and female adolescents, which in-
cludes diverse symptoms (e.g., fatigue, eating disorder, irritability,
changes in sleep, self-injury, etc).
4.2. Practical implications
These findings suggest several courses of action for improving self-
esteem and reducing the symptoms of depression in adolescents with
extracurricular activities. First, schools should be encouraged to pro-
mote the values inherent in sports and to provide more opportunities
for students’ sport participation. For example, developing and offering
more sport programs might help increase students’ involvement in
sports. Moreover, schools should consider finding affordable ways for
students to feel more comfortable playing sports. Second, highlighting
the positive mental well-being of youth volunteering, community or-
ganizations and school-based volunteer programs should employ suc-
cessful strategies to attract and retain young volunteers. Convincing
adolescents for the cause and the mission and focusing on how they can
make a difference and the benefits they get might motivate them to get
involved in volunteering. Utilizing peer influencers and social media
would be an effective approach as adolescents’ use of social networking
sites has become a primary way of connecting with peers and acquiring
information about others (Shapiro & Margolin, 2014). Finally, this
study indicates the importance of sport participation and volunteering
activity, being associated with adolescents’ school engagement, high
self-esteem, and low depression. Those extracurricular activity vari-
ables involve social situations where adolescents shape social networks.
Therefore, sport and volunteering program providers have to pay close
attention to how they can positively contribute to adolescents’ personal
and social skills built through their programs.
4.3. Limitations and future research
This study has thrown up several questions in need of further
H. Bang, et al.
investigation. First, the current study investigated the gender differ-
ences in the three latent variables and showed evidence of gender in-
fluences in school engagement and self-esteem. However, it should be
also noted that other demographic variables, such as grade level and
race/ethnicity (e.g., Diseth, Meland, & Breidablik, 2014), as well as
socio-economic variables, such as financial strain (Mayhew & Lempers,
1998), could be considered as meaningful covariates in understanding
the relational dynamics between school engagement, self-esteem, and
depression. Moreover, examining some risk factors of depression during
adolescence is suggested, such as bullying at school. Empirical studies
have demonstrated consistent evidence that different forms of bullying
and victimization are associated with adolescent depressive symptoms
(Hill, Mellick, Temple, & Sharp, 2017; Kaltiala-Heino, Frojd, &
Marttunen, 2009). Identifying and exploring such key external factors
would lead to a better understanding of the cause of depression and
provide better insights for practitioners when determining depression
prevention and treatment services.
Second, this study used only a sample of adolescents attending
middle or high schools, the latest data of the YDS collected in 2011.
Some studies indicated that depression in adolescence also predicts
various mental health disorders in adulthood (Thapar, Collishaw, Pine,
& Thapar, 2012). Examining longitudinal effects would provide an in-
depth understanding of whether untreated depression in childhood is
associated with an increased risk of adverse mental health in adulthood
and whether participation in extracurricular activities has an impact in
the transition to adulthood. Therefore, future research investigating the
longitudinal effects of sport participation and volunteering activity on
depression would be very interesting.
Finally, the YDS data were collected from local public high schools
in St. Paul, Minnesota, including mostly white students (62.3%). Due to
the sample relatively over-represented by white students, the results
should not be generalized but very cautiously beyond this study. Future
trials should be designed to include more proportionally representative
samples that have the same proportions as the national population.
4.4. Conclusions
Although research has documented the associations between risk
and protective factors and symptoms of adolescent depression, fewer
studies have examined the important role of adolescents’ extra-
curricular activities in reducing the presence of depression. Our study
adds to the adolescent development literature and the depression lit-
erature by providing evidence that sport participation and volunteering
activity have indirect positive impacts on lower depressive symptoms
among adolescents. Future research should continue to explore how
potential protective factors and personal/social characteristics influ-
ence adolescents’ mental health and well-being, thereby providing
crucial information for policy decision-makers about how best to help
those adolescents who are at risk of depression.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hyejin Bang: Project administration, Conceptualization,
Investigation, Methodology, Writing - original draft, Supervision,
Writing - review & editing. Doyeon Won: Writing - review & editing,
Investigation, Visualization. Sanghyun Park: Methodology, Data
curation, Software, Validation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
8
Children and Youth Services Review 113 (2020) 105012
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105012.
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