Journal Pre-proofs

Structural Equation Modeling and the Effect of Perceived Academic Inferiori-

ty, Socially Prescribed Perfectionism, and Parents’ Forced Social Comparison
on Adolescents’ Depression and Aggression

Youkyung Lee, Jung Hee Ha, Juliet Jue

PII: S0190-7409(19)30948-X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104649
Reference: CYSR 104649

To appear in: Children and Youth Services Review

Received Date: 31 August 2019

Revised Date: 22 November 2019
Accepted Date: 22 November 2019

Please cite this article as: Y. Lee, J. Hee Ha, J. Jue, Structural Equation Modeling and the Effect of Perceived
Academic Inferiority, Socially Prescribed Perfectionism, and Parents’ Forced Social Comparison on Adolescents’
Depression and Aggression, Children and Youth Services Review (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.childyouth.2019.104649

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PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 3

Structural Equation Modeling and the Effect of Perceived Academic Inferiority, Socially

Prescribed Perfectionism, and Parents’ Forced Social Comparison on Adolescents’

Depression and Aggression

Youkyung Lee and Jung Hee Ha

Hanyang University

Juliet Jue

Hanyang Cyber University

Author Note

Youkyung Lee, Graduate School of Counseling Psychology, Hanyang University;

Jung Hee Ha, Graduate School of Counseling Psychology, Hanyang University; Juliet Jue,

Department of Art Therapy, Hanyang Cyber University.

This work was supported by the research fund of Hanyang University (HY-2019).

This paper is part of Youkyung Lee’s thesis for 2019 Master’s degree.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jung Hee Ha, Graduate

School of Counseling Psychology, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763. Contact:

hajung366@hanyang.ac.kr
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 4

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the mediating effects of socially prescribed

perfectionism and academic inferiority on the relationship between parents’ forced social

comparison and high school students’ depression and aggression. A total of 640 Korean high

school students participated in the study’s survey, which measured their perceptions of

socially prescribed perfectionism, academic inferiority, depression, aggression, and of their

parents’ forced social comparison. The study’s results are as follows. First, the research

model set in this study was found to be suitable. Parents’ forced social comparison was

significantly related to socially prescribed perfectionism and academic inferiority, and

socially prescribed perfectionism was significantly related to academic inferiority,

depression, and aggression. Academic inferiority was significantly correlated with

depression, and depression was significantly correlated with aggression. Second, socially

prescribed perfectionism had a simple mediating effect on both the relationship between

parents’ forced social comparison and depression and the relationship between academic

comparison and aggression. In addition, academic inferiority presented a simple mediating

effect on the relationship between social comparison and depression. Third, socially

prescribed perfectionism and academic inferiority exhibited a double mediating effect on the

relationship between parents’ forced social comparison and depression. After presenting

these findings, the study outlines its implications and limitations.

Keywords: parents’ forced social comparison, socially prescribed perfectionism,

academic inferiority, depression, aggression

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 5

Structural Equation Modeling and the Effect of Perceived Academic Inferiority, Socially

Prescribed Perfectionism, and Parents’ Forced Social Comparison on Adolescents’

Depression and Aggression

Secondary education in Korea is highly competitive, and young people are expected

to achieve high levels of academic success. Adolescents struggle with college entrance exams

and suffer from a number of psychological issues, including internal and external stresses,

depression, and anxiety (Jeong & Park, 2003; Kim, 2004; Kim, Hong, & Yang, 2002). The

personal factors that influence various psychological difficulties and resulting maladjustment

can be divided into internal psychological factors and environmental factors. Among

environmental factors, parental attitudes can have a particularly significant impact on young

people (Park & Lee, 2012; Seon & Oh, 2013).

Parents’ forced social comparison (PFSC) has been defined as a form of

psychological control that parents exert over their children, characterized by parents’

behavior of comparing their children’s academic achievements to those of other children who

are regarded as superior. Previous studies have reported that children experience both

internalized and externalized problems due to PFSC (J. Choi, 2016; Hahn & Jang, 2003; Kim,

2015; Ko, 2016; Nam, Sung, & Gwon, 2014; Wilson, 2004). For instance, adolescents who

experienced frequent academic comparisons from their parents perceived their subjective

well-being to be lower even after a long period of time (Hahn & Jang, 2003). The adolescents

also showed signs of depression with harsh self-evaluations (Kim, 2015). Similarly,

Hakmiller (1996) argued that parents’ social comparison tendencies were related to children’s

neurosis, negative emotions, and low self-esteem. Furthermore, social comparison produces

anxiety, inferiority, and anger in children (Wilson, 2004), and it is positively correlated with

aggression (Ko, 2016). In another study, the more the adolescents perceived their parents’
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 6

psychological control, the more they exhibited internalized problem behaviors including

somatic symptoms, withdrawal, depression, and anxiety (Ha, 2017; Stolz, Barber, & Olsen,

2005) as well as externalized problem behaviors including aggressive, delinquent, and

antisocial behaviors (Albrecht, Galambos, & Janson, 2007; Barber, Bean, & Erickson, 2002;

J. Choi, 2016). In other words, adolescents who have been subjected to parental

psychological control and academic-related comparisons suffer negative consequences in

terms of their psychosocial adaptation and behavioral development (Ahn & Shin, 2012),

causing both internalized and externalized problems (Nam et al., 2014). Moreover, the higher

the adolescents’ academic stress, the higher the level of internalized and externalized

problems they experience (Yoo, Kahng, & Kim, 2014).

It is important to examine adolescents’ personal characteristics related to PFSC.

Some of the factors worth exploring that are activated by PFSC include socially prescribed

perfectionism and academic inferiority. Perfectionism is defined as evaluating oneself strictly,

setting excessive standards, and requiring oneself and others to perform accordingly

(Hamacheck, 1978). Hewitt and Flett (1991a) distinguished three types of perfectionism: self-

oriented perfectionism, in which individuals impose strict standards on themselves; other-

oriented perfectionism, in which individuals expect others to be perfect; and socially

prescribed perfectionism, which is defined as individuals’ belief that others impose high

standards on them and that fulfilling those standards is the only way to be accepted. Among

the three, socially prescribed perfectionism is the most closely related to various

psychological problems such as anxiety, depression, stress, suicidal ideation, and personality

disorders (Flett, Besser, & Hewitt, 2005; Hewitt, Flett, & Endler, 1995; Hong & Hyun, 2007;

Kim & Lee, 2018; Lee & Mi, 2010; Sherry, Hewitt, Flett, & Harvey, 2003).

Another study found that academic inferiority increased when parents compared their

children’s academic performance to the performance of other, superior adolescents (Jang,

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 7

2004; Yoo, Kim, & Kim, 2008). Children tend to place heavier pressure on themselves when

their parents have higher expectations for them (Kim & Yang, 2011; Kwak, 2012). Prior

research also uncovered that PFSC is experienced as pressure in terms of academic

achievement, which has a significant positive correlation with academic inferiority (Son,

2012; Yoo et al., 2008). Especially in Korea, known for its strong collectivistic culture,

parents tend to make upward comparisons about their children’s academic achievements

(Guimond, Chatard, Martinot, Crisp, & Redersdorff, 2006; Hyun, Lee, & Lee, 2003). Due to

the high degree of educational competition in Korea, parents tend to compare their children to

their superior peers, producing a sense of inferiority and worthlessness in their children.

These concepts are not only related to each other, but also related to depression and

aggression. As prior studies have revealed, perfectionism is related to negative emotions

including depression, low self-esteem, shame, guilt, and regret (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a;

Slaney, Ashby, & Trippi, 1995). When individuals perceive that standards imposed on them

by important individuals are unreachable, depressive feelings and/or anger may increase

(Kwak, 2012). Jung and Ha (2016) also confirmed that anxiety and depression were high in

college students with high socially prescribed perfectionism. In addition, perfectionism has a

significant correlation with aggression. Kwag (2008) examined middle school students’

perfectionism, aggression, and perceptions of parental attitudes and found that students’

perceptions of parental expectations (r = 0.229, p < 0.01) and worries about failure (r =

0.196, p < 0.01) were highly correlated with aggression. In addition, people with high levels

of perfectionism impose high standards on others to emphasize their faults and mistakes, to

be disappointed in interpersonal relationships, and to induce the anger of both parties to

experience negative emotions (Burns, 1980). Another previous study found a link between

perfectionism and dysfunctional aggression (Ha, Im, & Ha, 2011). Adolescents with high

perfectionism tended to experience stronger anger, given that the difference between the
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 8

levels of perfection they pursued and their actual performance was greater (Macedo et al.,

2009; Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). In particular, there was a positive correlation between

dysfunctional perfectionism and aggression, and the relationship between functional

perfectionism and aggression was not significant. People with high levels of dysfunctional

perfectionism were found to respond defensively to minor criticism due to the fear of

rejection or negative evaluation, thereby acting aggressively toward others (Jeong, 2000).

Thus, we assume that PFSC is related to adolescents’ socially prescribed perfectionism and

that perfectionism is related to depression and aggression.

It has also been found that inferiority is closely related to depression. Higher levels

of academic inferiority lead to higher levels of depression (Kim, 2015) and anxiety (Gibert et

al., 2007). When people fail to meet their expectations or goals, they feel guilty, experience

low self-esteem, and tend to see themselves as failures (Hankin, 2006; Kim, 2006).

Additionally, the more people are overly obsessed with their competences and values and the

more they condemn themselves, the deeper depression they experience (Blatt & Zuroff,

1992). These people also experience a greater ruminative tendency to focus on the meaning

of their depressed mood (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991), which leads to more serious

depression. People with high levels of inferiority are more likely to exhibit maladaptive

behaviors, such as aggression, due to exposure to negative feedback or problem situations; in

other cases, they avoid problems instead of confronting them directly (Adler, 1917, 2002;

Hong, 2016; Kim, 2010; Yoon & Kwon, 2014). Inferiority can become reactive aggression,

which manifests when one is treated unfairly or neglected by others. It is positively correlated

with persistent rumination on anger-inducing events (Hong, 2016) and excessive expression

of anger (Lee, Seo, & Lee, 2007).

Academic inferiority is also related to socially prescribed perfectionism (Ahn, 2004;

Ha & Jo, 2006; Kim, 2003). In other words, young people with socially prescribed
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 9

perfectionism tend to feel that they are being forced to live up to others’ high standards and

achievement expectations, and they blame themselves when they fail to do so (Dunkley,

Blankstein, Halsall, Williams, & Winkworth, 2000). These high-performance goals,

expectations, and standards lead to adolescents’ sense of academic inferiority.

Additionally, a close relationship has been identified between depression and

aggression (Hale, VanderValk, Akse, & Meus, 2008; Hong & Hwang, 2015; Jue & Ha, 2019).

Particularly, adolescents’ depressive emotions can manifest as problematic behaviors such as

misconduct and aggression (Kim, 2003). In general, aggression has been defined as any

intentional action aimed at harming others (Baron & Byme, 1984) and as punishable and

destructive behavior toward others (Spielberger, Jacobs, Russell, & Crane, 1983). In this

study, as defined by Berkowitz (1993), aggression is defined as a personality trait that

includes aggressive behavior, hostility, and anger.

As reviewed above, PFSC is related to adolescents’ socially prescribed perfectionism

and academic inferiority, which are, in turn, related to depression and aggression.

Considering the interrelationships between all of the abovementioned factors, this study

focuses on exploring the mediating effects of socially prescribed perfectionism and academic

inferiority on the relationship between PFSC and adolescents’ levels of depression and

aggression. One of this study’s assumptions is that PFSC directly affects socially prescribed

perfectionism, academic inferiority, depression, and aggression, while it indirectly affects

depression and aggression via perfectionism and inferiority.

The study’s research questions are as follows. First, is PFSC related to socially

prescribed perfectionism, academic inferiority, depression, and/or aggression? Second, are

socially prescribed perfectionism and academic inferiority related to depression and

aggression? Third, do socially prescribed perfectionism and academic inferiority have any

mediating effects on the relationship between PFSC, depression, and aggression? Fourth,
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 10

does depression have a mediating effect on the relationship between socially prescribed

perfectionism and aggression?

Method

We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions (if any), all

manipulations, and all measures in the study (Simmons, Nelson, & Simonsohn, 2012).

Participants and Procedure

This study surveyed 640 male and female Korean high school students in three

different areas including a metropolitan city, a rural area, and a small town. The Korean

educational system consists of six years of elementary school, three years of middle school,

and three years of high school. Generally, high school students are 16 to 18 years old.

Data collection took place during December 2018. Before starting the survey, we

contacted each school’s principal and homeroom teachers, explained the study purpose and

procedures, and requested their approval. After approval, a consent form was sent to parents

or legal guardians to obtain consent. A questionnaire survey was then administered to the

students whose parental consent was confirmed. The survey was conducted after the second

semester’s final exam so as not to disturb the students’ academic schedules.

The researcher visited the school and distributed the questionnaire to the students. In

addition, a handbook was provided to explain the questionnaire, the study’s purpose, the

implementation method, the required study length, an overview of the questionnaire,

students’ right to refuse participation, and the study’s confidentiality and consent measures.

The students were informed that they could drop out of the survey whenever they wished.

Then, the students received the questionnaire, read the questions, and checked the answers

with a pencil. After the survey was finished, all questionnaires, including unfilled

questionnaires, were collected at the same time.

We planned to administer a survey of 600-650 questionnaires in advance, taking into

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 11

account the study’ number of variables and the analysis method. 640 high school students

who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study signed the consent form and completed the

questionnaires. Participants spent approximately 30 minutes (or less) responding to the

survey.

Ultimately, after excluding 35 incomplete questionnaires, 605 questionnaires were

included in data analysis. There were 287 male subjects (47.4%) and 318 female subjects

(52.6%). Students’ grade distribution was 48.6% in the first grade and 51.4% in the second

grade.

Measures

1) The Parent Behavior Test

The Parent Behavior Test was developed by Lim (1998) based on Deci and Ryan’s

(1995) theory on how to increase autonomy. The test consists of five sub-factors including

providing democratic rules, providing choices, strengthening target behaviors, providing

academic information, and encouraging internal improvement. Lim (1988) validated the

Parent Behavior Test in accordance with four concepts proposed by Deci and Ryan (1995).

Other researchers measured the perceived PFSC of middle and high school students (Kim,

2015; Son, 2012). We used only the encouraging internal improvement sub-scale to measure

adolescents’ perceptions of PFSC. Examples of the sub-scale include “My parents compare

me with other children,” and “My parents tell me, ‘Be better than that person.’” The scale is

composed of six items rated on a five-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly

agree). The higher the average score, the higher the parents’ forced social comparison. The

Cronbach’s α was 0.84 in Lim’s study (1998) and 0.92 in this study.

2) The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale

The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) was developed by Hewitt and Flett

(1991a) and translated by Han (1993). The MPS is composed of 45 items with three sub-
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 12

scales: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed

perfectionism. However, this study used only the socially prescribed perfectionism sub-scale.

The scale is composed of fifteen items rated on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly

disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The higher the average score, the higher the perfectionism.

Hewitt and Flett (1991a) reported a Cronbach’s α of 0.87 while Han (1993) reported it to be

0.76. We found it to be 0.83 in this study.

3) The Inferiority Scale

We employed the Inferiority Scale constructed by Kim (1995). This scale has a total

of 40 items across four sub-scales: physical inferiority, social inferiority, family inferiority,

and academic inferiority. We only used the eight items featured in the academic inferiority

sub-scale, which are rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly

agree). The higher the average score, the higher the academic inferiority. The Cronbach’s α in

Kim’s study (1995) was 0.89 and we found it to be 0.94 in this study.

4) The Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale

Radloff (1977) developed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale

(CES-D) to evaluate adolescents’ depression. Although CES-D was developed for adults,

subsequent research confirmed that its reliability and validity are appropriate for high school

students (Radloff, 1977; Roberts, Gilboa, & Gotlib, 1998). We used the Korean version of

CES-D, which was translated and validated by Chon, Choi, and Yang (2001). Other

researchers, using the scale, estimated middle and high school students’ depression (Cho &

Lee, 2013; Jue & Ha, 2019; Kim & Park, 2013). A total of 20 items are rated on a four-point

Likert scale. There are 16 negative questions and four positive questions, and the positive

questions are summed by reverse scoring. The higher the sum score, the greater the feeling of

depression. This scale is composed of four sub-factors: melancholy emotion, action

slowdown, positive emotions, and personal relation. We found the Cronbach’s α to be 0.93
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 13

while Chon et al. (2001) found it to be 0.91.

5) The Aggression Scale

To measure adolescent aggression, we used the Korean version of the Aggression

Scale developed by Buss and Perry (1992) and translated and validated by Seo and Kwon

(2002). Previous studies have measured adolescents’ aggression with this scale (Choi, 2012;

Yoon & Kim, 2010). It is composed of 27 items and four sub-variables: physical aggression,

verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. All items are rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 =

strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The higher the average score, the stronger the

aggression. The scale’s reliability coefficient was 0.86 in Seo and Kwon’s (2002) study and

0.91 in this study.

Analysis Method

We analyzed the data using the IBM SPSS 24.0 and AMOS 18.0. First, we

performed descriptive statistics to determine the study subjects’ demographic characteristics,

as well as correlation analysis between PFSC, socially prescribed perfectionism, academic

inferiority, depression, and aggression to determine the correlation between the potential

variables. In the case of single factors, the use of potential variables as individual items can

increase the estimation error and decrease the reliability (Moon, 2015). Therefore, we

constructed item parceling via random assignment of PFSC, socially prescribed

perfectionism, and academic inferiority. Second, the skewness and kurtosis were checked to

determine the normality of the distribution of each variable used in this study. Third, we

conducted a confirmatory factor analysis and examined factor loading through AMOS 18.0 to

verify the hypothesis model. In addition, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was conducted

to verify the validity of the theoretical model and the influence between variables. When the

values for TLI and CFI are above 0.90, it is generally a good fit (Kim, Kim, & Hong, 2009).

For RMSEA, a good fit is determined by a value of less than 0.05, a moderate fit is less than
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 14

0.08, and a bad fit is over 0.10 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). Fourth, we employed an SPSS

Process macro analysis to verify the mediating effect of socially prescribed perfectionism and

academic inferiority on the relationship between PFSC, depression, and aggression. Serial

mediation analysis (Preacher & Hayes, 2008) was employed to confirm the SPSS Process

macro analysis due to the absence of a model similar to the one set in this study. In order to

confirm the significance of indirect effects through the mediators, bootstrapping was

conducted 5,000 times. The indirect effects were confirmed at the 95% confidence interval

(Shrout & Bolger, 2002).

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis

Table 1 presents the mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and correlation

coefficient of the 14 observed variables. For each variable, the skewness ranged from -0.10 to

1.16 and the kurtosis from -0.74 to 0.072. Each variable’s distribution did not exceed the

absolute values of 2 and 7, respectively, which satisfied the normal distribution assumption

(Byrne, 2001).

In addition, the results of the correlation analysis presented significant static

correlations between most variables. The variables with insignificant correlations were

physical aggression and verbal aggression.

Verification of Measurement Model

Prior to verifying the study’s structural model, we conducted confirmatory factor

analysis to verify the measurement model of latent variables. The results of the confirmatory

factor analysis are as follows: x2 (df = 67) = 424.266 (p < 0.001), TLI = 0.906, CFI = 0.931,

RMSEA = 0.094. Therefore, the measurement model in this study was judged to be suitable.

Verification of Structural Model

Goodness-of-fit verification of measurement model.

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 15

Prior to establishing the study’s structural model, we tested the hypothesis model,

assuming that it would be meaningful in all pathways among PFSC, socially prescribed

perfectionism, academic inferiority, depression, and aggression. We found that x2 (df = 134)

was 499.061 (p < 0.001), CFI was 0.929, TLI was 0.904, and RMSEA was 0.067. Based on

these results, the research model was selected as the final model.

Path coefficients of the final model. Table 2 and Figure 1 present the path

coefficients of the final model. The results indicated that PFSC had significant positive

effects on socially prescribed perfectionism (β = 0.52, p < 0.001) and on academic inferiority

(β = 0.17, p < 0.001). These findings imply that the more parents compare their children’s

academic accomplishments, the higher the children’s socially prescribed perfectionism and

academic inferiority.

In addition, perfectionism had significant positive effects on academic inferiority (β

= 0.51, p < 0.001), depression (β = 0.53, p < 0.001), and aggression (β = 0.18, p < 0.05).

Academic inferiority exhibited a significant positive influence on depression (β = 0.20, p <

0.001), and the path from depression to aggressiveness (β = 0.50, p < 0.001) also exhibited a

significant positive influence. Therefore, the higher the academic inferiority, the higher the

level of depression. In turn, the higher the level of depression, the higher the aggressiveness.

Verification of Mediating Effect

We conducted an SPSS Process macro analysis to determine whether PFSC affects

depression and aggression through socially prescribed perfectionism and academic

inferiority. Table 3 presents the results. When interpreting bootstrap, statistical significance is

assumed if there is no zero between the lower and upper values (Bollen & Stein, 1992).

Therefore, the mediating effects of socially prescribed perfectionism and academic inferiority

were significant.

The total effect of all four variables—PFSC, socially prescribed perfectionism,

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 16

academic inferiority, and depression—on aggression was significant (B = 0.14, p < 0.001).

The results of the indirect effect analysis between each path are as follows. First, PFSC

indirectly affected aggression via socially prescribed perfectionism. Second, PFSC had a

significant effect on aggression through socially prescribed perfectionism and depression,

sequentially. Third, the path from PFSC to aggression after passing through academic

inferiority and depression was significant. Lastly, the path from PFSC, socially prescribed

perfectionism, academic inferiority, and depression to aggression was also significant.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study examined the structural relationships between PFSC, socially prescribed

perfectionism, academic inferiority, depression, and aggressiveness. Based on the theoretical

relations between these factors, we examined the mediating effects of socially prescribed

perfectionism and academic inferiority on the relationship between PFSC, depression, and

aggression. This section discusses the study’s results and their implications.

First, PFSC directly affected socially prescribed perfectionism and academic

inferiority, while PFSC only indirectly affected depression and aggression. Previous research

reported a direct correspondence between PFSC and depression (Kim, 2015) and PFSC and

aggression (Ahn & Kim, 2014), but this study only found indirect influences due to the

involvement of strong mediating variables. Although there is a significant relationship

between PFSC, depression, and aggression, there was no direct relationship between them

due to the influence of mediating variables.

Second, we found that socially prescribed perfectionism had a direct effect on

depression and aggression. Previous studies have repeatedly reported the relationship

between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression (Cho & Park, 2018; Kim, Lee, &

Lee, 2012; Lee, Bae, Ham, & Chun, 2015; Lee & Rhyu, 2002) as well as the relationship

between socially prescribed perfectionism and aggression (Byrd, 2011; Goh & Hyun, 2009;
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 17

Ha et al., 2011; Jue & Ha, 2019; Kwag, 2008; Öngen, 2010). Meanwhile, academic

inferiority had a direct effect on depression but did not exhibit any significant relationship

with aggression. The fact that academic inferiority is associated with depression has been

demonstrated in previous studies (Gilbert et al., 2007; Kim, 2015). Additionally, previous

research has demonstrated a significant relationship between inferiority and aggression

(Adler, 1917; Hong, 2016; Kim, 2010; Moore et al., 2010; Yoon & Kwon, 2014). However,

this study examined the relationship between academic inferiority and aggression, not the

relationship between general inferiority and aggression. Thus, further research is needed to

confirm the results of this study.

Third, this study uncovered that socially prescribed perfectionism and academic

inferiority had simple mediating effects and double mediating effects on the relationship

between PFSC, depression, and aggression. This finding suggests that the greater the parents’

forced social comparison, the greater the socially prescribed perfectionism and academic

inferiority, which in turn increases depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism and

academic inferiority may increase sequentially, eventually leading to depression. The

confirmation that PFSC influences adolescents’ socially prescribed perfectionism supports

findings from previous studies examining the relationship between parental behaviors

concerning children’s schoolwork and perfectionism (Burns, 1980; S. Choi, 2016; Hamachek,

1978; Jeong, Chung, & Lee, 2009; Oh, Choo, & Lim, 2009). The more that parents compare

their children’s academic achievements to those of their peers, the more that children strive to

meet their parents’ high standards. In this process, socially prescribed perfectionism tends to

grow. Thus, socially prescribed perfectionism is closely related to adolescents’ depressive

mood (Hewitt & Flett, 1991b; Hewitt, Flett, & Turnbull-Donovan, 1992; Lee & Mi, 2010;

Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). Moreover, as socially prescribed perfectionism grows, the

child’s ideal self is perceived as higher than his/her actual self, leading to greater academic
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 18

inferiority. Adolescents with a high degree of socially prescribed perfectionism and academic

inferiority may be more depressed. These findings are consistent with prior research reporting

that when adolescents feel worthless and less important than others, they experience higher

levels of inferiority, leading to increased anxiety and depression (Gilbert et al., 2007).

Additionally, this study’s identification of academic inferiority as a mediator between PFSC

and depression confirms Son’s (2012) and Kim’s (2015) previous findings.

Furthermore, PFSC affects aggression via socially prescribed perfectionism,

academic inferiority, and depression sequentially. This result supports prior research findings

that adolescents’ high depression is related to high aggression (Hong & Hwang, 2015; Jue &

Ha, 2019; Kim, 2008), and that serious depression in adolescents leads to more problematic

behaviors including aggression, misconduct, rebellion, and anxiety (Kwak & Mun, 1993).

In addition, this study identified the mediating effect of socially prescribed

perfectionism on aggression. Specifically, PFSC affects children’s disposition toward socially

prescribed perfectionism, resulting in aggression. These findings also support previous

studies addressing the relationship between high maladaptive perfectionism and high

aggression (Kwag, 2008; Song, 2017). In other words, individuals with a high degree of

perfectionism tend to be disappointed when they discover others’ faults and mistakes after

imposing their own strict standards on others (Jue & Ha, 2019). Perfectionism is associated

with a form of dysfunctional anger manifested through an aggressive emotional reaction or

aggressive behavior toward others (Stoeber & Roche, 2014). Adolescents with high

perfectionism experience strong anger due to the discrepancy between their level of

perfectionism and their actual performance (Macedo et al., 2009; Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003).

Similarly, a prior study identified a correlation between socially prescribed perfectionism and

maladaptive anger expression as well as maladaptive cognitive coping strategies (Goh &

Hyun, 2009), which correspond to the present study’s findings.

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 19

The present study’s implications for adolescent education and counseling are as

follows. First, the study confirmed that PFSC is an important environmental factor that

indirectly affects Korean high school students’ depression and aggression. This study’s

important contribution lies in its explanation of the PFSC pathways that affect depression and

aggression differently through socially imposed perfectionism and academic inferiority.

Interventions can also be made to help parents understand the causal relationship between

PFSC and children’s depression and/or aggression through socially prescribed perfectionism

and academic inferiority. Understanding this pathway could provide the motivation to seek

solutions to decrease adolescents’ academic inferiority and perfectionism. In particular,

Jeong, Ferguson, and Lee (2019) found that excessive parental interference increased

academic stress while parental supervision or parent-child conversation lowered it. Based on

those findings, consultation sessions with parents might include training in parental roles and

parent-child communication programs to improve how parents engage with their children

regarding their academic achievement.

Second, this study is significant in its verification of the role of socially prescribed

perfectionism in adolescents’ depression and aggression. Adolescence is an important period

for the development of perfectionism (Flett, Hewitt, Oliver, & Macdonald, 2002; Stoeber &

Childs, 2011). Self-consciousness is higher than ever during this period, and it is critical for

adolescents to ensure that their public image looks good to their friends (Hewitt et al., 2011).

In particular, the competitive atmosphere and performance-oriented society in Korea has been

proven to increase the desire to be recognized by others; in turn, shame and stress related to

this desire lead to in higher performance standards (Kim & Hong, 2019). Thus, if parents

constantly evaluate and compare their adolescent children’s academic achievements to those

of others, adolescents will be more likely to develop socially prescribed perfectionism to

attempt to cover up their imperfections due to their fear of evaluation. Especially in Asian
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 20

cultures, people will try to maintain a perfect image of themselves by minimizing their

mistakes in public situations or by not speaking about them (Ha, 2011). The rate of reluctance

to seek professional help was higher for Asian Americans than for Americans in the United

States, suggesting that Asian Americans are more driven to hide their imperfections (Bogert,

1988; Zhang, Snowden, & Sue, 1998). This implies, then, that Asians have a stronger desire

to conceal their defects than Westerners (Ha, 2011). As this study found, the greater the

degree of perfectionism, the greater the depression and aggression of adolescents. In addition,

higher levels of perfectionism lead to greater perceptions of academic inferiority, eventually

resulting in depression. Therefore, counseling interventions to address these personality

characteristics are needed.

The study’s limitations and suggestions for future research are as follows. First, this

study was conducted with first- and second-grade students only, excluding third-grade

students. Future research should include third-grade high school students, who experience the

highest academic pressure. Second, in this study, we investigated the relationship between

parents’ academic comparison behavior and adolescents’ dysfunctional perfectionism and

academic inferiority reflecting the competitive and performance-oriented Korean society.

However, it is difficult to ascertain whether the study’s results are particular phenomena

limited to the Korean culture or if they are more general than that. Therefore, future research

focusing on cultural comparison is necessary to clarify the present study’s findings. Finally,

in this study, adolescents were asked to evaluate PFSC without making any distinctions

between their fathers and mothers. It would be interesting for future studies to distinguish

between fathers and mothers, as their influences on their children vary. This would shed light

and provide further details on parental influence.

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 21

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Table 1

Correlation between observed variables, means, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis
(N=605)

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PFSC 1. PFSC 1 -
2. PFSC 2 0.83** -
**
SPP 3. SPP 1 0.43 0.46** -
** **
4. SPP 2 0.33 0.33 0.66** -
** ** **
Academic 5. Inferiority 1 0.37 0.41 0.47 0.48** -
Inferiority 6. Inferiority 2 0.32 **
0.38 **
0.44 **
0.45 **
0.90** -
Depression 7. Melancholy 0.22** 0.25** 0.45** 0.48** 0.42** 0.43** -
8. Slowdown 0.28** 0.31** 0.44** 0.45** 0.39** 0.41** 0.81** -
** ** ** ** ** ** **
9. Positive E. 0.17 0.21 0.38 0.50 0.33 0.31 0.49 0.47** -
** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
10. Relation 0.22 0.23 0.33 0.39 0.37 0.40 0.74 0.64 0.36** -
Aggression 11. Physical agg. 0.19** 0.20** 0.17** 0.24** 0.16** 0.14** 0.27** 0.30** 0.08 0.27*
12. Verbal agg. 0.03 0.03 0.04 -0.03 0.01 0.04 0.10* 0.11** -0.15** 0.14*
13. Anger 0.15** 0.15** 0.27** 0.30** 0.28** 0.29** 0.40** 0.41** 0.18** 0.37*
14. Hostility 0.21** 0.22** 0.40** 0.47** 0.41** 0.43** 0.56** 0.56** 0.27** 0.57*
Mean 2.08 1.98 3.88 3.70 2.20 2.24 1.81 1.92 2.64 1.62
Standard deviation 1.06 1.08 0.98 0.89 0.96 1.07 0.73 0.65 0.76 0.83
Skewness 0.87 0.96 0.14 0.14 0.62 0.50 0.95 0.74 -0.10 1.28
Kurtosis 0.03 0.03 0.26 0.48 0.11 -0.75 0.24 -0.01 -0.59 0.73
Note. PFSC: Parents’ forced social comparison, SPP: Socially prescribed perfectionism,

Slowdown: Action slowdown, Positive E.: Positive emotions, Relation: Personal relation, agg.:

aggression, Sub-variables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 were constructed through item parceling, *p < 0.05, **

p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

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Table 2

Path coefficients of the final model

Route B β S.E. C.R.

PFSC → SPP 0.45 0.52*** 0.04 11.21
PFSC → Academic inferiority 0.19 0.17*** 0.05 3.81
PFSC → Depression -0.04 -0.05 0.03 -1.18
PFSC →Aggression -0.02 -0.02 0.04 -0.41
SPP → Academic inferiority 0.63 0.51*** 0.07 9.60
SPP → Depression 0.45 0.53*** 0.05 8.56
SPP → Aggression 0.17 0.18* 0.06 2.49
Academic inferiority → Depression 0.13 0.19*** 0.03 3.95
Academic inferiority → Aggression 0.07 0.09 0.04 1.71
Depression → Aggression 0.57 0.50*** 0.06 8.97
PFSC → PFSC 1 1.10 0.88***
PFSC → PFSC 2 1.10 0.95*** 0.06 19.54
SPP → SPP 1 1.00 0.82***
SPP → SPP 2 0.89 0.80*** 0.05 17.91
Academic inferiority → Inferiority 1 0.93 0.97*** 0.03 32.12
Academic inferiority → Inferiority 2 0.10 0.93***
Depression → Action slowdown 0.82 0.86*** 0.03 30.16
Depression → Positive emotions 0.58 0.52*** 0.04 13.92
Depression → Personal relation 0.94 0.78*** 0.04 24.96
Depression → Melancholy emotion 0.10 0.94***
Aggression → Physical aggression 0.60 0.64*** 0.04 15.17
Aggression → Verbal aggression 0.48 0.44*** 0.05 10.15
Aggression → Anger 0.74 0.72*** 0.04 16.99
Aggression → Hostility 0.10 0.85***
Note. PFSC: Parent’s forced social comparison, SPP: Socially prescribed perfectionism, Β:

unstandardized coefficients, β: standardized coefficients, S.E.: standard error, C.R.: critical

ratio, * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 36

Table 3

Verification results of multi-mediation effect (N = 605)

Total effect (c = Σaibi + c’) B S.E. t R² F

PFSC → Aggression 0.14 0.03 5.45
Percentile
Total indirect effect (Σaibi) B S.E.
95% CI
PFSC → SPP → Agg. 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.06
0.04 29.73
PFSC → SPP → Dep. → Agg. 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.06
PFSC → A. Inferiority → Dep. → Agg. 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02
PFSC → SPP → A. Inferiority → Dep. →
0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02
Agg.
Note. PFSC: Parent’s forced social comparison, SPP: Socially prescribed perfectionism, A.

Inferiority: Academic Inferiority, Dep.: Depression, Agg.: Aggression

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 37

Figure 1. The final model’s path; all estimates are standardized coefficients.
*
p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 38

Highlights

 The structural relationship between factors affecting depression and aggression in

Korean adolescents

 Parents’ forced social comparison is related to adolescents’ academic inferiority and

socially prescribed perfectionism

 Mediating effects of Socially prescribed perfectionism and of academic inferiority

 Relationship between parents’ forced social comparison and adolescents’ depression

and aggression
PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 39

Declaration of Interest

This work was supported by the research fund of Hanyang University (HY-2019).

We know of no conflicts of interest associated with this publication.

There has been no financial/personal interest or belief that could affect our objectivity.

Written by Youkyung Lee, Jung Hee Ha, and Juliet Jue

PARENTS’ FORCED SOCIAL COMPARISON 40

Author Statement

Lee: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing- original draft preparation,

Ha: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data Curation, Supervision, Funding

acquisition

Juliet Jue: Data Curation, Writing-reviewing and editing, Visualization.