Introduction to Civil

Engineering
CEE 4101
Date: 24 April, 2017
 Earthquake
Fundamentals
• Definitions
• Seismic Wave
• Plate Tectonics
• Causes
• Types of Earthquake
• Types of Faults
• Types of Seismic Wave
• Measuring Earthquake: Magnitude & Intensity
• Earthquake Damages
• Tsunami
 Magnitude
The magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is based on
measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. Several scales have been defined,
but the most commonly used are
(1) local magnitude (ML), commonly referred to as "Richter magnitude",
(2) surface-wave magnitude (Ms),
(3) body-wave magnitude (Mb), and
(4) moment magnitude (Mw).

Scales 1-3 have limited range and applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest
earthquakes. The moment magnitude (Mw) scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is uniformly
applicable to all sizes of earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types. All
magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for any given earthquake.
The magnitude scale is logarithmic. That just means that if you add 1 to an earthquake's
magnitude, you multiply the shaking by 10. An earthquake of magnitude 5 shakes 10 times as
violently as an earthquake of magnitude 4; a magnitude-6 quake shakes 10 times as hard as
a magnitude-5 quake; and so on.

To compare two earthquakes in terms of shaking, you subtract one magnitude from the other
and raise 10 to that power: 10^(M1-M2).

For example, if the magnitude of one quake is 6 and another is 4, than the difference in
magnitudes is 2, so the stronger earthquake shakes 10^2 or 100 times as hard as the milder
one.

Fractional differences work the same way. Increase the magnitude by 0.1, and you multiply
the shaking by 10^(0.1), or about 1.259—an increase of 26%. Increase the magnitude by 0.3,
and the shaking almost exactly doubles. That's a handy rule of thumb to keep in mind.
 The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI)

The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface is called the intensity. The intensity scale consists
of a series of certain key responses such as people awakening, movement of furniture, damage to
chimneys, and finally - total destruction. Although numerous intensity scales have been developed
over the last several hundred years to evaluate the effects of earthquakes, the one currently used in
the United States is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale. It was developed in 1931 by the
American seismologists Harry Wood and Frank Neumann. This scale, composed of increasing levels
of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction, is designated by
Roman numerals. It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary ranking based on
observed effects.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity value assigned to a specific site after an earthquake has a more
meaningful measure of severity to the nonscientist than the magnitude because intensity refers to
the effects actually experienced at that place.
The lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is
felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. Structural
engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values of VIII or above.
The following is an abbreviated description of the levels of Modified Mercalli intensity.
 The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI)

Intensity Shaking Description/Damage

Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable
I Not felt
conditions.

Felt only by a few persons at rest,especially on upper floors of

II Weak
buildings.

Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper

floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an
III Weak
earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations
similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.

Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night,

some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make
IV Light
cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building.
Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.

Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows

V Moderate
broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
 The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI)

Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a

VI Strong
few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.

Damage negligible in buildings of good design and

construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary
VII Very strong
structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly
designed structures; some chimneys broken.

Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable

damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse.
VIII Severe Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys,
factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture
overturned.

Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-

designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage
IX Violent
great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings
shifted off foundations.

Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry

X Extreme
and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.