Prof. Dr.-Ing.

Ekkehard Fehling
Chair of Structural Concrete
Institute for Structural Engineering

Basics of Design and Structural Modeling

according to EC 8
 Measures of
Earthquake -“Strength“
• Magnitude: Richter-Scale
logarithmic, for total Energy
of an Earthquake

• Intensity: measures local Effect,

oriented towards description
by observing persons
8 Short form of the EMS-98

The short form of the European Macroseismic Scale, abstracted from the Core Part, is intended to give a very simplified
and generalized view of the EM Scale. It can, e.g., be used for educational purposes. This short form is not suitable for intensity assignments.

Definition Description of typical observed effects

(abstracted)
I Not felt Not felt.
II Scarcely felt Felt only by very few individual people at rest in houses.
III Weak Felt indoors by a few people. People at rest feel a swaying or light trembling.
IV Largely observed Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by very few. A few people are awakened. Windows, doors and
dishes rattle.
V Strong Felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. Many sleeping people awake. A few are frightened. Buildings
tremble throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. Small objects are shifted. Doors and windows
swing open or shut.

VI Slightly damaging Many people are frightened and run outdoors. Some objects fall. Many houses suffer slight non-
structural damage like hair-line cracks and fall of small pieces of plaster.
VII Damaging Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Furniture is shifted and objects fall from shelves in large
numbers. Many well built ordinary buildings suffer moderate damage: small cracks in walls, fall of
plaster, parts of chimneys fall down; older buildings may show large cracks in walls and failure of fill-in
walls.
VIII Heavily damaging Many people find it difficult to stand. Many houses have large cracks in walls. A few well built ordinary
buildings show serious failure of walls, while weak older structures may collapse.
IX Destructive General panic. Many weak constructions collapse. Even well built ordinary buildings show very heavy
damage: serious failure of walls and partial structural failure.
X Very destructive Many ordinary well built buildings collapse.
XI Devastating Most ordinary well built buildings collapse, even some with good earthquake resistant design are
destroyed.
XII Completely Almost all buildings are destroyed.
devastating
Seismologist: scientist, describes earthquake as natural phenomenon

Magnitude logarithmic measure of

total released energy

no information about the

effect on site of building

Intensity information related to site, but

purely phenomenological,
no „hard“ numbers
…

Structural
Engineer: technician, wants to construct, make Designs and
check them by numbers, needs „real“ quantitative
(physical) description !

Forces not known initially

Deformations depend on seismic input and building

ground- tine historey, peak values (absolute),

accelerations „effective value“
inportant before starting any calculation:

•planning and architectural layout suited for earthquake loading

•structural layout suited for earthquake action

Regularity of building in plan and elevation

 Typical Mistakes
Insufficient
confinement

Single Soft-storey Short Columns (X-Crack, brittle)

Effect of irregular layout in plan

S
uy
ux uy due to rotation

Total deformation at
distant building corner

Example: L-shape in plan

Shape of Building in plan Layout of floor diaphragms

a) less favourable

c) less favourable d) more favourable

b) more favourable
Irregularity in Elevation
 Universität Kassel
Design of buildings Structural Concrete
Prof. Dr.-Ing.
subject to seismic loading
Ekkehard Fehling

Regularity of buildings
Regularity in Plan
• horizontal stiffness and mass distribution in two orthogonal
directions

• shape in plan shall be compact

• stiffness of slabs as diaphragms is big

Regularity in Elevation
• members of lateral stiffening system shall be continuous
from foundation to top of building

• Horizontal stiffness and mass distribution are constant across height

Selection of structural model and method of analysis

Criteria for Regularity according to EC 8
Criteria for the Regularity according to EC 8
 Universität Kassel
Selection of Modeling and Structural Concrete
Analysis Method Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Ekkehard Fehling
 Analysis Methods

From this:
V(x), M(x)

Fb 1. 2. 3.
Multimodal Analysis /
Simplified Response Spectrum Response Spectrum-method
method – equivalent static force, taking into account multiple
Also called lateral force analysis in EC8 mode shapes

F
(nonlinear) time step analysis
for multiple degree of freedom systems (MDOF): u

t u
∆t
 Reality Engineering model

d = displacement

mass m
[to]
stiffness k
[kN/m]

ag
ground acceleration ag(t)

ag horizontal,
vertical, t
g = ground (rotations)
 a =?
u Response
F [kN] m
F [kN]

m
k
a

Statics Dynamics
ag
known
..
F=k*u F=m*a=m*u
.. Units:
u=F/k a=u=F/m

Newton m [kg oder to]

du
velocity: v = ------ a [m/s²]
dt F [kN]
dv d2u 1 N = 1 kg * 1 m/s²
acceleration: a = ------ = ------ 1 kN = 1 to * 1 m/s²
dt dt2
 Free vibration
for c = 0:
u k undamped system,
free (undamped)
vibration:

u(t) ^
u(t)= u sin
^ (ω t +φ )
m
c u^

Dynamic equilibrium ΣF = 0:
t

.
mü+cu+ku =0 ───
circular
frequency ω= √ k
───
m
or in dimensionless notation:
ω := 2 π f
.
ü + 2ξ ω u + ω² u = 0 modal
f = ω / (2 π)
frequency:
c
with : ξ = ────
2mω (modal) T = 1/ f
period
 Harmonic Excitation (sinusoidal excitation)

F(t) ^ u
F(t)= F sin
^ (ω t)
^
F F(t)

t
m k
V

„Dynamic“ equilibrium:
max V = 1/ (2ξ)
.
m ü + c u + k u + F(t) = 0
1,0

^
F
max u = ± ---- · V
fmodal fExcitation
k
Dynamic Magnification Factor
 Earthquake – Excitation:

Character of ground acceleration: „filtered“ white noise,

non stationary, transient

Table Excitation
0.7

0.6

0.5 Time Historey of acceleration

Acceleration ( m / sec^2)

0.4

0.3
Calculation of
0.2 vibration response:
0.1

-0.1
•Duhamel-Integral
-0.2 •Time Step-Methods,
-0.3 e.g. :
-0.4

-0.5
Central Difference,
-0.6
Newmark, Wilson-θ
-0.7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4

Time ( sec )

Response Spectrum
 vibration Response

Earthquake Excitation: maximum value (absolute)

Response Spectrum

Base acceleration
Response Spectrum
Multiple Degree of Freedom 1 1 1
Oscillator
(MDOF) k13 k23 k33
3 m3

2
u1a m2 k22
k12
k32
u1
1
m1 k21 k31
k11

Stiffness of springs
üg(t)
(Reactions for displacement = 1 at one single node,
unit-displacement-states)
 φ13 φ23 φ33
3 m3

2
u1a m2 φ12 φ22 φ32

u1
1
m1 φ11 φ21 φ31

Mode Shapes
ug(t)

Modal Frequencies:
u1a = u1+ ug f = f1 f = f2 f = f3
ü1a = ü1+ üg
f1 < f2 < f3
Inertia Force : F=m·a=m·ü
m1 ü1a = m1 (ü1+üg)
ground-
acceleration
absolute relative
acceleration acceleration

Equilibrium of forces at node 1:

m1 ü1 + m1 üg (t) + k11 u1 + k12 u2 + k13 u3 =0

m1 ü1a
Equilibrium of forces at all nodes:

m1 ü1 + k11 u1 + k12 u2 + k13 u3 = -m1 üg (t)

m2 ü2 + k21 u1 + k22 u2 + k23 u3 = -m2 üg (t)

m3 ü3 + k31 u1 + k32 u2 + k33 u3 = -m3 üg (t)

Equliibrium equations for 3 degrees of freedom:

m1 ü1 + k11 u1 + k12 u2 + k13 u3 = -m1 üg (t)

m2 ü2 + k21 u1 + k22 u2 + k23 u3 = -m2 üg (t)

m3 ü3 + k31 u1 + k32 u2 + k33 u3 = -m3 üg (t)

using Matrix-Notation:

m1 ü1 k11 k12 k13 u1 m1

m2 · ü2 + k21 k22 k23 · u 2 = - m2 · üg (t)

m3 ü3 k31 k32 k33 u3 m3

M · ü + K · u = - M · e · üg
 M · ü + K · u = - M · e · üg

mass- stiff- scalar

matrix ness-
matrix unit-
u1 1
vector, or
directional
u = u2 e= 1 vector
of rigid body
u3 1 displacment
ü1 due to ug = 1

ü = ü2 m1

ü3 M · e = m2

m3
 .
M · ü + C · u + K · u = 0

dampingsmatrix
without
Linear differential equation - system of 2nd order
external
excitation
Type of Solution:

u = φ · e iωt with i = √-1

.
u = i·φ · ω · e iωt

ü= - φ · ω² · e iωt

Eigenvalues ωk
without damping, i.e. for C = 0:
k = 1,2, 3
( - ω² · M + K) · φ · e iωt =0

det (K - ω² · M ) = 0 ω1 bis ω3
Eigen (modal) frequencies and Mode Shapes
ω1 bis ω3
det (K - ω² · M ) = 0
with fk = ωk / (2π)
It follows:

φ13 φ23 φ33 Eigenfrequencies

modal frequencies:
f1 < f2 < f3

Modal Periods
φ12 φ22 φ32 T1 > T2 > T3

Mode shapes can be obtained

mathematically as Eigenvectors
φ11 φ21 φ31
φk1
k=1, .. n
φk = φk2
with n = number of
φk3 DOF´s
1. 2. 3. Mode Shape
(mode shapes) (from solution of system of
equns. after putting in ωk²)
k-th Mode Shape as vector:

φk1
k=1, .. n
φk = φk2
with n = number of DOF´s
φk3

all mode shape vectors in one matrix (Modal Matrix):

φ13 φ12 φ13

Φ= φ1 φ2 φ3 or Φ= φ12 φ22 φ23

φ13 φ32 φ33

 n
after transformation of variables: u = Σ φk·yk = Φ ·y
k=1
.. .
ΦT M Φ· y + ΦT C Φ · y + ΦT K Φ · y = - ΦT M ex · üg (t)

M* C* K* r

Diagonal Matrices with Vector of

real coefficients Participation factors
if C=α·M+β·K
or if C = 0:

..
m1* 0 0 y1 k1* 0 0 y1 r1

..
0 m2* 0 · y2 + 0 k2* 0 · y2 = - r2 · üg (t)

..
0 0 m3* y3 0 0 k3* y3 r3
Response spectrum method considering more than one mode of vibration
(Multimodal Analysis)

Each mode is being excited by the earthquake:

• per mode k there is one modal mass mk*

• amplitude of vibration of mode described by yk

• scaling of excitation by participation factor rk

From the system of differential equations,

u we get a system of decoupled
diff. Equations for n modes of vibrations
with the frequency fk (or circular frequency ωk):
*·
.. .
mk yk + ck · yk + mk* · ωk2 · yk
* = -rk · üg (t)

kk*
Generalisized mass generalized stiffness of k-th modal
(modal mass) vibration
rk = (φT M ex)k (e.g. for excitation in x-direction = direction of u)
 Maximum response for mode k :
..
max yk = rk * Sa(fk)

Sa(T)

for k=1, i.e. 1st mode

q

Sa(T1) = Spectral value of reponse

acceleration in mode 1.

T3 T1
T2
n .. ..
..
Back - Transformation: u = Σ φk·yk = Φ ·y
k=1
Superposition of maximum responses in all single modes:

Normally, the maximum responses in the different modes will not occur at exactly
the same point of time. Hence, they need not to be added arithmetically.

This also holds true for Deformations, accelerations and cross sectional forces .
max y1 for random processes which are
y1(t) Independent from each other:

max y² =
t max y1² + max y2² + max y3² + … max yn²
max y2
y2(t)
max y = √(Σyi²)

t („Pythagoras“, in earthquake engineering

known as SRSS-Rule
(Square Root of Sum of Squares)
y3(t)
max y max y1
t
max |y3 |
max y2
Combination of modal member forces and deformations:

the responses due to modal vibrations

with the periods Ti and Tj may be regarded as independent from each other,
if the values of the periods differ significantly from each other

Aaccording to EC 8:
if
Ti ≤ 0,9 T j
then:

EE = ∑ i
E 2
(SRSS-Rule)
(Square Root of Sum of Squares)

with: EE seismic action effect under consideration

(force, displacement, etc.)
EEi value of this seismic action effect due to the vibration mode i
Further remarks on the Response Spectrum Method
considering multiple modes

All modes of vibration which significantly contribute to the global vibration

behaviour should be considerd.

In order to reach this goal:

• all individual modes which have an effective modal mass of

≥ 5 % of the total mass of the structure should be considered,

• the sum of the effective modal masses for all considered modes
should be ≥ 90 % of the total mass of the structure,
Combination of forces for arbitrary /more than one directions of earthquake input:

Method A: SRSS-Regel

V2 V1(Ex)
V1 V3 V2(Ex)
Ex V3(Ex)

Ey
V1(Ey)

V3(Ey)
V1 ( E ) = (V1 ( E x )) 2 + (V1 ( E y )) 2

Procedure:
Calculate force of interest, e.g. V1, for each direction (x or y) of input
acceleration separately, then superimpose results using SRSS-Rule
Combination of forces for arbitrary /more than one directions of earthquake input:

Method B: Arithmetic combination with 30 % for transverse direction

V2 V1(Ex)
V1 V3 V2(Ex)
Ex V3(Ex)

Ey
V1(Ey)
V1 ( E ) = 1,0 ⋅ V1 ( E x ) + 0,3 ⋅V1 ( E y )
V3(Ey)
bzw.
V1 ( E ) = 0,3 ⋅V1 ( E x ) + 1,0 ⋅V1 ( E y )
Procedure:
Calculate each force , e.g. V1, for each direction of earthquake excitation
(x or y) separately,
then perform addition 100 % in main direction + 30 % perpendicular :
If main direction is not known: check 2 combinations
Non Structural Elements

Partition walls, machinery, other components …

Ta
Value of spectral acceleration for nonstructural elements:
 Alternatively possible:

more refined calculation / modeling,

e.g. using floor response spectrum

or integral model of building including
the nonstructural elements of interest

Sa, Etage

aEtage

Tbuilding T
Recommendations / hints for
simplified calculations
and
plausibility checks

• determination of modal frequencies

• mode shapes
Practical estimation of modal frequencies and mode shapes:

Modal frequencies fk [Hz] or modal periods of vibration Tk [s] = 1 / fk:

- from „rule of thumb“ formulae

- by simplified methods,
(e.g. Rayleigh- Quotient)
- calculation using Computerprograms
(FE, Truss/Frame, with dynamics-capabilities)

Mode shapes:

the first mode shape can be estimated

approximately in many cases rather
simply when regarding the support
conditions as an approximation:
Approximation:
- sinus linear
- quadratic parabola
- linear
Approximate formulae for the first (fundamental) vibration period T1:

Typical
R/C-frame structure: T1 in Seconds = number of storeys n / 10

Example: 3 storey commercial building

T1 = 3 / 10 = 0,3 s

or, respectively:

f1 = 1/T1 = 1 / (0,3 s) = 3,33 Hz

The same the other way around:

f1 [Hz] = 10 / n

in Example:

f1 = 10 / 3 = 3,33 Hz
 Generally applicable: Rayleigh Quotient for equivalent bar structure

mn
n with:

1
∑F d
j =1
j j
mj : storey mass at height hj
f1 = n
m2 2π
∑ j j
m d
j =1
2
dj: horizontal displacement at
height hj due to the
storey forces Fj
m1
Fj: storey –force at height hj

ideally: consider forces

Even more simplified: proportional to
mass * mode shape!
T1 = 2 ⋅ d Approximation: dead load
applied horizontally 1:1
with:

T1 fundamental period of vibration of the structure, in s;

d horizontal deflection of top of structure, in m,
due to the gravity loads, assumed in horizontal direction
Equivalent static force method (Lateral Force Method):

Basis:

• application of equivalent static forces to account for inertia forces

• considering most important mode shape, which is the 1st mode shape

Fb = M * Sa
spectral acceleration

Mass of buildilng
Base shear force of building (Base-Shear)

correction factor for lower

EC 8: modal mass, if ≥ 2 storeys
Fb = S d (T1 ) ⋅ M ⋅ λ λ = 0,85 bei T1≤ 2 TC
λ = 1,0 in all other cases
ordinate of
Fb design response spektrum
(including division by q-factor)
Index d = „Design“
 Simplified Response Spectrum Method:

Application: for buldings with regular layout, if T1≤ 4 TC

Distribution of lateral forces over the height:

Lateral force acting at storey i :

n
si mi
Fi = Fb ⋅ n
Fi
∑s m
j =1
j j i si

1. mode shape
Fi lateral force acting at storey i;
j=1
Fb base shear force

si, sj displacements of masses mi, mj

in the fundamental mode of vibration

mi, mj storey masses of storeys i and j Fb

Further simplification: 1. mode shape assumed as linear, i.e. proportional to height

distribution of lateral forces across the height:

Lateral force acting at storey i :

zi mi n
Fi = Fb ⋅ n
Fi
∑z m
j =1
j j i si

Fi lateral force acting at storey i;

j=1
Fb base shear force zi

zi, zj heights of masses mi, mj

mi, mj storey masses of storeys i and j Fb

 Torsion:

For 3-dimensional Model:

systematic effects of mass and stiffness eccentricities in plan

are being considered automatically

If planar models are used for each direction:

(possible for structures being regular in plan):

special simple method for determintion of torsional

actions according to position and stiffness of
bracing system elements and mass in EC 8
Torsion:

The motion of the ground not only contains translational components

(in x, y, or z-directions) but also rotational components.
These excite a building, even if ideally symmetrical, so that rotations around
the vertical axis will result.
Thus, the lateral stiffening system of the structure gets torsion.

In reality, the masses will not be distributed exactly as intended.

The torsional moment (action effect) accounting for these effects :

M1i = e1i * Fi

with:

M1i the torsional moment (load) of storey i

e1i= ± 0,05 Li accidental eccentrizity of storey mass mi for all

relevant directions
Fi lateral load acting at storey i
Li floor dimension perpendicular to the direction
of the seimic action
Calculation of displacements according to EC 8

Simplifying assumption :
Hypothesis of equal displacements:

Calculated on the base of linear elastic behaviour:

Elastic displacements ds of structural system,
Obtained from elastic response spectrum Se(T)

In practice, one uses the reduction of forces by the behaviour factors

(q-factors) for the determination of member forces.
For this, the Design Response Spectrum Sd(T) will be used.
It contains, implicitly, a division by q.

In order to obtain the same displacements as for linear elastic behaviour,

the calculated displacements de shall be multiplied by q.

d s = q ⋅ de
Design spectrum accounting for nonlinear / ductile behaviour

Antwortspektren
3
Response Acceleration Se(T)

Hypothesis of equal displacement

2,5
Elastic F
2
/q Response Spectrum
[m/s²]

1,5
Se(T) u
1
/q
0,5

0 Design-Response Spectrum
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
Eigenperiode T [sek]
Sd(T)
Modal Period T [s] F /q

Behaviour Factor q: u
according to material /type of construction: de ds
q = 1,0 … 8
 How to ensure ductile system behaviour:
The principle of „Capacity Design“

Electrical electrical circuit with fuse

Engineering: limitation of electrical current [Amperes]

Structural limitation of member forces [kN, kNm…]

Engineering: in regions with possible brittle failure
by plastic mechanisms (e.g.plastic hinges),
Design of other members/regions for this capacity
..
m·u

vorh. M (x) ≤ Mpl

brittle
x
duktile
M Mpl

Mpl
.. θ
ug Mpl
 Capacity Design for Frames:

MRd, Column,o

Mpl, Beam Mpl, Beam

MRd, Column,u
Avoiding brittle failure of column by Capacity Design:

Σ MRd, Column ≥ γRd • Σ Mpl, Beam

Resistance of brittle member > Capacity of ductile member

 Universität Kassel
Design of Massivbuildingen Structural Concrete
Prof. Dr.-Ing.
unter Earthquakebeanspruchung
Ekkehard Fehling

Confinement of beam column joint:

Canary Bird - Test ?
 Plastic hinge mechanisms

d d

„Soft storey“ - Mechanism Lateral Displacement mechanism

Requires big plastic rotations Requires small plastic rotations

Should be avoided !
 Universität Kassel
Seismic Isolation of Buildings Structural Concrete
Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Ekkehard Fehling

Character of Loading due

to Earthquake :

More an enforced
deformation than a clearly
defined force !
Possible Experimental Methods for the
Simulation of Earthquake Behaviour of Building Structures

1. Shaking Table Tests close to reality, real time, but expensive,

size of test specimens limited

2. Pseudodynamic „in slow motion“, simulation of inertia

forces by hydraulic jacks / forces
big specimen sizes and forces possible
(e.g. ELSA – Reaction-Wall facility
at JRC of EU in Ispra (I) : h = 16 m )
Methods for
Experimental
Shaking Table
Simulation of
Seismic Loading

Reaction-
Wall:
Pseudo-
Dynamic
Tests
Pseudodynamische Methode
Reaktions-
wand

Reaction floor / Aufspannfeld

Displacement based Analysis

a
H, M resp

k eq
1
k0 d
1
To Teq T
ω² = k / m
0 0
ω² =k / m To = 2*π / ω o
eq eq

T = 2*π / ω eq
eq

with: d displacement
H Horizontal Force
aresp response- acceleration of SDOF with period T
ω circular frequency ω = 2π f
k stiffness
T modal period
 Response spectrum
Antw ortspektrum in modified
in anderer Darstellung: presentation
Kapazitäts-Spektrum

0.7

0.6
(maximum acceleration)

0.5 T0

0.4
Sa [m/s²]

Teq.
0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060
Sd [m ]

(maximum displacement)
Influence of Energy Dissipation: equivalent viscous damping
 Capacity curve of building (Pushover) + Capacity-Spectrum
250

Building Capacity Curve

200 (Envelope /
back bone curve)
B ase sh ear fo rce (kN )

Capacity Spectrum
150

Teq.

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
top displacement
 Capacity curve of building
total horizontal force (Base shear) [kN]

Top displacement
[mm]
from SIA 2018