2 Structural functionalism

and role theory

Introduction

Let me begin by briefly explaining the term 'structural function-

alism' by taking each word in turn. 'Structuralist' sociological
approaches are those which assert that the behaviour of people in
society is structured according to a set of rules or laws. Evidence
for this assertion is based on the observation that people do not
act randomly; instead, their behaviour, including their social
interactions, is patterned. Thus the aim of the sociologist is to
identifY the laws that structure our behaviour.
'Functionalism' in sociology is the view that society is a system
made up of interconnected parts, each of which functions in a
specific way to maintain that system as a whole. Perhaps the best
way to illustrate functionalism is to use the metaphor of the body,
society being regarded as working in a similar way to the human
body. The body is made up of a number of organs, each of which
plays a role in keeping the body alive. Thus, the renal system
functions to assist fluid balance and to excrete unwanted
chemicals, while the hypothalamus functions to ensure that the
body maintains a constant temperature. Similarly, sociological
functionalists argue that the family functions to train individuals
into appropriate social roles, while health care professions
function to ensure that the optimal health of members of society
is maintained, so that they can go about their own functions
within society to the best of their abilities.
Structuralism and functionalism were first combined by Emile
Durkheim (1858-1917), who argued that sociologists should
focus on two main aspects of the social system. First, they should
attempt to uncover the social laws that structure the social world
(this is the 'structural' bit). He saw social laws as being very
similar to natural laws, such as gravity: just as gravity causes
objects to fall to the ground, so social laws cause people to act in
certain ways. However, Durkheim was interested in not only the

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S. Porter, Social Theory and Nursing Practice
© Sam Porter 1998
12 SOCIAL THEORY AND NURSING PRACTICE

causal relations involved in social laws, but also how the results of
these causal relations impacted upon the social world. In other
words, he saw the task of sociology as identifying the role played
by the various social institutions such as the family, or the
education system, which are the result of social laws, in main-
taining the overall social system (the 'functionalism' bit):

When, then, the explanation of a social phenomenon is undertaken, we

must seek separately the efficient cause which produces it and the
function it fulfils.

(Durkheim 1938: 95)

Durkheim's ideas were further developed by the American soci-

ologist Talcott Parsons (1902-79), whose work will be the subject
of the latter half of this chapter. However, before launching into
the murky depths of structural functionalism, it might be useful to
set the scene by introducing Durkheim and Parsons, and indi-
cating how I am going to use their ideas to address issues
pertinent to nursing.
Emile Durkheim was the first person in France to be employed
as a Professor of Sociology. His appointment at the Sorbonne in
1913 symbolised the fact that sociology had finally been given
official recognition as a discipline in its own right. This was in no
small part due to Durkheim's determination to demonstrate to the
academic community that sociology was a rigorous scientific disci-
pline. It is not possible to cover all the topics that Durkheim
examined, which ranged from religion to politics and from
methodology to mental health. Because of its pertinence to
nursing and health care issues, my approach to his work will
centre around his study of suicide. However, because his approach
to suicide is deeply embedded in his more general social theory; it
is necessary in the first instance to give a rath~r involved account
of these theoretical foundations.
The influence of Talcott Parsons was almost as great as that of
Durkheim. He held a position of unparalleled dominance in the
discipline of sociology for approximately a quarter of a century
between the 1940s and 1960s. During his career of over 50 years
at Harvard, he developed what was regarded as the most system-
atic version of functionalist theory. While drawing heavily on the
work of earlier European thinkers such as Durkheim and Weber,