LECTURE MATERIAL Water Wells Engineering Husse Modules 2

Course name: Water wells Engineering (2014/15)
Chapter 1
1. Ground water Exploration
1.1. Introduction
A programme of groundwater investigations is to obtain information on the resource through
systematic collection, synthesis, interpretation and compilation of data. It seeks information on
its occurrence, movement, storage, recharge, discharge, quality & quantity. It includes the study
of its geological, environmental, as well as the hydrologic and hydraulic aspects of its flow
system.
A comprehensive programme for hydrological investigations may comprise the following

activities:
1. Surface Investigations
I. Geological field reconnaissance, including observations and collection of data from
excavations, bore holes and wells. The appraisal includes information on geological
factors, particularly tectonics, lithology, permeability, fissuring and outcrop area.
II. Geophysical surveys
a) Electrical resistivity method
b) Seismic refraction method
2. Subsurface Investigation of Groundwater
I. Test drilling and preparation of lithological logs
II. Sub-surface/bore hole geophysical logging
a) Electric logging
b) Radial logging
c) Collection of lithological & other logs of existing bore hole & correlation
of lithological logs.
3. Hydrological Investigations
I. Preparing inventory of existing wells, giving their location, depth, depth of water,
construction features, type of pumping equipment used, pumping records and
water analysis.
II. Study of groundwater levels - preparation of water table contour maps, water
level profiles, hydrographs and setting up of observation grids.
III. Collection and analysis of water samples
MWU/ School of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Fekremariam N. Page 1

IV. Aquifer tests - to appraise transmissibility and storage property of aquifers.

V. Hydrologic appraisal of the geological framework: Geometry of aquifers &
boundaries affecting recharge & discharge of groundwater.
VI. Correlation of stream flow factors with groundwater recharge and discharge.
VII. Estimation of seepage & recharge contribution from canals, lakes and ponds.
VIII. Study and analysis of meteorological factors; precipitation and evapotranspiration
IX. Rainfall and infiltration studies to estimate contribution of rainfall to groundwater
recharged.
X. Hydrologic analysis of groundwater systems through analytical & other
techniques.
1.1.1 Surface investigations of Ground water
Although groundwater cannot be seen on the earth’s surface, a variety of techniques can provide
information concerning its occurrence and under certain conditions even its quality from surface
or above-surface locations.
Surface investigations of groundwater are seldom more than partially successful in that results
usually leave the hydro geologic picture incomplete; however, such methods are normally less
costly than subsurface investigations.
a. Geologic Methods
Geologic studies enable large areas to be rapidly and economically appraised on a preliminary
basis as to their potential for groundwater development. A geologic investigation begins with the
collection, analysis, and hydrogeological interpretation of existing topographic map, aerial
photographs, geologic maps and logs, and other pertinent records.
This should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field reconnaissance and by evaluation
of available hydrologic data on: stream flow and springs; well yields; groundwater recharge &
levels; and water quality. Such an approach should be regarded as a first step in any investigation
of subsurface water because no expensive equipment is required; furthermore, information on
OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 2

geologic composition and structure defines the need for field exploration by other methods.
Knowledge of the depositional and erosional events in an area may indicate the extent and
regularity of water-bearing formations.
b. Geophysical Exploration
Geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earth’s crust
for investigation of mineral deposits or geologic structure.
Geophysical methods are used to obtain more accurate information about subsurface conditions,
such as type and depth of materials(consolidated or unconsolidated), depth of weathered or
fractured zone, depth to groundwater, depth to bed rock, and salt content of groundwater. These
methods detect differences (or anomalies), of physical properties within the earth’s crust.
Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties most commonly measured.
Experience and research have enabled pronounced differences in these properties to be
interpreted in terms of geologic structure, rock type and porosity; and water content & water
quality. The most common techniques for groundwater investigation are the electric resistivity
and seismic methods, which are discussed in the following sections.
1. Electric Resistivity Method

Resistivity survey is a method where by electric current is sent through the ground and the
potential difference is measured between two points. It is the most commonly adopted method
for the determination of saline and fresh water zone.
It is cheapest method and relatively easy to interpret. It is easy to employ and the equipment is
easy to transport from place to place. The concept of this method is based on the reality that
different earth materials display a characteristic resistance to flow of a set of electrical current.
Geoelectric layers are functions of
 Porosity (Intergrnualr, channel, vugular, etc)

 Fluid content (degree of saturation)
 Nature of fluid (saline, fresh, brackish)

Principle: (Electrical Fundamentals)
The resistivity methods are based on the measurement of the resistivity of various portions of the
ground, after passing an electric current into the earth.
Assumptions
 Isotropic and homogeneous medium

 Point electrodes
 Earth is semi-infinite (Z=0)
C x
y
r
z
ρI
p
V= 2 πr (potential)
r=(x2+y2+z2)1/2
Where  is defined as resistivity of the medium (i.e, the resistance in ohms between opposite
face of a meter cube of a material) and I is the measured electric current.
Since the earth is semi-infinite, Z=0.
ρI ρI
=
V=
2 πr 2 π √ x 2 + y 2
+ -
G/S
C1 P1 P2 C2
OBU/ Institute
A of Technology/
M B
WRIEN department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 4
Fig Resistivity Set up
C1 and C2 – Current electrodes (metal stakes)
P1 and P2 – potential electrodes
AB is the distance between current electrodes
MN is the distance between potential electrodes
The potential of electrode P1 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is
ρI
V AM =
2 π AM
The potential of electrode P2 at N due to current electrode C1 at A is
ρI
V AN =
2 π AN
Similarly,
ρI ρI
V BM = and V BN =
2 π BM 2 π BN
The potential difference, V can be calculated as follows
V AB A B
M =V M −V M =
ρI
2π [1
−
AM BM
1
]
V AB A B ρI
N −V N −V N =
2π [1
−
AN BN
1
]
∴ ΔV =V AB AB
M −V N =
ρI 1
[−
1 1
− +
1
2 π AM BM AN BN ]
[ ]
ΔV 2 π
∴ ρ=
I 1 1 1 1
− − +
AM BM AN BN

Where, V= measured potential difference
I= Measured electric current
2π
1 1 1 1
− − +
If K = AM BM AN BN which depends on the electrodes configuration, (i.e,
electrodes geometry) and called geometrical factor,
ΔV
. K ( ohm−m)
= I
As the earth material are almost never homogeneous and electrically isotropic, the resistivity
found by the above equation is an apparent resistivity, a.
Electrode Configurations
Many different arrangements of electrode can be used to measure resistivity, i.e., there are
several electrode configuration in common usage. Some of these are:
1. Wenner system
2. Schlumberger system
3. Dipole-Dipole system
The basic relationships in all methods are
 Electrodes (two current & two potential electrodes)

 Linear system.
The commonly used systems of electrode arrangements are the Wenner and Schumberger.
1. Wenner system (electric profiling, mapping or trenching)
C1 P1 P2 C2
-
G/S
M
A N B
a a a
+ve Institute of Technology/ WRIE department
OBU/ Prepared
- ve current electrodeby Hussen. M Page 6
current
electrode
Fig Wenner configuration (Electrode arrangement)
In the Wenner system, the electrodes are spaced at equal distances, a, and the apparent
resistivity, a for a measured resistance R (=V/I) is given by a=2Ra
The field curve is plotted on a semi-log paper, a versus a, a being in ohm-meters in

logarithmic scale and ‘a’ in meters in arithmetic scale. (In this configuration the depth to which
a measured is considered to be about equal to the voltage electrode spacing).
2. Schlumberger system (electric drilling, sounding)
C1 P1 P2 C2
-
G/S
A M N B
L L
AB=2L
ℓ ℓ MN=b=2ℓ
Fig Schlumberger Electrode arrangement

In Schlumberger system, the distance between the two inner potential electrodes (b) is kept
constant for some time and the distance between the current electrodes (2L) is varied. The
spacing between the potential electrodes is much smaller than the spacing between the current
electrodes.
The apparent resistivity a for a measured resistance R=V/I is given by
(
L2−ℓ2
a =R 2 ℓ
)
,if 2 L >>2 ℓ

The field curve is plotted on a log-log paper a versus L, a being ohm-meters and L in meters
Types of Instruments
There are basically two types of instruments to conduct the electrical resistivity survey:
i) NGRI resistivity meter, a d.c. type meter manufactured by the National Geophysical
Research Institute, Hyderadad (South India).
In this instrument V and I are separately measured to obtain the resistance R (=V/I). Generally
battery packs with different voltage of 15,30,45 and 90 volts are employed
ii) Terrameter An a.c. type of instrument manufactured by Atlas Copco ABEM AB,
Sweden. The output is 6 Watts at 100, 200 or 400 volts using low frequency(1-4 Hz)
square waves. This instrument directly gives the resistance, R, in ohms. It is a good
instrument for conducting rapid electrical resistivity surveys for location sites for drilling
bore wells.
Types of Resistivity Surveys
 Regardless of the specific electrode spread employed, there are really two basic procedures
in resistivity work.
 1st electric drilling (or electrical depth sounding) for detecting vertical changes.
 The 2nd electrical mapping or trenching or horizontal profiling for detecting subsurface
changes in horizontal direction/lateral spread.
1) Electric Drilling (or electrical sounding , Es)

 Total current which flows at depth varies with the current electrode separation,
 The field procedure is to use a fixed center with an expanding spread.
 Both then Wenner and Schlumberger layout are particularly suited to this technique.
 Schlumberger system is superior to the Wenner array for Ex, because voltage electrodes
do not have to be moved each time.
 by taking a series of measurements at a point, but moving the current electrodes further
apart for each measurement. The depth of current penetration is then increased.
 A curve of the variation of apparent resistivity with depth AB/2=L can draw on log-log
paper form the results.

 It reveals the variations of a with depth.
2) Electric Mapping
 This method is useful particularly in mineral exploration
 Any method can be used; the selection depends mainly on the field situation.
 In all cases the apparent resistivity is plotted at the midpoint of the potential electrodes,
except where one of these is effectively at infinite when the station is reckoned at the
near potential electrode.
 In traversing or profiling method the electrode separation is kept constant for two or
three values (say a= 10m, 15m, or 20m) and the center of the electrode spread is moved
from one station to another station (grid points) to have the same constant electrode
separations.
 Profiling can be carried out along a series of parallel lines and a resistivity contour map
of the area showing iso-resistivity lines can be prepared.
 This will indicate areas of high resistivity and will be useful in identifying aquifer
formations. With lateral surveys, a constant electrode spacing, selected to produce the
desired depth of the survey, is used and a is measured at different locations to yield a
map of iso-resistivity lines.
 Such maps are useful for detecting changes in bedrock or aquifer depth (for example, in
tracing buried valleys), vertical discontinuities such as faults and fractured zone, changes
in groundwater quality(including travel of contaminated water), and changes in the
depth of fresh water-salt water interfaces(especially in coastal areas).
Field procedure
Essentially there are 2 methods
i) Profiling using Wenner

ii) Depth sounding using Schlumberger
1. Have some idea of general geology (aquifer, aquiclude, GWT).
2. Start with depth sounding (Schlumberger method) to determine the thickness & estimated
depth of water table.
3. From the trend of the formation (aquifer) conduct additional depth sounding

(Schlumberger) at sites
4. Finally, keep the electrode spacing constant (Wenner) to map the aquifer, i.e. conduct
electrical mapping.
Use of electrical resistivity method:
i) Correlating lithology and drawing geophysical section.

ii) Bed rock profile for subsurface studies
iii) Fresh water-salt water interface separation profiling
iv) Water quality in shallow aquifers & groundwater pollution
Presentation of Results
Resistivity depth sounding (Schlumberger)
ℓ=MN/2(m) L=AB/2(m) V(mv) I(ma) R(ohm) K a(ohm- Remark

=V/I m)=K*R
AB/2(m) Log-log
Depth Paper
a(ohm-
Resistivity depth sounding (Wenner)
Electrode spacing a Meter reading Constant K=2a Apparent resistivity

R(ohm)
a=K*R(ohm-m)
Interpretation of Results:-
1. Qualitative
One inflection point ------- 2 layer case
Two inflection points -----3 layer case
2
1
1 (Two layer case)
2
Log a
Log (a) , or Log (AB/2)
 When 2>1. the upper layer is more conductive compared to lower layer.
 When 2<1. the upper layer is less conductive compared to lower layer.

2. Quantitative:
 Automatic interpretation by computer programs is available nowadays.
 Curve matching on log-log graph paper on the same modulus as the “standard curves”.
Example: (Master curve by Orellanar and Mooney 1996)
3. New methods of plotting ( direct slope method)
 Developed for determination of absolute resistivity and thickness of layers.
 the field data are processed to obtain a for plotting the cumulative resistivity curve (a
Vs a ),
 Tangents are drawn to the curve and the values of ‘a’ at which the slope of the curve changes
give the depths to the top of each layer.
a()
I
Z1
II
Z2
Change in slope
III
Z3
VI
Z4
Fig. Cumulative Resistivity curve
Limitations of direct slope method:-
 The method cannot be used whenever potential disturbances exist: underground cables,

pipelines or metal fences etc.

 Depth is up to 500m
 In rugged topography measurements are strongly affected. In areas where rock
formation is dipping greater than 15 the measurements are seriously affected.
2. Seismic Refraction Method
 Involves the determination of elastic wave velocities through geologic formations.

 Based on the fact that elastic waves travel through different materials at different
velocities.
 The waves are produced by a small dynamite explosion, sledge hammer etc.
 Picked up at various points on the ground surface by set of receivers called geophones
and recorded.
Z1
Z2
Fig Seismic Refraction Field set up

 The geophones are uniformly spaced on a straight line from the shot point to record the
arrival time of the first shock waves.
 These waves may have traveled straight from the shot point to the geophones, or they may
have been refracted and reflected in the deeper layers.
 By knowing the arrival time of different waves at different distances from the energy source,
the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer is calculated.
 The method is more accurate.

 The velocities are characteristic of particular rock in particular conditions, i.e., dry, joint,
saturated with water, weathered, etc. Average velocities of seismic waves
Rock Formation Range of Velocities (m/s)
Dry sand and loose soil 150-400
Alluvium 500-1500
Wet sand 600-1800
Clays 900-3000
Sand stone 2000-4300
Shale 2100-4000
Limestone 3000-6000
Igneous and metamorphic rocks 4500-6500
 The refracted waves arrive at the surface only on the condition that the velocity of the
propagation in the underlying layer is higher than that in the overlying area.
 Seismic waves follow the same laws of propagation as light & may be reflected or refracted
at any interface where a velocity change occurs.
 Refracted and reflected shock waves will reach the more remote geophones sooner than the
straight-traveling waves if the velocity of sound in the deeper layers is much greater than
that in the surface materials.
t2
(mill second)
Arrival time
t
t1
0 ofX1
OBU/ Institute Technology/ WRIE Distance
X2 Geophone department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 14
from shot pt.(m)
Fig Time-distance graph

 The first section represents the first layer (or top layer) of the profile, the 2 nd section the
second layer etc.
 Sound velocity in each layer is calculated as the reciprocal of the slope of the
corresponding straight-line section.
 the depth to the rock layer can be computed from the equation
Z1= 2 √
X 1 V 2 −V 1
V 1 +V 2
Where V1 and V2 are the velocities of propagation through the earth and the rock layer
respectively.
Using the intercept time t1 the depth Z1 is given by the equation
t1 V 1V 2
Z1=
2 √V 22−V 21
The depth Z2 of the second layer is given by
Z2=
( t2
2
−Z 1
√ V 23−V 21
V 3V 1 )√ V 3V 2
V 23 −V 22
An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960)
Z=
2
2 V 3 +V √
X 2 V 3 −V 2 Z 1
2
−
6
Where X2 is the horizontal distance of the second break point in the data curve
The critical angle c is given by snells principle
Sin c= V1/V2

 For angle of incidence greeter than critical, there are no refractions into the deeper layers
but the waves are totally reflected.
The refraction method is faster and often finds application in
i) Locating the ground water table

ii) Determining depth to bed rock or impermeable layer and configuration (volume of
material)
iii) Locating a buried stream channel
iv) Locating faults that could act as groundwater barriers.
 The velocity of propagation varies from as low as 120 m/s in dry topsoil to more than
6000 m/s in very dense rocks such as granite, limestone & basalt.
 The velocities in saturated strata are somewhat greater than in unsaturated strata.
Disadvantage
Lower velocity layer cannot be detected beneath the higher-velocity layers.
1.1.2 Subsurface Investigation of Ground water

 Gives Detailed and comprehensive study of groundwater and conditions under which it
occurs.
 Quantitative data can be obtained from subsurface examinations.
 Test drilling furnishes information on substrata in a vertical line from the surface.
a. Test drilling
 The most accurate information about the geologic profile and the depth and quality of
groundwater at a given site is obtained.
 It may even be possible to do some preliminary pumping tests or slug tests on the bore
hole to estimate hydraulic properties of the aquifer or aquifers and to calculate potential
well yields.
 When a test well indicates a favorable location, it can often be converted into a
production (or pumping well) by re-drilling or reaming to increase its diameter.
Two types of logs can be kept by the driller and drilling progresses.
i. Geologic log

 It is constructed from sampling and examination of well cuttings collected at frequent

intervals during the drilling of a well or test hole.
 Considering all types of logs, the geologic log is probably the most important, but
preparation of a good geologic log can be difficult.
ii. Drilling-Time log
 It consists of a record of distance drilled per unit time, eg. m/h
 Changes in drilling time with depth indicate discontinuities in the geologic profile.
 The rate of drilling depends not only on the type of material at the bottom of the hole, but
also on the equipment (wt. Or bit, wear on cutting edges, no of blows or rotations per
minute, etc. and on the skill of the operator.
b. Geophysical logging
 It involves lowering sensing devices in a bore-hole and recording a physical parameter
that may be interpreted in terms of formation characteristics; groundwater quantity,
quality, and movement; or physical structure of the bore hole.
3. Hydrological Investigations
 Study and analysis of meteorological factors; precipitation and evapotranspiration.
 Rainfall and infiltration studies to estimate contribution of rainfall to groundwater
recharged.
 Hydrologic analysis of groundwater systems through analytical & other techniques.
2. WATER WELLS AND DESIGN OF WATER WELLS

 A water well is a hydraulic structure usually vertical, excavated into the earth for bring
groundwater to the surface. Or it is a hole or shaft excavated in the earth to withdraw
water from groundwater body.
 When the yield potential of an area is not a limiting factor, a properly designed well can
supply water in a quantity to irrigate the entire area under consideration or sufficient for
community water supply or industrial unit.
 In case of irrigation wells, the requirement of water will depend on the types of crops and
their water requirement, the area of land be irrigated, the cropping pattern and the
efficiency irrigation system.
The objectives of water well is:-

 To provide water with a good quality

 To provide a sufficient quantity of water
 To provide water for a long time
 To provide water at low cost
2.1 Classification of water wells
Water Wells
Tube wells
Open wells
Method of construction
Depth Type of aquifer
Entry of water
Drilled wells Driven wells Jetted
Shallow Deep
wells
Screened wells wells wells
Cavity wells
Water
Strainer wells
Slotted pipe
table wells
Sub artesian Artesian
gravel packed wells wells
wells
Wells in unconsolidated formation Open wells in hard rock
dug-cum-bore
dug wells in
wells in hard
hard rock
rocks
Wells with Wells with Dug-cum-
Unlined open pervious lining impervious bore -wells
wells
lining
Open wells
 The major means of domestic water supply throughout the span of the recorded history of
mankind.
 Also used extensively in small- scale irrigation.
 Compared to tube wells, open wells are shallow and usually used to tap water table
aquifers (unconfined aquifers).
 Open wells are best suited to shallow and low - yielding aquifers.
 They do not require sophisticated equipment and skilled manpower.

 They can be operated by indigenous water lifts driven by man or animal power.
Open wells are used mainly for three purposes:
i) To extract groundwater from fine-grained aquifers of shallow depth.

ii) To tap groundwater in hard rock areas
iii) To serve as reservoirs for groundwater slowly replenishing the well.
Open wells have the following limitations.
i) Large space is required by the well structure and for dumping the excavated
materials.
ii) Construction of the well is slow and laborious.
iii) They are economically unsuitable for tapping deep aquifers.
iv) They are susceptible to contamination or pollution from surface sources
Types of open wells
Depending up on the nature of the groundwater formation to be tapped:
I. Open wells in unconsolidated formation, and

II. Open wells in hard- rock formation.
Open wells in unconsolidated formations:
 dug down to about 7 to 10 m below the water table in the dry season.
 They are usually circular in shape, the diameter varying from 2 to 5m.
 These wells, in general, tap water from unconfined aquifers.
Open wells in unconsolidated formations are classified as follows:
i) Unlined
ii) Wells with pervious lining
iii) Wells with impervious lining
iv) Dug- cum- bore wells.
i. Unlined open wells

 Wells, dug for purely temporary purposes
 Are not usually protected by lining, since lining increases the cost of construction.

 As the sides of these wells are not protected, it is essential that the subsoil is compact
enough to stand vertically under natural condition.
 The water table should not be lower than about 4 m below the ground level.
 To ensure the stability, the depth of unlined wells is limited to about 6-15m.
ii. Open wells with pervious lining
 These types of wells are usually lined with dry bricks or stone masonry.
 Water flows from the surrounding aquifer in to the wells through the sides of the well.
 Pervious lining is suitable when the water-bearing formation consists of gravel or coarse
sand deposits.
iii. Open wells with impervious lining

 These types of wells are constructed with permanent masonry lining, laid in cement
mortar.
 The linings are provided with weep holes for the lateral entry of water.
 These wells are commonly used in alluvial formation.
iv. Dug- cum- bore wells

 Dug wells are some-times provided with vertical bores at their bottom to augment their
yields. Such wells are referred to as dug- cum- bore wells.
 Boring consists essentially of drilling small diameter holes of sizes ranging from 7.5 to
15cm in diameter, through the bottom of the well, and extending them up to or into the
water–bearing formation lying underneath the bottom of the dug well.

 In unconsolidated formation, there is usually only one borehole, bored at or near the
center of the well bottom.
 In hard- rock areas, however, the number of holes may range from 1 to 6, depending on
the nature the rock and the size of the well.
 They may be screened or provided with cavity.
Fig. Vertical boring with screen or strainer to augment the yield of an open well
Open Wells in Hard Rock Formations
Open wells in hard rock formations may be dug wells of dug-cum- bore wells.
a) Dug wells in hard rock areas
 These wells are usually open, excavated pits through the rock, lined only a couple meters.
 Usually, pneumatic rock blasting equipment, using jackhammers, and explosives, are
employed for the excavation of the well through hard rock.
b) Dug –cum- bore well in hard rock area

 Dug wells in hard rock areas to augment their discharge, may also be provided with
holes, bored at their bottom, to tap embedded water- bearing materials, if existing
underneath. These types of wells are known as dug-cum-bore wells in hard rock areas.
2.2 Tube Wells
Advantages of Tube wells
 Do not require much space.

 Can be constructed quickly.
 Fairly sustained yield of water can be obtained even in years of scanty rainfall.
 Economical when deep-seated aquifers are encountered
 Flowing artesian wells can sometimes be struck.
 Generally good quality of water is tapped.
Disadvantages of Tube wells
 Requires costly and complicated drilling equipment and machinery.

 Requires skilled workers and great care to drill and complete the tube wells.
 Installation of costly submersible pumps is required.
 Possibility of missing fractures, fissures and joints in hard rock areas resulting in many
dry holes
2.3 Methods of well construction
Construction methods are many and varied ranging from simple digging with hand tools to high
speed drilling with sophisticated equipment.
Well construction, in terms of operations, basically includes:
 The drilling operation

 Installing the casing
 Installing the well screen and artificial gravel packing
 Grouting when needed to provide sanitary protection and well head construction
 Developing the well to insure sand free operation at maximum yield
 Installing the pump
There are different drilling methods and equipment available for drilling bore holes. Selection of
drilling equipment depends upon the hydrogeology of the formation, diameter and depth of the

production well, availability of fund, maintenance and spaces, production capacity, volume of
work, operating crew and easy movement of the rig.
Bore holes become an option for groundwater supply when water levels are deeper ‘than,
say 6-10m.
They have the advantage of being able to penetrate deep into the aquifer (unlike a dug
well where dewatering becomes a problem), which means better resistance to falling
water levels, and better protection against pollution.
However, they are more costly, have no storage capacity, and often represents and
‘outside intrusion’ to the community, who cannot be involved to any great extent in the
construction processes.
2.4 Most commonly used methods for shallow tube wells construction
 Shallow tube wells are constructed by boring, driving and jetting methods.
 The wells constructed by these methods are designated as bored wells, driven wells, and
jetted wells, respectively.
2.4.2 Boring Method

 In this method the hole is constructed by the use of a selected diameter hand or power
driven anger.
 Cuttings are removed by pulling and emptying the auger.
 It can drill to 30m or more in soft sands & claps that are free of rocks.
2.4.3 Driving Method

 In this method the hole is constructed by forcing a casing (well pipe) equipped with a
drive (well) point into the ground by a series of blows either manually or machine
delivered on the top of the casing.
 Driven wells should be installed only in soft formations that are relatively free of cobbles
or boulders.
 A special device called a cap or drive head protects the top of the pipe during driving
operation.
 After each length of pipe is hammered into the ground the top is removed and additional
sections are attached and drive as required.

2.4.4 Jetting method

 A jetted well is a well which is constructed by means of boring equipment using water
jetted under high pressure to facilitate rapid boring.
 Jetting is pumping water down the pipe and out through the well point where the force of
the water losing the surround soil materials.
2.5 Tube /deep/ Wells Drilling Methods

 Deep tube wells are constructed by drilling methods. The commonly used drilling
methods are Cable tool, hydraulic rotary, reverse rotary and down the hole hammer
methods.
II.5.1 Cable – Tool Drilling Method

 The cable - tool method, also known as the percussion or standard method.
 Used to construct wells by alternately lifting and dropping a set of drilling tools
suspended on a wire rope or cable so that with each stroke the drill bit strikes the bottom
of the hole.
 The repeated action of the percussion drill permits bit penetration of the underground
formations.
 The loosened material and drill cuttings are raised with drilling water by the action of the
bit and the resulting slurry must be removed from the drill hole by a bailer or sand pump.
 In drilling a dry hole, water must be added periodically to replace that removed with the
drill cuttings.
In cable tool or percussion drilling there are basically there major operations:
1st : the drilling of the hole by chiseling or crushing the rock, clay, or other material by the
impact of the drill bit,
2nd : removing the cuttings with a bailer as cuttings accumulate in the hole; and
3rd : driving or forcing the well casing down into the hole as the drilling proceeds.
 Well casing is used in most percussion- type drilling operations.

 This casing is used to help the well bore from collapsing and to prevent surface or
subsurface leakage of water or contaminants in to the well bore the well bore.

The cable tool bit (drill bit) is a shaped steel bar, generally 4 to 8 ft long. The drill bit is
suspended from a cable called the drill line, which is struck over a pulley at the top of a near
vertical mast erected over the hole. Sharper bits are used in hard rock drilling.

The major advantages of the cable-tool system as opposed to other drilling systems are listed
below.
1. Economics (relatively cheap to purchase, operate & maintain)

 lower initial equipment cost, hence lower depreciation cost
 Lower daily operating cost, including maintenance, personnel and water
requirement. (Needs trained operators with several semi-skilled assistants, but a
rotary rig need highly skilled operators & expert supervision.
 Lower transportation costs (cable tool rig is lighter & easy to transport)
 Lower rig-up time & expense
 Drilling rates comparable to rotary in hard rocks at shallow depth (for shallow
wells, in hard rocks, it comes out to be cheaper)
2. Better cuttings of sample, easily make well drillers log, (a more accurate sample for
formation can be obtained)
3. Easy identification of water bearing strata.
4. No circulation system (lesser amount of water is required during drilling operations)
5. Minimum contamination of production zones
6. Water can be tested immediately, for quality & yield from each water bearing stratum
7. Rate of groundwater can be measured
8. Minimum water is required for drilling than in the hydraulic rotary & jetting methods, a
point for consideration I arid region.
9. Better ability to seal off undesirable zone.
10. Capability of drilling any formation
11. The well driller need not be as skilled as his counterpart in rotary drilling.
The major disadvantages of the cable tool method
1. Limitation on penetration rate (slower drilling rate in hard formations).

2. Limitation on depth
3. Lack of control over fluid flow from penetrated formations
4. The need to case the hole as drilling progress, i.e., lack of control over bore hole stability,
the need to use temporary drill casing in overburden drilling to line a hole in soft
formations.
5. Frequent drill-line failure

6. Difficulty in pulling casing from deep wells

 Cable-tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for boreholes up to 50m deep and
200mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated and semi-consolidated formations.
 Usually drilling is started with a large diameter & the diameter is reduced telescopically
after drilling certain depths.
2.5.2 Conventional fluid Rotary (or Rotary Direct Circulation) Drilling Method
 This method uses a rotary bit to cut the rock and a circulating drilling fluid to flash rock
cuttings to the surface.
 The drilling fluid is usually heavy mud which is able to support the walls of the well and
prevent them from collapsing.
 Generally, the drilling of bore holes by the hydraulic rotary method requires a drill bit, a
system for rotating the bit, the means for controlling bit pressure on the formation, and a
medium for removing the material displaced by the bit.
 drilling is accomplished by rotating a drill pipe and bit by means of a power drive.
 The drill bit cuts and breaks up the rock material as it penetrates the formation.
 Drilling fluid is pumped down through the rotating drill pipe and holes in the bit.
 The drill pipe and bit move progressively downward, deepening the hole as the operation
proceeds.
 At the land surface, the drilling fluid flows into a settling pit where the cuttings settle to
the bottom. From the settling (or mud) pit the fluid overflows into a second pit from
which it is picked up though the suction hose of the mud pump and re-circulated through
the drill pipe.
 In the rotary drilling method the well casing is not introduced into the hole until drilling
operations are completed, the walls of the hole being supported by the pressure (weight)
of the drilling fluid and/ or mud cake formed on the wall of the bore hole.
 Such drilling is widely practiced in Ethiopia.
Advantages of direct hydraulic rotary drilling technology
1. Rapid drilling rate (relatively high penetration rates)

2. The avoidance of placement of a casing during drilling
3. The convenience of electric logging
4. Ability to drill and maintain borehole in a wide variety of formations to depths in excess of

those required for water wells

5. Ability to drill small diameter, low cost borehole for formation sampling & geophysical
logging. This information leads to the final well design. In most cases the pilot borehole is
used for this purpose.
6. Low cost or well construction in soft, unconsolidated alluvium, particularly with deep
greater than 300m.
7. Large diameter holes can be drilled more economically by the rotary method.
Disadvantages includes:-
1. A more complex drilling system than with the cable-tool

2. Relatively high equipment capital cost.
3. Higher bit cost, particularly in hard formations
4. Engineering & control drilling-fluid properties (Reynolds number, density, gel strength,
velocities) critical to well logging, completion, & development.
5. High noise levels that create operating problems in urban areas.
6. Greater daily operating cost
7. Relatively high makeup water requirements
8. Relatively High equipment transportation cost
9. High cost for drilling karstic formations
10. The need to remove mud cake during well development
11. Not suitable for boulder formation and requires more water, repair & maintenance.
2.5.3 Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling method
 It is a modification of direct circulation rotary method.
 In this system, the drilling fluid with cutting return inside the drill string & is discharged
into a settling tank or pit.
 Downward flow is in the annulus between the drill string & borehole.
 The system components are similar to those of the direct rotary except for rotation.
The reverse circulation rotary differ from direct rotary rigs in the following respects:
a. the rotary table has lower speed range & fewer number of speed
b. The drill pipes used are larger in size & are flanged and jointed
c. The pump used is centrifugal

d. Air lift method is used in heavier rigs for drilling deeper depths.
As the diameter of the drill pipe is relatively small, the velocity of the drilling fluid in the pipe is
high. This results in two advantages:
1. There is no need for the rotary bits to crash the formation at the bottom of the hole \into
pieces.
2. There is no need to use heavy drilling fluid for bringing the cuttings to the surface &
clear water can be used. Thus the problem of clogging of the aquifer around the well by
mud intrusion is greatly reduced.
 It is probably the most rapid method of drilling and hence it has become increasingly
popular.
Reverse circulation rotary drilling has a number of advantages under some drilling conditions.
These include:
1. Lower capital cost than equivalent-capacity direct rotary equipment. It is gaining

popularity because it is economical & adapted to alluvium.
2. Most economical system for drilling large-diameter boreholes in soft, unconsolidated
alluvial formations.
3. Formation sampling is more accurate than with direct rotary.
4. High return velocity lowers drilling fluid viscosity requirement.
5. Lower noise levels with insulated compressors
6. Lower transportation costs than equivalent-capacity direct rotary.
7. Simpler and less costly circulating system.
8. Lower bit costs than with direct rotary.
9. Lower development pumping time where water without additives is used as drilling fluid.
10. The boring is done without a casing and hydrostatic pressure is used to support the walls
of the bore-hole during construction
Disadvantages include:
1. Drilling efficiency declines rapidly below 800 to 1000 ft.

2. Large water supply requirements. It requires five times the amount of water required for
direct rotary drilling.

3. The system is not suitable for drilling large boulders, consolidated rock formations, and
karstic formations. When drilling long sections of clay and shale, drill fluid additives
must be used.
4. Difficult to use where the static water level is less than 15ft.
5. Boreholes smaller than 18in cannot be drilled due to the eroding effect of the higher
velocity fluid down the annulus.
6. Maintaining borehole alignment is more difficult than with direct rotary because of the
relationship of the drill collar diameter & weight to the large diameter borehole.
7. SP & resistivity logs are not reliable where water without additives is used as the drilling
fluid. It is unsuitable for exploratory test drilling.
2.5.4 Down the hole Hammer Drilling method
 In this method pneumatic hammer operated at the lower end of the drill pipe is used.
 It combines the percussion effect of cable tool drilling & the rotary action of rotary
drilling.
 In hard rock, compressed air can be used to blow out cuttings.
 This method is often used in conjunction with a special bit that has a hammer action as it
is rotated.
 This method is called down-the –hole-hammer drilling and is commonly used to bore
through crystalline rocks.
 The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.
 The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.
Factors affecting the drilling rate
1. Formation characteristics-Strength, abrasiveness, drill ability, etc.

2. Mechanical factors- Wt. On bit, rotary speed, condition of bit, bit type & diameter.
3. Hydraulic factors- circulation rates, friction losses
4. Drilling fluid properties- density, viscosity, etc

5. Intangible factor- personnel efficiency and rig efficiency.

 Down the hole hammer (DTH) drilling is the technique of drilling where by hammering
action at the bottom of the well is incorporated to the conventional rotary action.
 With such drilling method penetration of about five meters per hours in hard formation is
possible.
 Percussion and rotary methods of well drilling are usually uneconomical in water well
drilling in hard rock formations due to the slow penetration rate, high bit rate, and high
maintenance cost of the machinery.
 Air-operated DTH drilling method has proved to be the best for the construction of water
wells in hard rock areas.
2.7 DRILING FLUID

 Drilling fluid can simply be defined as the combination of fluids and solids required
in certain drilling processes to facilitate the production and removal of cuttings from a
borehole.
 The conveying of the drilled cuttings to the surface is still an essential requirement
but in addition, the drilling fluid must perform other functions such as:-
1. Cooling the drill bit

2. The maintenance of hole stability in preventing caving and sloughing of
unconsolidated formation.
3. Lubrication of the mud pump, bit bearings, and the drilling string & thus reducing the
torque required to turn it.
Basic drilling fluids are:-
1. Air
2. Foam
3. Water
4. Polymer
5. Water based clay mud (e.g. bentonite)
The five-drilling fluid systems are:-
1. Water base mud

2. Oil base mud

3. Low solids mud
4. Air, gas or moist flush system
5. Low velocity foam system
a. Water base mud
 Drilling mud is a mixture of clays, water & chemicals pumped down the drill string & up
the annulus during drilling in order to lubricate the system, carry away rock cuttings,
maintain the required pressure at the bit end, and provide an aid to formation evaluation,
etc.
It consists of
1. a liquid phase
2. a suspended-particle(colloidal) phase, and
3. cuttings entrained during drilling
 The oldest and probably the most widely used drilling fluid for water well drilling is a
water-based mud.
 In this fluid the continuous liquid phase is fresh water.
 Other chemicals may be added to control and overcome specific problems.
 Salt water may be used occasionally as the continuous phase to overborne formation clay
swelling problems but salt is undesirable in water well & thus is rarely used.
b. Oil Base mud
 These are drilling fluids in which oil is the continuous phase and water is the dispersed
phase.
 As with salt water-base muds, the oil base muds are used to prevent the hydration of the
native clays which may reduce permeability, it also has other advantages in oil well
drilling and completion. Because of the obvious contamination problem oil-based muds
have no application in water well drilling.
c. Low solid Mud
 This is a drilling fluid in which the solids content is less than 10% by weight or a mud
weight of less than 2.6 parts per liter.
 For water well drilling the continuous liquid phase is water & the solids are CMC

(sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose) GEC (Hydroxyethyl cellulose) & other polymers.
d. Air, Gas or Mist Flush system
 Of these, air has the greatest application in water well drilling.
 This may be used for air flush lifting of cuttings from rotary drilled holes or may be used
to operate and flush cuttings from down the hole hammers.
 Air flush drilling is generally very much faster than water or mud drilling and bit life is
extended considerably as a result of the very rapid removal of drilled cuttings from the
face of the bit.
e. Low velocity Foam system
 This is an extreme low solids system in which a slow moving column of foam transports
the cutting up the hole with the particles suspended and separated in bubble clusters.
 Very low water & air volumes are required.
 Generally the system improves in efficiency as the annular area increases.
 It can often be used, to considerable advantage, instead of the reverse circulation system.
 The quantity of low solids or foam additives to prepare a drilling fluid is roughly one fifth
(by weight) of the quantity of bentonite which would have to be used to achieve similar
results. Thus the use of the low solids mud or the foam flush system can affect a
significant economy in the transport of the drilling fluid additives in the field.
i. Drilling Fluid requirements

1. The drilling mud must be thick enough to hold the hole from caving
2. The drilling mud should be able to keep the cuttings in suspension where circulation is
stopped for extending the drill rod or any other reasons.
3. The mud should be thin enough for efficiency.
ii. Drilling Fluid Control program
 Material used by the driller to prepare the drilling fluid should be composed of fresh,
non-polluted water and suitable fluid or mud additives to meet the viscosity specification
required.
 The drilling fluid properties required will depend on:-
i) the type and size of drilling equipment to be used, and

ii) Down hole conditions anticipated or encountered.

 Sample for the measurement or testing of drilling fluid properties are those caught at the
rig pump suction with care taken to assure a true and representative sample.
Tests are to be conducted:
1) every 15m of depth or

2) every four circulating hours or
3) Whenever conditions appear to have change or problem arises.
The driller must maintain current records on the site at all times to show
i) time, depth and results of all mud tests, and

ii) All materials added to the system-kind, amount, time and depth.
2.8 Well completion
The drilling of the borehole alone does not complete the construction of an efficient well. Well
completion involves:-
1. placement of casing
2. cementing of casing
3. placement of well screens
4. gravel packing
2.8.1 Well Casing

Reasons for using casing in water well or borehole.
 To prevent the collapse of the walls of the borehole (i.e. structural support against caving
in) serving as a lining.
 to exclude, along with grouting, pollutants either from surface or subsurface from
entering the water sources
 To provide a channel for conveying the water to the surface.
 to provide a channel for conveying the water into the well for injection purpose
 to provide a housing for the pump mechanism
 to provide a channel for conveying a cement grout in the well for cementation purpose
 serving as a reservoir for a gravel pack
Materials commonly employed for well casings are

 wrought iron
 alloyed or unalloyed steel,
 PVC, concrete, etc.
 Steel is by far the most common casing material in water wells.
The casing must be:
 strong enough to resist the pressure exerted by the surrounding material

 Able to resist the internal pressures due to water drilling and cementation fluids.
 Able to withstand compressive loads during installation into well
 Able to withstand tensile forces during its installation into a well or pulling out of
borehole.
 Able to resist corrosive forces by soil or water environment (should last 20-40 years)
a. Types of casings
There are four types of water well casings. They are classified according to function: surface
casing, conductor casing, intermediate casing, and pump housing casing.
Each category has some common requirements.
 A smooth interior to permit the installation and operation of drilling tools, development
tools, and pumps
 Physical properties adequate to withstand the stresses of installation and other forces that
may be applied during well completion, development, and operation.
 Casing material selected to ensure satisfactory life in the well environment.
I. Surface casing
Surface casing is installed from ground surface through upper strata of unstable or fractured
materials into a stable and, if possible, relatively impermeable material.
surface casing serves several purposes, including.
 supporting unstable materials during drilling,

 reducing loss of drilling fluids
 facilitating installation or removal of other casing
 helping in placing a sanitary seal, and to seal off the well against the inflow of polluted

surface water
 serving as a reservoir for a gravel pack
This casing may be temporary during drilling or it may be permanent.
Recommended minimum diameters of surface casing are given in table below (after USBR)
Surface casing diameter, cm
Well yield, Nominal pump Natural /Gravel-packed Nominal screen

m3/day chamber casing developed wells diameter, cm
diameter, cm wells
<270 15 25 45 5
270-680 20 30 50 10
680-1900 25 35 55 15
1900-4400 30 40 60 20
4400-7600 35 45 65 25
7600-1400 40 50 70 30
1400-19000 40 60 80 35
19000-27000 60 70 90 40
II. conductor casing

 Installed and cemented to a minimum of 15m, or to the first impervious formation, in
order to prevent well contamination from the surface.
 Conductor casing also stabilizes the upper borehole while drilling.
 It also serves as reservoir for gravel packing.
III. Intermediate casing
 Required to facilitate completion in deep boreholes where difficult drilling conditions are
encountered (hydraulic shales, loss of circulation zones, etc.).
 A multiple-diameter casing program may be required for deep cable-tool wells where the
casing cannot be advanced to total depth in a single string by driving or jacking.
IV. Pump Housing casing
 Pump bowl diameter, depth of setting, and diameter of column pipe are established by
maximum anticipated production, lift, and total head.

 Pump housing casing diameter and length are based on the pump design needed to meet
these requirements.
 Normally, the pump chamber casing should have a nominal diameter at least 5 cm larger
than the nominal diameter of the pump bowls.
b. Methods of casing Installation
1) Driven (well point)
 A hole is bored with a hand or power operated auger slightly large in diameter than the
well point.
 The hole should be vertical and extend as far as possible into the water-bearing
formation.
 The driven point and the appropriate number of sections of riser pipe (in lengths of 1.5m
or more) are assembled and inserted in the bored hole.
 Driving has to be done with a driving tool or suspended on a tripod or derrick.
2) Jacking
 Jacking is used to install casing when drilling wells with cable-tools.

 A pull down spread footing has to be installed around the well and the jacking force on
the casing achieved by pulling down on the casing with the ram end of hydraulic jacks
while the cylinder end is secured to the spread footing.
3) Driven (Drive shoe)

 Casing may be driven either by percussion from the cable tool string, or by a pneumatic
tool designed to drive casing through unconsolidated formations.
 When permanent well casing is driven, a standard drive shoe has to be welded or
threaded on the lower end of the string of casing.
 The shoe will have a beveled and tempered cutting edge of metal forged, cast or
fabricated for this purpose
4) Lowering

 The lowering method is used to install a jointed casing string in a re-drilled hole.
 The casing has to be lowered with the drilling machine, utilizing clamps, elevators or
other mechanical devices.
5) Floating
 Where the casing load is extremely large it may be desirable to “float” the casing into
place.
 A float collar has to be installed on the casing at the appropriate place in the casing string
or a float plug has to be installed in the casing string near the bottom.
c. Method of Joining Casing
Casing lengths have to be joined watertight by a method appropriate to the material used so
that the resulting joint has the same structural integrity as the casing itself.
 Welded, the standards of the American Welding society shall apply.

 threaded and coupled joints are used, couplings shall be appropriate
 Plastic casing sections have to be joined watertight by either solvent welding or fusion
welding.
 When concrete pipe is used, the casing has to be joined in accordance with standards of
the American society for Testing and Materials
 Casing made of other materials (aluminum, Copper, brass, fiberglass, etc.) shall be joined
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction.
E. Design of Well Casing and Housing pipe
 The design includes the selection of a suitable material, diameter and thickness of pipe.
 The size of the well should be properly chosen since it significantly affects the cost of
well construction.
 It must be large enough to accommodate the pump that is expected to be required for the
head and discharge (yield) with proper clearance.
 The diameter must also be chosen to give the desired percentage of open area in the
screen so that the entrance velocities near the screen do not exceed certain values so as to
reduce the well losses and hence the drawdown.
Table Recommended well diameters for various yields

Anticipated well Nominal size of pump bowl, Size of well Casing

yield, 1/mm cm
Minimum, cm Optimum, cm
400 10 12.5 15
400-600 12.5 15 20
600-1400 15 20 25
1400-2200 20 25 30
2200-3000 25 30 35
3000-4500 30 35 40
4500-6000 35 40 50
6000-10000 40 50 60
 The diameter of the housing pipe should be at least 5 cm more in diameter than the
nominal diameter of the pump.
 The depth of housing pipe below the ground level is selected such that the pump is
always submersed in water. It must set a few meters below the lowest draw down level,
taking into account the seasonal fluctuations in the spring level or water level,
interference from adjoining tube wells and the likely lowering of the water table due to
future development in the area.
 The diameter of the pipe of the well section below the pump housing is fixed by the
permissible velocity (1.5-5m/s) of water through the pipe. A velocity of order of 2.5-3m/s
is found to be most suitable. The usual practice is to provide constant diameter pipe.
f. Bore Size and Well Depth
Both influence the yield of wells.
Bore size
 To facilitate the lowering of the casing pipe the diameter of the bore has to be at least
5cm bigger in diameter than the casing.
 If gravel pack is to be used, the minimum diameter should be twice the thickness of the
gravel pack plus the outside diameter of the casing pipe.

Well Depth
 The depth of a tube well depends upon the locations of water-bearing formations, desired
yields of the well and economic considerations.
 It is determined from the lithological log of the area and confirmed from the electrical
resistivity and drilling-time logs.
 The well is usually drilled up to the bottom of the aquifer so that aquifer thickness is
available, permitting greater well yield.
Well Grouting and sealing off contaminating Water

 The drilled hole is usually larger than the well casing.
 This creates an irregularly shaped annular space around the well casing. It is essential to
fill this space with grout.
dhole= dcasing+(7-15)cm
 It is also necessary to seal out water of unsuitable quality strata above a fresh water
aquifer.
g. Well Grouting
 Well grouting involves filling the space around the pipe or casing (usually between the
casing and the wall of the well) with a suitable an impervious material.
 Reasons for well grouting are
1. to protect an aquifer, or aquifers, from entry of contaminating fluids flowing into it

2. To prevent undesirable water movement from one aquifer to another for the purposes of
maintaining quality.
3. Protecting the well against the entry of unwanted water from the surface or a subsurface
zone.
4. To protect the casing against exterior corrosive and also to assure structural integrity of
casing against external pressure and buckling. To make the casing stay tight in the drilled
hole.
 Prior to grouting the annular space should be flushed to assure that the space is open and
ready to receive the sealing material. Grouting should be done in one continuous
operation in which the annular space is filled.

Materials mostly used in well grouting are:-
1. concrete
2. Sand cement
3. Neat cement
4. Bentonite clay
Methods of Installation of Grout
 Positive placement of grout by tremie, pumping, or pressure is strongly recommended.

 It is important that the grout be introduced at the bottom of the open to be grouted to
ensure that the zone is properly sealed.
h. Sealing off contaminating Water (sanitary protection of Wells)
 Tube wells constructed for drinking water supply should be protected against pollution.
 Therefore, upon completion of the well, the driller shall install a suitable threaded,
flanged, or welded cap or compression seal so as to prevent any pollutants from entering
the well.
 Protecting the top section of a tube well from entry of contaminants:- The watertight
casing of any well shall extend not less than 30 cm above the pump house floor or final
ground level elevation and not less than 60cm above the normally anticipated flood level
of record.
 some common causes and paths of entry of contaminated surface water into the tube well:
1. Between the pump and the well casing

2. Around the well casing
3. Improperly placed gravel pack
4. Reverse flow through the pump
5. Subsidence of the soil or aquifer around the well casing due to sand pumping.
2.8.2 Water well Screens

 A water well screen is usually a pipe with slots or openings along its wall.
 Wells that obtain water from sand and gravel formations (unconsolidated formations)
require the use of well screens for proper completion.
 Well screen serves as the intake component of a well and support and stabilizes the

aquifer and filter zone and in the case of gavel envelope wells, it filters the pack. That is,
Well screen permits water to enter the well from the saturated aquifer, allows a maximum
amount of water to enter the well with a minimum hydraulic resistance.
Prevents sand movement into the well
Stabilizes the sides of the hole
 Holes in hard rock formations with large fissures would not generally require screening.
Groundwater can directly enter into an uncased well.
The basic requirements of a well screen are:
i) It should be resistant to corrosion and deterioration,
ii) It should be strong enough to prevent collapse of a hole,
iii) It should offer minimum resistance to the flow of water, and

iv) size and shape of each slot
v) thickness and material of screen
a. Screen strength
 The choice of screen material may be dictated by the strength requirements.
 The three loads (or forces) imposed on a screen are column load (vertical compression),
tensile load (extending forces), and collapse pressure (horizontal forces).
 It must also withstand impact loads during transportation and also during installation,
filter packing and well development.
b. Screen Material (material Selection)
 Natural groundwater contains various substances which corrode metal and which
generate incrustation.
 The materials most commonly used for well screens are stainless steel, silicon bronze,
silicon red brass, galvanized iron, mild steel, plastic, reinforced fiber glass, etc.
 The choice should be made on the basis of chemical analysis of the water or prior
knowledge of the water quality.
c. Length of Well screen

 The optimum length of well screen is based on the thickness of the aquifer, available
drawdown, and nature of stratification of the aquifer.

 In virtually every aquifer, certain zones will transmit more water than others.
 Thus, the intake part of the well must be placed in those zones having the highest
hydraulic conductivity.
 To prevent rapid clogging, the minimum length of the well screen for a non-gravel pack
well is designed on the basis of the following equation (Walton, 1962)
Q0
h = A0 V e
Where h= minimum length of the well screen, m
A0 = effective open area per meter length of the well screen, m2
Ve= entrance velocity at the screen, m/min

 In the cased well screen in a gravel-pack well, the average value of the K of aquifer and
the gravel pack is used to determine the entrance velocity at the screen.
 It is recommended that a screen length greater than this value should be provided
wherever possible to keep the entrance velocity lower than 3.0cm/s, in order to ensure a
larger life of the well.
 generally, the screen length may be selected by the following criteria:
I. When the formation being screened is homogeneous and the ground water is under
artesian
 If less than 7.5m thick, use a length equal to 70% of the formation thickness.
 If less between 7.5m and 15m thick, use a length equal to 75% of the formation thickness.

 If more than 15m thick, use a length equal to 80% of the formation thickness.
 The screen should be best positioned at equal distance between the top and bottom of the
aquifer.
 The screen should never be placed less than a minimum depth (say 5m) below ground, as this
would open the borehole to pollution from the surface.
II. When the formation being screened is not homogeneous and the groundwater is under
artesian pressure. In this case, it is best to screen the most permeable strata. Select the
more permeable sections from :
1. Laboratory tests of permeability, if representative samples are available.
2. Sieve analysis
3. Geophysical logging techniques
4. Visual inspection, if TV or photographic coverage of entire interval is available.
III. If the formation being screened is homogeneous and the ground water is unconfined
(water table conditions) theory and experience have shown that screening the bottom
one-third of the formation
IV. If the formation being screened is not homogeneous (highly stratified) and is under
unconfined conditions the principles of design are the same as in the case of non-
homogeneous artesian aquifer.
Minimum Length of screen: - The minimum length of the screen is the one that is required to
keep the entrance velocity through the opening less than the permissible value (0.1 ft/sec). An
entrance velocity greater than the permissible value, will result in excessive pumping of sand.
D. Well screen Diameter

 Screen diameter is selected to satisfy a basic principle: enough open area must be
provided so that the entrance velocity of the water generally does not exceed the design
standard of 3.0 cm/sec.
 Screen diameter can be adjusted within rather narrow limits after the length of the screen
and sizes of the screen opening have been selected.
 Well yields are affected by screen diameter, although increasing the screen diameter has
much less impact on well yield than increasing the screen length.
e. Slot size of water well screens

 Screen openings depend upon the gradation of the sediment and the size of the filter pack.
 The slot size of the water well screen has to be precise and accurate.
 Too large slot size allows sand to flow into the well and too small slot size prevents sand
from entering the well, impeding smooth water flow.
 In order to obtain a large volume of water without sand, the exact slot size should be
determined as follows:
I. Homogeneous Formations
1. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
overlain by essentially non-caving formations, the slot size shall be that which retains
30% of the aquifer sample.
2. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is over-
lain by unstable formation, the slot size shall be which retains 50% of the aquifer sample.
3. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is overlain
by an essentially non-caving formation, the slot size shall be that which retains 40% of
the aquifer samples.
4. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is overlain
by a caving formation, the aperture size shall be that which retains 60% of the aquifer
sample.
5. For conditions between the extremes listed, the driller shall interpolate to obtain the
proper screen slot size.
II. Non-Homogeneous Formation
1. Where formation to be screened has layers of differing grain size and gradations, use
the following rule:- If the 50%of size of the coarsest layer (C.L) is less than 4 x 50%
of the finest layer (FL), i.e, if 50%C.L.< 4x50%F.L., the slot size shall be selected on
the basis of the finest layer, (F.L) or for each specific layer as indicated in 1,2,3,4, or
5.
2. If the water is corrosive or the accuracy of the chemical analysis is in doubt, select slot
size that will retain 10% more than as indicated in the above paragraphs. Generally no
allowance is required for stainless steel.
3. Where fine sand overlies coarse sand, use the fine sand size slot for the top 60cm of
the underlying coarse sand. The coarse size aperture shall not be larger than twice the

fine sand size slot.

For a filter(gravel) packed well:- A filter pack prevents sand from flowing into the well, but the
size of the filter material has to be suitable for the grain size of the aquifer material and the slot
size of the screen must be suitable for the size of the filter material. The width retains 90% of the
gravel pack. The screen opening is selected to prevent most of the pack from passing. The
generally recommended range is between 10% and 20% (occasionally as high as 30%) of the
envelope material to pass.
1. Types of well screens

The types of well screens in use are listed as below:
i. Perforated pipe
ii. Punched and slotted pipe
iii. Reinforced wire wrapped punch pipe
iv. Louvered pipe
v. Continuous slot wire wound screen
 The continuous-slot type of well screen provides more inlet area per square meter of
screen surface than any other design.
 It is the most efficient and can be closely matched to aquifer gradations.
 The best type of opening is the V-shaped slot that widens towards the inside of the
screen, i.e. opening beveled inside.
2.8.3 Artificial Gravel Pack

 A gravel pack (or filter pack consists of clean sand or gravel of selected grain size and
gradation which is installed in the annular space between the screen and the wall of the
well bore.
 The pack has a larger average grain size and usually a smaller coefficient of uniformity
than the aquifer material.
 The usefulness of gravel pack in unconsolidated formation water well can be summarized
as follows:
i) It prevents or minimizes greatly the flow of sand from the aquifer into the screen thus
improving the quality of water, and reducing the wear and tear on pumps.

ii) It permits use of a larger screen slot size and consequent larger open area so that
entrance velocity is lowered and head losses to the well are reduced.
iii) It increases the effective diameter of the well to some extent since the filter has higher
permeability than the formation. This increases the efficiency and specific capacity of
a well and tends to reduce the possibility of excess sand production.
iv) It fills the space between the borehole wall and lining pipe, and thus prevents
formation slumping
No all water bearing formations require artificial gravel pack. Ellithope (1970) recommends the
use of artificial gravel
1. To stabilize fine grained, poorly sorted sand aquifers and to avoid sand pumping.
2. To permit the use of larger slot openings and the resultant higher well efficiency in fine
grained aquifers.
3. In formations of alternating zones of coarse and fine aquifer material, it is difficult to
position screens of various slot sizes accurately. The use of an artificial gravel pack will
permit the use of a single slot size screen and eliminate the positioning problem.
4. In deep aquifers, it may be less expensive to set a small diameter, artificially gravel-
packed screen in an under-reamed section of the hole than to ream the full diameter hole
to its full depth.
5. In case of loosely cemented, fine-grained sandstone aquifers, when a well is finished as
an open hole, some fine sand particles slough from the walls of the hole, resulting in sand
pumping well. Wells in such aquifer can be constructed successfully with an artificial
gravel pack.
A. Gravel pack Material
 Careful selection of gravel for packing is very important for the life of the well.
 The following conditions must be satisfied before a gravel pack material can be used in a
water well;
1. The filter pack should consist of clean, well rounded grains that are smooth and uniform.
2. The gravel pack should be siliceous (quartz) with a limit of 5% by weight of calcareous
material.
3. The filter should not contain more than 2% by weight of thin, flat or elongated pieces.

4. The filter should be obtained from an approved source and should consist of hard,
rounded particles with an average specific gravity of not less than 2.5
5. Not more than 1% by weight of the material should have a specific gravity of 2.25 or
less.
6. Gravel pack should be free of mica, shale, clay, and organic impurities of any kind.
7. It should not contain an iron or manganese in a form or quantity that will adversely affect
the water quality.
8. Gravel pack should be free of pollutants. There must be no chance of contamination of
the filter material during mixing.
Disinfection of Filter Material:- The filter material is adequately disinfected during installation
with chlorine solution having a 50mg/l free –chlorine residual.
B. Design criteria for Gravel pack
Installation of a properly designed filter pack extends well life and reduces maintenance costs of
wells, pumps, and meters. The basic principle in the design of the gravel pack is that the grading
of the gravel pack must be correctly chosen in relation to the particle size distribution of the
water bearing formation.
d 50 of gravel pack
If gravel-pack ratio (GPR) = d50 of aquifer = 4 to 5, generally have high efficiency.
GPR= 7-10 wells are less efficient
> 10 considerable sand is pumped
> 20 failure of well
Most commercial filter packs have U c of approximately 2. In certain areas, however, filter packs
with Uc of 4 to 5 are used occasionally with good results.
C. Choice of gravel pack particle size
1. Minimum gravel pack particle size

D 10 gravel pack particle size

D 10 ofaquifer particle size =6
2. Maximum gravel pack particle size
D50 gravel pack particle size
D50 of aquifer particle size =10
D. Thickness of filter pack

 From a practical viewpoint, filter pack are usually about 10 to 20 cm thick. Generally,
the thinner the filter the better it is.
 However, the thickness of the gravel pack should not ordinarily be less than 7.5cm.
 There are two types of gravel packing, which are uniform grain size and graded grain
size pack.
 The former is widely accepted because the size of opening of the screen can be
controlled.
 The practice in EWWCA is packing of wells with uniform grain size gravel.
2.9 Water Well Development

 A tube well is not completely ready for use just after construction.
 The tube well can function successfully only after proper development.
 Water well development is a process whereby the mud cake or compacted borehole
wall, resulting from drilling activity, is broken down; the mud cake liquefied and drawn
with other fines into the well.
 This material is then removed by bailing or pumping.
 Well development, therefore, stabilizes the walls of a well adjacent to the screen by a
process which removes fine particle from the formation immediately surrounding the
well screen, leaving coarser particles to contact and surround the screen.
 Tube wells are developed to increases their specific capacity, prevent sanding and
obtain maximum economic well life.
 Development work is necessary step in completing all types of wells.
 Most wells will not perform at maximum efficiency if they are not properly developed.
The main objectives of well development are:-

1. To correct any damage to or clogging of the water bearing formation; i.e., to

remove mud or clay particles which may have blocked the water movement from
the aquifer into the well.
2. To increase the porosity and improve the permeability of the water bearing
formation in the vicinity of the well.
3. to stabilize the sand formation (gravel pack) around a screened well and the
formation immediately
4. To reduce drawdown in the well during production or pumping.
 Development is necessary in all gravel packed wells and other screened wells except
when the screen is formed of fine wire mesh located in a highly permeable formation.
The benefits which result from well development are:
1. sand pumping during well operation will be eliminated to a greater extent

2. the life of the well will be prolonged
3. Operation and maintenance costs will be reduced.
4. the specific capacity of the well will be improved (maximum yield at available minimum
drawdown)
i. Methods of well development

The methods commonly employed for well development are over pumping, backwashing, use of
compressed air, hydro fracturing, jetting and use of dispersing agents (chemicals).
Over pumping:- Loose sand and material are removed by pumping the well at a higher rate than
the well will be pumped when put into service. Over pumping has the advantage that much of the
fine material brought into the borehole is pumped out immediately.
Backwashing: - sand and fine materials are loosened by reversing the direction of flow through
the screen. By changing the flow respectively the loose material will be moved through the
screen into the well.
Air development:- Air lift technique can be used for surging and pumping. The practice of
alternatively surging and pumping with air has grown with the great increase in the number of
rotary drilling rigs equipped with large air compressors.

Water Jetting:- High velocity water jetting can be used to loosen sand and fine material from
the filter zone and the screen. A maximum development efficiency is achieved if water jetting is
combined with simultaneous pumping with air lift, as the loosened material is not allowed to
settle again.
Hydro fracturing:- High pressure pumps are used to overcome the pressure of overlying rock
and inject fluids into newly opened fractures. Pressure in the production zone usually causes
small, tight breaks in the rock to open up and spread radially. The newly opened fractures
provide effective interconnections between nearby water-bearing fractures and the well bore.
Dispersing agents:- Sometimes it is necessary to add a chemical agents to disperse the clay
particles in the mud cake or in the formation to avoid their sticking to sand grains, and to speed
up the development process.
 Development of the well shall be continued until water pumped from the well at the
maximum test pumping rate is clear and free of sand.
 2-3 ppm tolerable for municipal and industrial water supply, 1ppm may be permissible
limit in a system that has many values and small orifices 20ppm for irrigation. But it can
be recognized that any kind of sand in the water can damage the pump.
ii. Well Testing for performance

 Following the development of a new well, the well should be tested to provide
information on the potential yield of the borehole and drawdown.
 water well may be pump tested for either of two main purposes:
The usual objective is to obtain information about the performance and efficiency of
the well being pumped. The result in such a case is usually reported in terms of the
yield, the observed drawdown, and the calculated specific yield.
Another objective of well pumping test is to provide data for which the principal
factors of aquifer performance, transmissivity and storage coefficient, can be
calculated
In general, the data obtained from pumping test provide information necessary to determine:-
a) capacity of the well

b) Aquifer characteristics

c) Well efficiency
d) Pumping rates
e) Pump installation depth settings
f) Other factors which will be of value in the long term operation and maintenance of the
well
g) Well design and construction equipment.

LECTURE MATERIAL Water Wells Engineering Husse Modules 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LECTURE MATERIAL Water Wells Engineering Husse Modules 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course name: Water wells Engineering (2014/15)

A comprehensive programme for hydrological investigations may comprise the following

MWU/ School of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Fekremariam N. Page 1

IV. Aquifer tests - to appraise transmissibility and storage property of aquifers.

1.1.1 Surface investigations of Ground water

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 2

1. Electric Resistivity Method

Geoelectric layers are functions of

 Porosity (Intergrnualr, channel, vugular, etc)

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 3

Principle: (Electrical Fundamentals)

 Isotropic and homogeneous medium

Since the earth is semi-infinite, Z=0.

C1 and C2 – Current electrodes (metal stakes)

P1 and P2 – potential electrodes

AB is the distance between current electrodes

MN is the distance between potential electrodes

The potential of electrode P1 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is

The potential of electrode P2 at N due to current electrode C1 at A is

The potential difference, V can be calculated as follows

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 5

Where, V= measured potential difference

I= Measured electric current

 Electrodes (two current & two potential electrodes)

1. Wenner system (electric profiling, mapping or trenching)

The field curve is plotted on a semi-log paper, a versus a, a being in ohm-meters in

2. Schlumberger system (electric drilling, sounding)

Fig Schlumberger Electrode arrangement

The apparent resistivity a for a measured resistance R=V/I is given by

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 7

1) Electric Drilling (or electrical sounding , Es)

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 8

 It reveals the variations of a with depth.

Essentially there are 2 methods

i) Profiling using Wenner

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 9

i) Correlating lithology and drawing geophysical section.

ℓ=MN/2(m) L=AB/2(m) V(mv) I(ma) R(ohm) K a(ohm- Remark

Resistivity depth sounding (Wenner)

Electrode spacing a Meter reading Constant K=2a Apparent resistivity

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 10

Log (a) , or Log (AB/2)

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 11

Fig. Cumulative Resistivity curve

Limitations of direct slope method:-

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 12

pipelines or metal fences etc.

 Involves the determination of elastic wave velocities through geologic formations.

Fig Seismic Refraction Field set up

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 13

Rock Formation Range of Velocities (m/s)

Dry sand and loose soil 150-400

Wet sand 600-1800

Sand stone 2000-4300

Igneous and metamorphic rocks 4500-6500

Fig Time-distance graph

Using the intercept time t1 the depth Z1 is given by the equation

An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960)

The critical angle c is given by snells principle

Sin c= V1/V2

OBU/ Institute of Technology/ WRIE department Prepared by Hussen. M Page 15

The refraction method is faster and often finds application in

i) Locating the ground water table