1.

Ground water Exploration

A programme of groundwater investigations is to obtain information on the resource through

systematic collection, synthesis, interpretation and compilation of data.
It seeks information on its occurrence, movement, storage, recharge, discharge, quality &
quantity. It includes the study of its geological, environmental, as well as the hydrologic and
hydraulic aspects of its flow system.

A comprehensive programme for hydrological investigations may comprise the following

activities:

1. Surface Investigations
i. Geological field reconnaissance, including observations and collection of data from
excavations, bore holes and wells. The appraisal includes information on geological
factors, particularly tectonics, lithology, permeability, fissuring and outcrop area.
ii. Geophysical surveys
a) Electrical resistivity method
b) Seismic refraction method
2. Subsurface Investigation of Groundwater
i) Test drilling and preparation of lithological logs
ii) Sub-surface/bore hole geophysical logging
a) Electric logging
b) Radial logging
iii) Collection of lithological & other logs of existing bore hole & correlation of
lithological logs.
3. Hydrological Investigations
I) Preparing inventory of existing wells, giving their location, depth, depth of water,
construction features, type of pumping equipment used, pumping records and water
analysis.
ii) Study of groundwater levels - preparation of water table contour maps, water level
profiles, hydrographs and setting up of observation grids.
iii) Collection and analysis of water samples
iv) Aquifer tests - to appraise transmissibility and storage property of aquifers.
v) Hydrologic appraisal of the geological framework: Geometry of aquifers &
boundaries affecting recharge & discharge of groundwater.
vi) Correlation of stream flow factors with groundwater recharge and discharge.
vii) Estimation of seepage & recharge contribution from canals, lakes and ponds.
viii) Study and analysis of meteorological factors; precipitation and
evapotranspiration
ix) Rainfall and infiltration studies to estimate contribution of rainfall to groundwater
recharged.
x) Hydrologic analysis of groundwater systems through analytical & other techniques.

1.1. Surface investigations of Ground water

Although groundwater cannot be seen on the earth’s surface, a variety of techniques can
provide information concerning its occurrence and under certain conditions even its quality
from surface or above-surface locations.
Surface investigations of groundwater are seldom more than partially successful in that
results usually leave the hydrogeologic picture incomplete; however, such methods are
normally less costly than subsurface investigations.

1.1.1. Geologic Methods

Geologic studies enable large areas to be rapidly and economically appraised on a

preliminary basis as to their potential for groundwater development.

A geologic investigation begins with the collection, analysis, and hydrogeologic

interpretation of existing topographic map, aerial photographs, geologic maps and logs, and
other pertinent records.

This should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field reconnaissance and by

evaluation of available hydrologic data on: stream flow and springs; well yields; groundwater
recharge & levels; and water quality.

Such an approach should be regarded as a first step in any investigation of subsurface water
because no expensive equipment is required; furthermore, information on geologic
composition and structure defines the need for field exploration by other methods.

Knowledge of the depositional and erosional events in an area may indicate the extent and
regularity of water-bearing formations.

1.1.2. Geophysical Exploration

Geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earth’s

crust for investigation of mineral deposits or geologic structure.

Geophysical methods are used to obtain more accurate information about subsurface
conditions, such as type and depth of materials(consolidated or unconsolidated), depth of
weathered or fractured zone, depth to groundwater, depth to bed rock, and salt content of
groundwater. These methods detect differences (or anomalies), of physical properties within
the earth’s crust. Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties most
commonly measured. Experience and research have enabled pronounced differences in these
properties to be interpreted in terms of geologic structure, rock type and porosity; and water
content & water quality.

The most common techniques for groundwater investigation are the electric resistivity and
seismic methods, which are discussed in the following sections.

1. Electric Resistivity Method

Resistivity survey is a method where by electric current is sent through the ground and the
potential difference is measured between two points. It is the most commonly adopted
method for the determination of saline and fresh water zone.

It is cheapest method and relatively easy to interpret. It is easy to employ and the equipment
is easy to transport from place to place.
The concept of this method is based on the reality that different earth materials display a
characteristic resistance to flow of a set of electrical current.
Geoelectric layers are a functions of

 Porosity (Intergrnualr, channel, vugular, etc)

 Fluid content (degree of saturation)
 Nature of fluid (saline, fresh, brackish)

Principle: (Electrical Fundamentals)

The resistivity methods are based on the measurement of the resistivity of various portions of
the ground, after passing an electric current into the earth.

Assumptions

 Isotrpic and homogeneous medium

 Point electrodes
 Earth is semi-infinite (Z=0)

C x

z r

ρI
V= 2 πr (potential)
r=(x2+y2+z2)1/2

Where  is defined as resistivity of the medium(i.e, the resistance in ohms between opposite
face of a meter cube of a material)

Since the earth is semi-infinite, Z=0.

ρ I ρI
=
V=
2 πr 2 π √ x 2 + y 2

+ -
G/S
C1 P1 P2 C2

A M N B
Fig Resistivity Set up
 C1 and C2 – Current electrodes (metal stakes)
P1 and P2 – potential electrodes
AB is the distance between current electrodes
MN is the distance between potential electrodes

The potential of electrode P1 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is

ρI
V AM =
2 π AM
The potential of electrode P2 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is

ρI
V AN =
2 π AN
Similarly,
ρI ρI
V BM = and V BN =
2 π BM 2 π BN

The potential difference, V can be calculated as follows

V AB A B
M =V M −V M =
ρI
2π [1
−
AM BM
1
]
V AB A B ρI
N −V N −V N =
2π [1
−
AN BN
1
]
∴ ΔV =V AB AB
M −V N =
ρI 1
−
[1 1
− +
1
2 π AM BM AN BN ]
[ ]
ΔV 2 π
∴ ρ=
I 1 1 1 1
− − +
AM BM AN BN

Where, V= measured potential difference

I= Measured electric current

2π
1 1 1 1
− − +
If K = AM BM AN BN which depends on the electrodes configuration,

(i.e, electrodes geometry) and called geometrical factor,

ΔV
. K ( ohm−m)
= I
As the earth material are almost never homogeneous and electrically isotropic, the resistivity
found by the above equation is an apparent resistivity, a.

Electrode Configurations

Many different arrangements of electrode can be used to measure resistivity, i.e., there are
several electrode configuration in common usage. Some of these are:

1. Wenner system
2. Schlumberger system
3. Lee system
4. Dipole-Dipole system

The basic relationships in all methods are

 Electrodes (two current & two potential electrodes)

 Linear system.

The commonly used systems of electrode arrangements are the Wenner and Schumberger.

1. Wenner system (electric profiling, mapping or trenching)

C1 P1 P2 -C2
G/S
M
A N a B
a a
+ve - ve current electrode
current
electrode
Fig Wenner configuration (Electrode arrangement)

In the Wenner system, the electrodes are spaced at equal distances, a, and the apparent
resistivity, a for a measured resistance R(=V/I) is given by
a=2Ra
The field curve is plotted on a semi-log paper, a versus a, a being in ohm-meters in
logarithmic scale and ‘a’ in meters in arithmetic scale. (In this configuration the depth to
which a measured is considered to be about equal to the voltage electrode spacing).
 2. Schlumberger system (electric drilling, sounding)

b
C1 P1 P2 -C2
G/S
A M N B
L L
AB=2L
ℓ ℓ MN=b=2ℓ

Fig Schlumberger Electrode arrangement

In Schlumberger system, the distance between the two inner potential electrodes (b) is kept
constant for some time and the distance between the current electrodes (2L) is varied. The
spacing between the potential electrodes is much smaller than the spacing between the
current electrodes.

The apparent resistivity a for a measured resistance R=V/I is given by

a =R
(L2−ℓ2
2 ℓ ) 2 L >>2 ℓ

πL2
R , , if 2 L ≥5(2 ℓ )
a = 2 ℓ

The field curve is plotted on a log-log paper a versus L, a being ohm-meters and L in
meters

Types of Instruments

There are basically two types of instruments to conduct the electrical resistivity survey:
i) NGRI resistivity meter, a d.c. type meter manufactured by the National
Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderadad (South India).

In this instrument V and I are separately measured to obtain the resistance R (=V/I).
Generally battery packs with different voltage of 15,30,45 and 90 volts are employed
ii) Terrameter An a.c. type of instrument manufactured by Atlas Copco
ABEM AB, Sweden.
The output is 6 Watts at 100, 200 or 400 volts using low frequency(1-4 Hz)
square waves. This instrument directly gives the resistance, R, in ohms.

It is a good instrument for conducting rapid electrical resistivity surveys for location sites for
drilling bore wells.
Types of Resistivity Surveys

Regardless of the specific electrode spread employed, there are really two basic procedures in
resistivity work. The particular procedure to be used depends on whether one is interested in
resistivity variations with depth or with lateral extent.
The first is called electric drilling (or electrical depth sounding) for detecting vertical
changes.
The second is called electrical mapping, or trenching or horizontal profiling for detecting
subsurface changes in horizontal direction or the lateral spread.

1) Electric Drilling (or electrical sounding , Es)

Since the fraction of total current which flows at depth varies with the current electrode
separation, the field procedure is to use a fixed center with an expanding spread. Both
then Wenner and Schlumberger layout are particularly suited to this technique. But
Schlumberger system is superior to the Wenner array for Ex, because voltage electrodes
do not have to be moved each time.
It is produced by taking a series of measurements at a point, but moving the current
electrodes further apart for each measurement. The depth of current penetration is then
increased.

A curve of the variation of apparent resistivity with depth AB/2=L can drawn on log-log
paper form the results. It reveals the variations of a with depth.

The presence of horizontal or gently dipping beds of different resistivites is best detected
by the expanding spread. Hence the method is useful in determining depths of aquifers,
bed rock, fractured or weathered zones in rock and fresh water salt interfaces.

2) Electric Mapping
This method is useful particularly in mineral exploration, where the detection of isolated
bodies of anomalous resistivity is required. Any method can be used; the selection
depends mainly on the field situation. In all cases the apparent resistivity is plotted at the
midpoint of the potential electrodes, except where one of these is effectively at infinite
when the station is reckoned at the near potential electrode.

In traversing or profiling method the electrode separation is kept constant for two or three
values (say a= 10m, 15m, or 20m) and the center of the electrode spread is moved from
one station to another station (grid points) to have the same constant electrode
separations.

Profiling can be carried out along a series of parallel lines and a resistivity contour map of
the area showing iso-resistivity lines can be prepared. This will indicate areas of high
resistivity and will be useful in identifying aquifer formations.

With lateral surveys, a constant electrode spacing, selected to produce the desired depth
of the survey, is used and a is measured at different locations to yield a map of iso-
resistivity lines.
Such maps are useful for detecting changes in bedrock or aquifer depth (for example, in
tracing buried valleys), vertical discontinuities such as faults and fractured zone, changes
 in groundwater quality(including travel of contaminated water), and changes in the depth
of fresh water-salt water interfaces(especially in costal areas).

Field procedure

Essentially there are 2 methods

i) Profiling using Wenner
ii) Depth sounding using Schlumberger

Required is the determination of the thickness and lateral (spatial) extent of the aquifer, as
well as the depth to groundwater table.
1. Have some idea of general geology (aquifer, aquiclude, GWT). That means,
before starting the survey understand the geology, structure & topography of
the area under investigation.

Also ensure that no man made structures like buried pipe lines, high tension
electric wires, exist.
2. Start with depth sounding (Schlumberger method) to determine the thickness
& estimated depth of water table.
3. From the trend of the formation (aquifer) conduct additional depth sounding
(Schlumberger) at sites following the trench of the aquifer.

If there is a control point (bore hole/well) in the area, the results could be correlated &
calibrated accordingly.
4. Finally, keep the electrode spacing constant (Wenner) to map the aquifer, i.e.
conduct electrical mapping.
Use of electrical resistivity method: Some of the geophysical investigations that
can be done by the electrical resistivity method for groundwater studies are:-
i) Correlating lithology and drawing geophysical section.
ii) Bed rock profile for subsurface studies
iii) Fresh water-salt water interface separation profiling
iv) Water quality in shallow aquifers & groundwater pollution as in oil
field brine pollution, pollution by irrigation waters and pollution by sea
water intrusion, which cause change in electrical conductivity.

2. Seismic Refraction Method

Seismic refraction method involves the determination of elastic wave velocities through
geologic formations.

The method is based on the fact that elastic waves travel through different materials at
different velocities.
The waves are produced by a small dynamite explosion, sledge hammer etc. and picked up at
various points on the ground surface by set of receivers called geophones and recorded.
 Z1

Z2

Fig Seismic Refraction Field set up

With refraction seismic surveys, the geophones are uniformly spaced on a straight line from
the shot point to record the arrival time of the first shock waves. That is, these waves may
have traveled straight from the shot point to the geophones, or they may have been refracted
and reflected in the deeper layers.

By knowing the arrival time of different waves at different distances from the energy source,
the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer is calculated.
The method is more accurate.
The velocities are characteristic of particular rock in particular conditions, i.e., dry, joint,
saturated with water, weathered, etc.

Average velocities of seismic waves

Rock Formation Range of Velocities

(m/s)
Dry sand and loose soil 150-400
Alluvium 500-1500
Wet sand 600-1800
Clays 900-3000
Sand stone 2000-4300
Shale 2100-4000
Limestone 3000-6000
Igneous and metamorphic rocks 4500-6500

The refracted waves arrive at the surface only on the condition that the velocity of the
propagation in the underlying layer is higher than that in the overlying area.

Seismic waves follow the same laws of propagation as light & may be reflected or refracted
at any interface where a velocity change occurs.
Refracted and reflected shock waves will reach the more remote geophones sooner than the
straight-traveling waves if the velocity of sound in the deeper layers is much greater than that
in the surface materials.

Arriv t2
al t
time t1
(mill
secon
d)
0 X1 X2 Geophone Distance from shot pt(m)

Fig Time-distance graph

Plotting the arrival time of the first shock wave at each geophone against distance of
geophone from shot point yields a curve which for a layered profile consists of a succession
of straight-line sections.

The first section represents the first layer (or top layer) of the profile, the 2nd section the
second layer etc.
Sound velocity in each layer is calculated as the reciprocal of the slope of the corresponding
straight-line section.

A time-travel curve (time versus distance from source to geophone) is drawn and by knowing
the distance X1 to the first point on the curve where a change in slope is indicated, the depth
to the rock layer can be computed from the equation

√
X 1 V 2 −V 1
Z = 2 V 1 +V 2
1
Where V1 and V2 are the velocities of propagation through the earth and the rock layer
respectively.

Using the intercept time t1 the depth Z1 is given by the equation

t1 V 1 V 2

Z1= √ V 2 −V 1
2 2 2

The depth Z2 of the second layer is given by

 Z2=
2 ( t2
−Z 1
V 3V 1 √ V 23−V 21
V 23 −V 22 )√ V 3V 2

An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960)

√
X 2 V 3 −V 2 Z 1
Z = 2 V 3 +V 2
2
−
6
Where X2 is the horizontal distance of the second break point in the data curve

The critical angle c is given by

Sin c= V1/V2

For angle of incidence greeter than critical, there are no refractions into the deeper layers but
the waves are totally reflected.
The refraction method is faster and often finds application in
i) Locating the ground water table
ii) Determining depth to bed rock or impermeable layer and configuration (volume of
material)
iii) Locating a buried stream channel
iv) Locating faults that could act as groundwater barriers.

The velocity of propagation varies from as low as 120 m/s in dry topsoil to more than 6000
m/s in very dense rocks such as granite, limestone & basalt. The velocities in saturated strata
are somewhat greater than in unsaturated strata.

Disadvantage

Lower velocity layer can not be detected beneath the higher-velocity layers.

1.2. Subsurface Investigation of Ground water

Detailed and comprehensive study of groundwater and conditions under which it occurs can
only be made by subsurface investigation.

Whether the information needed concerns an aquifer (its location, thickness, composition,
permeability, and yield) or groundwater (its location, movement, and quality), quantitative
data can be obtained from subsurface examinations.
Test drilling furnishes information on substrata in a vertical line from the surface.

Geophysical logging techniques provide information on physical properties of geologic

formations, water quality, and well construction.

1.2.1. Test drilling

The most accurate information about the geologic profile and the depth (and the quality) of
groundwater at a given site is obtained by test drilling.
It may even be possible to do some preliminary pumping tests or slug tests on the bore hole to
estimate hydraulic properties of the aquifer or aquifers and to calculate potential well yields.

Test wells normally are of relatively small-diameter holes and can be drilled at a fraction of
the cost of full-sized wells.

When a test well indicates a favorable location, it can often be converted into a production (or
pumping well) by re-drilling or reaming to increase its diameter.
Test holes can also serve as observation wells for measuring water levels or for PS.
Two types of logs can be kept by the driller ad drilling progresses.

Geologic log

It is constructed from sampling and examination of well cuttings collected at frequent

intervals during the drilling of a well or test hole. Such logs furnish a description of the
geologic character and thickness of each stratum encountered as a function of depth, there by
enabling aquifers to be delineated.
Considering all types of logs, the geologic log is probably the most important, but preparation
of a good geologic log can be difficult.

One problem is that well cuttings are small and mixed with mud. Drill cuttings are often a
mixture of material from the bottom of the hole, drilling mud, and material from higher layers
that was still in the hole or that caved in from the wall.
Thus, the sample must be carefully analyzed. Often it is better to look for changes in samples
than at actual composition. For example, if the bailer initially yielded primarily fine
materials, and sand begins to show up, a sand layer may be reached. If gravel chips show up,
gravel layer may be reached, etc…
Similarly, a reduction in sand content of the bailer material may indicate that the bottom of a
sand bed has been reached.

Experienced drillers with good knowledge of local subsurface conditions often ‘know’ what
king of material the bit is in from its rate of advance and how it bounces, churns, sounds, or
other wise reacts to the material.

Drilling-Time log

It consists of a record of distance drilled per unit time, eg. m/h or it may consists of an
accurate record of the time, in min or sec, required to drill each unit depth of the hole.

Changes in drilling time with depth indicate discontinuities in the geologic profile. The rate
of drilling depends not only on the type of material at the bottom of the hole, but also on the
equipment (wt. Or bit, wear on cutting edges, no of blows or rotations per minute, etc. and on
the skill of the operator. Thus, there is no unique relation between type of material and drill
rate.

1.2.2. Geophysical logging

Geophysical logging involves lowering sensing devices in a bore-hole and recording a

physical parameter that may be interpreted in terms of formation characteristics; groundwater
quantity, quality, and movement; or physical structure of the bore hole.
 I. To get information about

1. Source and movement of water in the well

2. Chemical & physical characteristics of the water, including salinity, temperature,
density & viscosity.

II. To determine

3. length & setting of well casing

4. optimum length & setting of water well screens
5. porosity & water content of the formation
6. Resistivity of the formation
7. Lithology & formation boundaries
8. Thermal gradient
9. Relative quantity of water into or out of zones of water entry into the hole
10. Approximate permeability of lithologic sections penetrated by the hole.
11. Accurate depth referenced for use with other type of logs
12. Depth and thickness of thin beds or aquifers
13. Average bore hole diameter.

III. To locate
14. Position of cement grout behind casing
15. Point of entry of different quality water through leaks in casing or opening in rocks
16. Cemented & cased intervals
17. Depth of lost circulation
18. Active gas flow
19. Fissures and solution opening in open holes
20. Leaks or perforated sections in cased holes

IV) To measure inherent Radio Activity Information

The following logs are usually use.
1. Electric logging
a) Electric resistivity logging
b) Spontaneous (self)potential logging
2. Radio active logging
a) Natural gamma logging (or Gamma ray logs)
b) Gamma-gamma logging
c) Neutron logging

3. Induction logging
4. Sonic logging
5. Fluid logging

a) Temperature logging
b) Flow meter & Tracer logging

6) Caliper logging and cement bond logging

7) Photographic logging (or down hole photography)
 2. Water Wells

Water well is a hole or shaft, in most cases vertical, excavated in the earth, or sunk in to the
ground intercepting one or more water bearing strata, for bringing groundwater to the surface.

The objectives of water well is:-

To provide water with a good quality
To provide a sufficient quantity of water
To provide water for a long time
To provide water at low cost

2.1. Classification of water wells

Wells can be classified as to their methods of construction (dug wells and tube wells), their
depth (shallow wells and deep wells); and whether they are vertical or horizontal (vertical
wells and horizontal wells).

Advantages of Tube wells

1. Do not require much space.
2. Can be constructed quickly.
3. Fairly sustained yield of water can be obtained even in years of scanty rainfall.
4. Economical when deep-seated aquifers are encountered
5. Flowing artesian wells can sometimes be struck.
6. Generally good quality of water is tapped.

Disadvantages of Tube wells

1. Requires costly and complicated drilling equipment and machinery.
2. Requires skilled workers and great care to drill and complete the tube wells.
3. Installation of costly submersible pumps is required.
4. Possibility of missing fractures, fissures and joints in hard rock areas resulting in
many dry holes

2.2. Methods of well construction

Construction methods are many and varied ranging from simple digging with hand tools to
high speed drilling with sophisticated equipment. Well construction, in terms of operations,
basically includes:
 The drilling operation
 Installing the casing
 Installing the well screen and artificial gravel packing
 Grounding when needed to provide sanitary protection and well head construction
 Developing the well to insure sand free operation at maximum yield
 Installing the pump

There are different drilling methods and equipment available for drilling bore holes. The
diversity of equipment means there is no simple way to determine what drilling method is
best suited for groundwater supply bore holes. Selection of drilling equipment depends upon
the hydrogeology of the formation, diameter and depth of the production well, availability of
fund, maintenance and spaces, production capacity, volume of work, operating crew and easy
movement of the rig.
 Hand operated drilling equipment may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 15m
deep & 200mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated (soft)formations:
 Cable –tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 50m deep &
200mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated & semi-consolidated
formations;
 Small air flush rotary rigs may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 50m deep &
200mm diameter which are drilled into consolidated (hard) formations;
 A large multipurpose rotary rig could be justified for all holes, if cost, manpower, and
back-up support are not constraints and speed is all important.

Bore holes become an option for groundwater supply when water levels are deeper than, say
6-10m. They have the advantage of being able to penetrate deep into the aquifer (unlike a dug
well where dewatering becomes a problem), which means better resistance to falling water
levels, and better protection against pollution. However, they are more costly, have no
storage capacity, and often represents and ‘outside intrusion’ to the community, who cannot
be involved to any great extent in the construction processes.

2.3. Most commonly used methods for shallow tube wells construction

Shallow tube wells are constructed by boring, driving and jetting methods, and the wells
constructed by these methods are designated as bored wells, driven wells, and jetted wells,
respectively.

Boring Method

In this method the hole is constructed by the use of a selected diameter hand or power driven
anger which is turned to bore the hole to the designed depth. Cuttings are removed by pulling
and emptying the auger. It can drill to 30m or more in soft sands & claps that are free of
rocks.

Driving Method

In this method the hole is constructed by forcing a casing (well pipe) equipped with a drive
(well) point into the ground by a series of blows either manually or machine delivered on the
top of the casing. Driven wells should be installed only in soft formations that are relatively
free of cobbles or boulders. A special device called a cap or drive head protects the top of the
pipe during driving operation. After each length of pipe is hammered into the ground the top
is removed and additional sections are attached and drive as required.

Jetting method

A jetted well is a well which is constructed by means of boring equipment using water jetted
under high pressure to facilitate rapid boring. Jetting is pumping water down the pipe and out
through the well point where the force of the water losing the surround soil materials.
 2.4. Tube Wells Drilling Methods

Deep tube wells are constructed by drilling methods. The commonly used drilling methods
are Cable tool, hydraulic rotary, reverse rotary and down the hole hammer methods, and they
are discussed as follows.

Cable – Tool Drilling Method

The cable- tool method, also known as the percussion or standard method, is used to
construct wells by alternately lifting and dropping a set of drilling tools suspended on a wire
rope or cable so that with each stroke the drill bit strikes the bottom of the hole. The repeated
action of the percussion drill permits bit penetration of the under ground formations.

The loosened material and drill cuttings are raised with drilling water by the action of the bit
and the resulting slurry must be removed from the drill hole by a bailer or sand pump. In
drilling a dry hole, water must be added periodically to replace that removed with the drill
cuttings. Tools for drilling and bailing may be carried on separate lines or cables. Each cable
is spooled on a separated hoisting drum.

In cable tool or percussion drilling there are basically there major operations:
1st : the drilling of the hole by chiseling or crushing the rock, clay, or other material by the
impact of the drill bit,
2nd : removing the cuttings with a bailer as cuttings accumulate in the hole; and
3rd : driving or forcing the well casing down into the hole as the drilling proceeds.

Well casing is used in most percussion- type drilling operations. This casing is used to help
the well bore from collapsing and to prevent surface or subsurface leakage of water or
contaminants in to the well bore the well bore.
The cable tool bit (drill bit) is a shaped steel bar, generally 4 to 8 ft long. The drill bit is
suspended from a cable called the drill line, which is struck over a pulley at the top of a near
vertical mast erected over the hole. Sharper bits are used in hard rock drilling.

The major advantages of the cable-tool system as opposed to other drilling systems are listed
below.
1. Economics (relatively cheap to purchase, operate & maintain)
- lower initial equipment cost, hence lower depreciation cost
- Lower daily operating cost, including maintenance, personnel and water
requirement. (Needs trained operators with several semi-skilled assistants, but a rotary
rig need highly skilled operators & expert supervision.
- Lower transportation costs (cable tool rig is lighter & easy to transport)
- Lower rig-up time & expense
- Drilling rates comparable to rotary in hard rocks at shallow depth (for shallow wells,
in hard rocks, it comes out to be cheaper)
2. Better cuttings of sample, easily make well drillers log, (a more accurate sample for
formation can be obtained)
3. Easy identification of water bearing strata.
4. No circulation system (lesser amount of water is required during drilling operations)
5. Minimum contamination of production zones
6. Water can be tested immediately, for quality & yield from each water bearing stratum
7. Rate of groundwater can be measured
 8. Minimum water is required for drilling than in the hydraulic rotary & jetting methods,
a point for consideration I arid region.
9. Better ability to seal off undesirable zone.
10. Capability of drilling any formation
11. The well driller need not be as skilled as his counterpart in rotary drilling.

The major disadvantages of the cable tool method

1. Limitation on penetration rat (slower drilling rate in hard formations).
2. Limitation on depth
3. Lack of control over fluid flow from penetrated formations
4. The need to case the hole as drilling progress, i.e., lack of control over bore hole
stability, the need to use temporary drill casing in overburden drilling to line a hole in
soft formations.
5. Frequent drill-line failure
6. Difficulty in pulling casing from deep wells

Cable-tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for boreholes up to 50m deep and 200mm
diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated and semi-consolidated formations. Usually
drilling is started with a large diameter & the diameter is reduced telescopically after drilling
certain depths.

Conventional fluid Rotary (or Rotary Direct Circulation) Drilling Method

This method uses a rotary bit to cut the rock and a circulating drilling fluid to flash rock
cuttings to the surface. The drilling fluid is usually heavy mud which is able to support the
walls of the well and prevent them from collapsing. Generally, the drilling of bore holes by
the hydraulic rotary method requires a drill bit, a system for rotating the bit, the means for
controlling bit pressure on the formation, and a medium for removing the material displaced
by the bit.
In the conventional fluid-rotary method of drilling, drilling is accomplished by rotating a drill
pipe and bit by means of a power drive. The drill bit cuts and breaks up the rock material as it
penetrates the formation. Drilling fluid is pumped down through the rotating drill pipe and
holes in the bit. This fluid swirls in the bottom of the hole, picking up material broken by the
bit, and then flows upwards in the well bore, carrying the cuttings to the surface. The drill
pipe and bit move progressively downward, deepening the hole as the operation proceeds.
At the land surface, the drilling fluid flows into a settling pit where the cuttings settle to the
bottom. From the settling (or mud) pit the fluid overflows into a second pit from which it is
picked up though the suction hose of the mud pump and re-circulated through the drill pipe.
In the rotary drilling method the well casing is not introduced into the hole until drilling
operations are completed, the walls of the hole being supported by the pressure (weight) of
the drilling fluid and/ or mud cake formed on the wall of the bore hole. Such drilling is
widely practiced in Ethiopia.

Advantages of direct hydraulic rotary drilling technology

1. Rapid drilling rate (relatively high penetration rates)

2. The avoidance of placement of a casing during drilling
3. The convenience of electric logging
4. Ability to drill and maintain borehole in a wide variety of formations to depths in
excess of those required for water wells
 5. Ability to drill small diameter, low cost borehole for formation sampling &
geophysical logging. This information leads to the final well design. In most cases the
pilot borehole is used for this purpose.
6. Low cost or well construction in soft, unconsolidated alluvium, particularly with deep
greater than 300m.
7. Large diameter holes can be drilled more economically by the rotary method.

Disadvantages includes:-
1. A more complex drilling system than with the cable-tool
2. Relatively high equipment capital cost.
3. Higher bit cost, particularly in hard formations
4. Engineering & control drilling-fluid properties (Reynolds number, density, gel
strength, velocities) critical to well logging, completion, & development.
5. High noise levels that create operating problems in urban areas.
6. Greater daily operating cost
7. Relatively high makeup water requirements
8. Relatively High equipment transportation cost
9. High cost for drilling karstic formations
10. The need to remove mud cake during well development
11. Not suitable for boulder formation and requires more water, repair & maintenance.

Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling method

A modification of direct circulation rotary method is known as reverse circulation rotary

method. In this system, the drilling fluid with cutting return inside the drill string & is
discharged into a settling tank or pit. Downward flow is in the annulus between the drill
string & borehole. The system components are similar to those of the direct rotary except for
rotation.
The reverse circulation rotary differ from direct rotary rigs in the following respects:
a. the rotary table has lower speed range & fewer number of speed
b. The drill pipes used are larger in size & are flanged and jointed
c. The pump used is centrifugal
d. Air lift method is used in heavier rigs for drilling deeper depths.

As the diameter of the drill pipe is relatively small, the velocity of the drilling fluid in the
pipe is high. This results in two advantages:
1. There is no need for the rotary bits to crash the formation at the bottom of the hole
into pieces.
2. There is no need to use heavy drilling fluid for bringing the cuttings to the surface &
clear water can be used. Thus the problem of clogging of the aquifer around the well
by mud intrusion is greatly reduced.

It is probably the most rapid method of drilling and hence it has become increasingly popular:
Reverse circulation rotary drilling has a number of advantages under some drilling
conditions. These include:
1. Lower capital cost than equivalent-capacity direct rotary equipment. It is gaining
popularity because it is economical & adapted to alluvium.
2. Most economical system for drilling large-diameter boreholes in soft, unconsolidated
alluvial formations.
3. Formation sampling is more accurate than with direct rotary.
 4. High return velocity lowers drilling fluid viscosity requirement.
5. Lower noise levels with insulated compressors
6. Lower transportation costs than equivalent-capacity direct rotary.
7. Simpler and less costly circulating system.
8. Lower bit costs than with direct rotary.
9. Lower development pumping time where water without additives is used as drilling
fluid.
10. The boring is done without a casing and hydrostatic pressure is used to support the
walls of the bore-hole during construction

Disadvantages include:
1. Drilling efficiency declines rapidly below 800 to 1000 ft.
2. Large water supply requirements. It requires five times the amount of water required
for direct rotary drilling.
3. The system is not suitable for drilling large boulders, consolidated rock formations,
and karstic formations. When drilling long sections of clay and shale, drill fluid
additives must be used.
4. Difficult to use where the static water level is less than 15ft.
5. Boreholes smaller than 18in can not be drilled due to the eroding effect of the higher
velocity fluid down the annulus.
6. Maintaining borehole alignment is more difficult than with direct rotary because of
the relationship of the drill collar diameter & weight to the large diameter borehole.
7. SP & resistivity logs are not reliable where water without additives is used as the
drilling fluid. It is unsuitable for exploratory test drilling.

Down the hole Hammer Drilling method

In this method pneumatic hammer operated at the lower end of the drill pipe is used. It
combines the percussion effect of cable tool drilling & the rotary action of rotary drilling.

In hard rock, compressed air can be used to blow out cuttings. This method is often used
in conjunction with a special bit that has a hammer action as it is rotated. This method is
called down-the –hole-hammer drilling and is commonly used to bore through crystalline
rocks.

The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.

The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.
Factors affecting the drilling rate

1. Formation characteristics-Strength, abrasiveness, drill ability, etc.

2. Mechanical factors- Wt. On bit, rotary speed, condition of bit, bit type & diameter.
3. Hydraulic factors- circulation rates, friction losses
4. Drilling fluid properties- density, viscosity, etc
5. Intangible factor- personnel efficiency and rig efficiency.
Down the hole hammer (DTH) drilling is the technique of drilling where by hammering
action at the bottom of the well is incorporated to the conventional rotary action. With such
drilling method penetration of about five meters per hours in hard formation is possible.

Percussion and rotary methods of well drilling are usually uneconomical in water well
drilling in hard rock formations due to the slow penetration rate, high bit rate, and high
maintenance cost of the machinery. Air-operated DTH drilling method has proved to be the
best for the construction of water wells in hard rock areas.
 2.5. Drilling Fluid

Drilling fluid can simply be defined as the combination of fluids and solids required in
certain drilling processes to facilitate the production and removal of cuttings from a
borehole.
The conveying of the drilled cuttings to the surface is still an essential requirement but in
addition, the drilling fluid must perform other functions such as:-
1. Cooling the drill bit
2. The maintenance of hole stability in preventing caving and sloughing of
unconsolidated formation.
3. Lubrication of the mud pump, bit bearings, and the drilling string & thus reducing
the torque required to turn it.

Basic drilling fluids are:-

1. Air
2. Foam
3. Water
4. Polymer
5. Water based clay mud (e.g. bentonite)

The five-drilling fluid systems are:-

1. Water base mud
2. Oil base mud
3. Low solids mud
4. Air, gas or moist flush system
5. Low velocity foam system

Water base mud

Drilling mud is a mixture of clays, water & chemicals pumped down the drill string & up the
annulus during drilling in order to lubricate the system, carry away rock cuttings, maintain
the required pressure at the bit end, and provide an aid to formation evaluation, etc.
It consists of
1. a liquid phase
2. a suspended-particle(colloidal) phase, and
3. cuttings entrained during drilling

The oldest and probably the most widely used drilling fluid for water well drilling is a water-
based mud. In this fluid the continuous liquid phase is fresh water. Bentonite or other clay-
like materials, in suspension in the water, are adjusted to give the required mud viscosity, gel-
strength (the ability to form a semi-solid, jelly-like –colloidal solution when the mud is at
rest) and filtration property (the formation of a wall or filter cake to prevent water from the
fluid invading the formation adjacent to the bore which may otherwise cause instability).
Other chemicals may be added to control and overcome specific problems. Salt water may be
used occasionally as the continuous phase to overborne formation clay swelling problems but
salt is undesirable in water well & thus is rarely used.
Oil Base mud

These are drilling fluids in which oil is the continuous phase and water is the dispersed phase.
As with salt water-base muds, the oil base muds are used to prevent the hydration of the
native clays which may reduce permeability, it also has other advantages in oil well drilling
and completion. Because of the obvious contamination problem oil-based muds have no
application in water well drilling.

Low solid Mud

This is a drilling fluid in which the solids content is less than 10% by weight or a mud weight
of less than 2.6 parts per liter. For water well drilling the continuous liquid phase is water &
the solids are CMC (sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose) GEC (Hydroxyethyl cellulose) &
other polymers.

Air, Gas or Mist Flush system

Of these, air has the greatest application in water well drilling. This may be used for air flush
lifting of cuttings from rotary drilled holes or may be used to operate and flush cuttings from
down the hole hammers.

Air flush drilling is generally very much faster than water or mud drilling and bit life is
extended considerably as a result of the very rapid removal of drilled cuttings from the face
of the bit. However, problems arise when water is encountered in the hole. It is impossible to
restart drilling below a pressure head of water in the hole which exceeds the air pressure
available at the bit. Finally, the very high up- hole velocity required to lift the cuttings (a
minimum of 900 m/min) means that large drill pipe, to reduce the annular area, and / or very
large compressors are needed to achieve the velocity.
Obviously the large pipe, with its extra weight, limits the drilling depth capacity of the drill
rig whilst the large compressors have high capital and running costs.

Low velocity Foam system

This is an extreme low solids system in which a slow moving column of foam transports the
cutting up the hole with the particles suspended and separated in bubble clusters. Very low
water & air volumes are required. Generally the system improves in efficiency as the annular
area increases. It can often be used, to considerable advantage, instead of the reverse
circulation system.

The material used for foam flush drilling is a concentrated foaming agent with good emulsion
and foam stability, which gives small, tight, thin –walled bubbles. The foam column has a
cuttings carrying capacity far in excess of conventional water-based muds and, with a very
low hydrostatic head, provides bottom-hole conditions which allow extremely good bit
penetration. The low up-hole velocity (about 15 m/min) of the foam flush drilling system
reduces hole erosion and of course, significantly lowers compressed air costs.

The addition of HEC based polymers & other additives to the foam, to give a “Modified
Stable Foam” (MSF), increases the foam bubble strength and thus the lifting capacity of the
foam column. The MSF can handle water which may be flowing into the hole, can stabilize
swelling & sloughing shale formations, limit the loss of fluid into porous formations by the
formation of a thin wall cake, reduce the tendency for “balling-up” (when clay particles
adhere to one another) and the formation of mud collars when drilling in sticky clay and be
highly successful in bridging fissures in “lost circulation” zone.

The principal limitation to foam flush drilling is in conditions where a high hydrostatic head
is necessary, foam densities are very low, ranging from 0.05 to 0.1kg/liter. Therefore, high
hydrostatic head is not possible; however, this is rarely a water well drilling requirement.

The quantity of low solids or foam additives to prepare a drilling fluid is roughly one fifth (by
weight) of the quantity of bentonite which would have to be used to achieve similar results.
Thus the use of the low solids mud or the foam flush system can affect a significant economy
in the transport of the drilling fluid additives in the field.

Drilling Fluid requirements

1. The drilling mud must be thick enough to hold the hole from caving
2. The drilling mud should be able to keep the cuttings in suspension where circulation
is stopped for extending the drill rod or any other reasons.
3. The mud should be thin enough for efficiency.

Drilling Fluid Control program

Material used by the driller to prepare the drilling fluid should be composed of fresh, non-
polluted water and suitable fluid or mud additives to meet the viscosity specification required.
All fluid additives used will have to comply with recognized industry standards and practices,
and they should be applied and used as prescribed by the manufacturer. It is expressly
understood that toxic and /or dangerous substances will not be added to the drilling fluid.

Additionally, the driller is normally responsible for maintaining the quality of the drilling
fluid to assure
a) Protection of water bearing and potential water bearing formations exposed in the
bore hole, and
b) Good representative samples of the formation materials.

The drilling fluid properties required will depend on:-

i) the type and size of drilling equipment to be used, and
ii) Down hole conditions anticipated or encountered.

Sample for the measurement or testing of drilling fluid properties are those caught at the rig
pump suction with care taken to assure a true and representative sample.

Tests are to be conducted:

1) every 15m of depth or
2) every four circulating hours or
3) Whenever conditions appear to have change or problem arises.

The driller must maintain current records on the site at all times to show
i) time, depth and results of all mud tests, and
ii) all materials added to the system-kind, amount, time and depth.
 2.6. Well completion

The drilling of the borehole alone does not complete the construction of an efficient well.
Well completion involves:-

1. placement of casing
2. cementing of casing
3. placement of well screens
4. gravel packing

Well Casing

Reasons for using casing in a water well or borehole.

1. to prevent the collapse of the walls of the borehole (i.e. structural support against
caving in) serving as a lining.
2. to exclude, along with grouting, pollutants either from surface or subsurface from
entering the water sources
3. to provide a channel for conveying the water to the surface.
4. to provide a channel for conveying the water into the well for injection purpose
5. to provide a housing for the pump mechanism
6. to provide a channel for conveying a cement grout in the well for cementation purpose
7. serving as a reservoir for a gravel pack

Materials commonly employed for well casings are wrought iron, alloyed or unalloyed steel,
PVC, concrete, etc. Steel is by far the most common casing material in water wells. In cable-
tool drilling, the casing is driven into place; in rotary methods, the casing is smaller than the
drilled hole and hence can be lowered into place. Joints normally consist of threaded
couplings or are welded, the objective being to secure water tightness.

The conditions which a casing (material and type) must satisfy before it can be approved for
use as a water well casing are as follows. The casing must be:

1) strong enough to resist the pressure exerted by the surrounding material

2) able to resist the internal pressures due to water drilling and cementation fluids.
3) Able to withstand compressive loads during installation into well
4) Able to withstand tensile forces during its installation into a well or pulling out of
borehole.
5) Able to resist corrosive forces by soil or water environment (should last 20-40 years)

Types of casings

There are four types of water well casings. They are classified according to function: surface
casing conductor casing intermediate casing, and pump housing casing. Each category has
some common requirements.
1.) A smooth interior to permit the installation and operation of drilling tools,
development tools, and pumps
2.) Physical properties adequate to withstand the stresses of installation and other forces
that may be applied during well completion, development, and operation.
3.) Casing material selected to ensure satisfactory life in the well environment.
 I. Surface casing

Surface casing is installed from ground surface through upper strata of unstable or fractured
materials into a stable and, if possible, relatively impermeable material. Such surface casing
serves several purposes, including.
1) supporting unstable materials during drilling,
2) reducing loss of drilling fluids
3) facilitating installation or removal of other casing
4) helping in placing a sanitary seal, and to seal off the well against the inflow of
polluted surface water
5) serving as a reservoir for a gravel pack
6) This casing may be temporary during drilling or it may be permanent.
7)
8) Recommended minimum diameters of surface casing are given in table below (after
USBR)
9) Surface casing diameter, cm
Well yield, Nominal pump Natural /Gravel-packed Nominal screen
m3/day chamber casing developed wells wells diameter, cm
diameter, cm
<270 15 25 45 5
270-680 20 30 50 10
680-1900 25 35 55 15
1900-4400 30 40 60 20
4400-7600 35 45 65 25
7600-1400 40 50 70 30
1400-19000 40 60 80 35
19000-27000 60 70 90 40
II conductor casing

A high-capacity well design usually specifies that conductor casing be installed and cemented
to a minimum of 15m, or to the first impervious formation, in order to prevent well
contamination from the surface. Conductor casing also stabilizes the upper borehole while
drilling. It also serves as reservoir for gravel packing. It serves as a foundation on which to
suspend the well casing and screen to avoid buckling and to prevent its movement if the
gravel and formation should settle.

III Intermediate casing

Intermediate strings of casing may be required to facilitate completion in deep boreholes

where difficult drilling conditions are encountered (hydraulic shales, loss of circulation
zones, etc.). A multiple-diameter casing program may be required for deep cable-tool wells
where the casing cannot be advanced to total depth in a single string by driving or jacking.

IV Pump Housing casing

Pump bowl diameter, depth of setting, and diameter of column pipe are established by
maximum anticipated production, lift, and total head. Pump housing casing diameter and
length are based on the pump design needed to meet these requirements.
Normally, the pump chamber casing should have a nominal diameter at least 5 cm larger than
the nominal diameter of the pump bowls.

Methods of casing Installation

1) Driven (well point)

A hole is bored with a hand or power operated auger slightly large in diameter than the well
point.
The hole should be vertical and extend as far as possible into the water-bearing formation.

The driven point and the appropriate number of sections of riser pipe (in lengths of 1.5m or
more) are assembled and inserted in the bored hole. If used, couplings shall have recessed
ends & tapered threads so that when assembled no pipe threads are exposed. Pipe thread
compound have to be applied to the threads to make the joints water tight. A malleable iron
drive cap has to be fastened to the top of the assembly. Driving has to be done with a driving
tool or suspended on a tripod or derrick. The riser pipe is to be guided to insure that the well
is vertical and if threaded turned with a wrench from time to time in a clock wise direction to
insure that the threaded sections remain tight.

2) Jacking

Jacking is used to install casing when drilling wells with cable-tools. A pull down spread
footing has to be installed around the well and the jacking force on the casing achieved by
pulling down on the casing with the ram end of hydraulic jacks while the cylinder end is
secured to the spread footing.

3) Driven (Drive shoe)

Casing may be driven either by percussion from the cable tool string, or by a pneumatic tool
designed to drive casing through unconsolidated formations. When permanent well casing is
driven, a standard drive shoe has to be welded or threaded on the lower end of the string of
casing. The shoe will have a beveled and tempered cutting edge of metal forged, cast or
fabricated for this purpose.

4) Lowering

The lowering method is used to install a jointed casing string in a re-drilled hole. The casing
has to be lowered with the drilling machine, utilizing clamps, elevators or other mechanical
devices.

5) Floating

Where the casing load is extremely large it may be desirable to “float” the casing into place.
A float collar has to be installed on the casing at the appropriate place in the casing string or a
float plug has to be installed in the casing string near the bottom. Where a float collar or float
shoe is to be used a casing size dummy (12.2m minimum length) has to be turn into the hole
first to ensure that the hole is straight or free from obstruction which could result in stuck
casing.
 Method of Joining Casing

Casing lengths have to be joined watertight by a method appropriate to the material used so
that the resulting joint has the same structural integrity as the casing itself. If metallic casing
is welded, the standards of the American Welding society shall apply.
If threaded and coupled joints are used, couplings shall be appropriate so that when tight all
threads will be buried in the lip of the coupling.
Plastic casing sections have to be joined watertight by either solvent welding or fusion
welding in accordance with the directions off the manufacture of the materials used, or by the
use of threaded and coupled joints.
When concrete pipe is used, the casing has to be joined in accordance with standards of the
American society for Testing and Materials or the American Water Works Association;
special care must be taken to avoid chipping or cracking the casing.
Casing made of other materials (aluminum, Copper, brass, fiberglass, etc.) shall be joined in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction.

Design of Well Casing and Housing pipe

The design includes the selection of a suitable material, diameter and thickness of pipe.
The size of the well should be properly chosen since it significantly affects the cost of well
construction. It must be large enough to accommodate the pump that is expected to be
required for the head and discharge (yield) with proper clearance. The diameter must also be
chosen to give the desired percentage of open area in the screen so that the entrance velocities
near the screen do not exceed certain values so as to reduce the well losses and hence the
drawdown.

Table Recommended well diameters for various yields

Anticipated well Nominal size of Size of well Casing

yield, 1/mm pump bowl, cm Minimum, cm Optimum, cm
400 10 12.5 15
400-600 12.5 15 20
600-1400 15 20 25
1400-2200 20 25 30
2200-3000 25 30 35
3000-4500 30 35 40
4500-6000 35 40 50
6000-10000 40 50 60

a) The diameter of the housing pipe should be at least 5 cm more in diameter

than the nominal diameter of the pump.
b) The depth of housing pipe below the ground level is selected such that the
pump is always submersed in water. It must set a few meters below the lowest
draw down level, taking into account the seasonal fluctuations in the spring
level or water level, interference from adjoining tube wells and the likely
lowering of the water table due to future development in the area.
 c) The diameter of the pipe of the well section below the pump housing is fixed
by the permissible velocity (1.5-5m/s) of water through the pipe. A velocity of
order of 2.5-3m/s is found to be most suitable. The usual practice is to provide
constant diameter pipe.

Bore Size and Well Depth

Both influence the yield of wells.

Bore size
To facilitate the lowering of the casing pipe the diameter of the bore has to be at least 5cm
bigger in diameter than the casing.
If gravel pack is to be used, the minimum diameter should be twice the thickness of the
gravel pack plus the outside diameter of the casing pipe.

Well Depth

The depth of a tube well depends upon the locations of water-bearing formations, desired
yields of the well and economic considerations. It is determined from the lithological log of
the area and confirmed from the electrical resistivity and drilling-time logs. The well is
usually drilled up to the bottom of the aquifer so that aquifer thickness is available, permitting
greater well yield.

Well Granting and sealing off contaminating Water

The drilled hole is usually larger than the well casing. This creates an irregularly shaped
annular space around the well casing. It is essential to fill this space with grout.
dhole= dcasing+(7-15)cm

It is also necessary to seal out water of unsuitable quality strata above a fresh water aquifer.

Well Grouting

Well grouting involves filling the space around the pipe or casing (usually between the casing
and the wall of the well) with a suitable an impervious material.

Reasons for well grouting are

1. to protect an aquifer, or aquifers, from entry of contaminating fluids flowing

into it (unsatisfactory quality)
2. to prevent undesirable water movement from one aquifer to another for the
purposes of maintaining quality or preserving the hydraulic response of
producing zone(s) (Inter-flow from contaminated aquifer to freshwater aquifer
through the gravel pack).
3. Protecting the well against the entry of unwanted water from the surface or a
subsurface zone.
4. to protect the casing against exterior corrosive and also to assure structural
integrity of casing against external pressure and buckling. To make the casing
stay tight in the drilled hole.
Prior to grouting the annular space should be flushed to assure that the space is open and
ready to receive the sealing material. Grouting should be done in one continuous operation in
which the annular space is filled.
Materials mostly used in well grouting are:-
1. concrete
2. Sand cement
3. Neat cement
4. Bentonite clay

The usefulness of clay as a sealant in well construction is limited to instance where drying out
and washing away cannot occur. Generally, clays are usually not suitable as sealants under
the following conditions
i) when the sealants will be in contact with aquifers
ii) wherever structural strength or stability of the sealant is required
iii) wherever the sealant might dry out
iv) Wherever flowing or moving water might break down the sealant.
v) When shrinkage of the sealant might occur

Methods of Installation of Grout

a) Bailer dumping
b) Gravity filling without tremie method
c) Tremine method (grout pipe tremie)
d) Positive placement-Exterior method-pumping or forced injection by pressure
e) Positive placement-Interior method-Two plug
f) Positive placement-Interior method-upper plug
g) Positive placement-Interior method-Capped casing
h) Continuous injection method
i) Grout displacement method, well depth < 30m

Positive placement of grout by tremie, pumping, or pressure is strongly recommended. It is

important that the grout be introduced at the bottom of the open to be grouted to ensure that
the zone is properly sealed.

Sealing off contaminating Water (sanitary protection of Wells)

Tube wells constructed for drinking water supply should be protected against pollution.
Therefore, upon completion of the well, the driller shall install a suitable threaded, flanged, or
welded cap or compression seal so as to prevent any pollutants from entering the well. The
general cause of pollution of shallow aquifers and the requirements of the locations of wells
for sanitary protection apply equally to tube wells.

Protecting the top section of a tube well from entry of contaminants:- The watertight casing
of any well shall extend not less than 30 cm above the pump house floor or final ground level
elevation and not less than 60cm above the normally anticipated flood level of record. Any
equipment which will permit direct open access to the well shall also meet the above height
requirements and shall be sealed or screened so as to prevent entrance of foreign matter or
contaminants. The ground immediately surrounding the top of the well casing shall be sloped
away from the well, extending at least 60cm in all directions. Cement slab is constructed
around the casing to protect surface with infiltration.
Common causes of contamination and their paths:- The followings the are some common
causes and paths of entry of contaminated surface water into the tube well:
1. Between the pump and the well casing
2. Around the well casing
3. Improperly placed gravel pack
4. Reverse flow through the pump
5. Subsidence of the soil or aquifer around the well casing due to sand pumping.

Water well Screens

A water well screen is usually a pipe with slots or openings along its wall. Wells that obtain
water from sand and gravel formations (unconsolidated formations) require the use of well
screens for proper completion. Well screen serves as the intake component of a well and
support and stabilizes the aquifer and filter zone and in the case of gavel envelope wells, it
filters the pack. That is,

-Well screen permits water to enter the well from the saturated aquifer, allows a maximum
amount of water to enter the well with a minimum hydraulic resistance.
-Prevents sand movement into the well
-Stabilizes the sides of the hole
Holes in hard rock formations with large fissures would not generally require screening.
Groundwater can directly enter into an uncased well.
The basic requirements of a well screen are:
i) it should be resistant to corrosion and deterioration,
ii) it should be strong enough to prevent collapse of a hole,
iii) it should offer minimum resistance to the flow of water, and
iv) size and shape of each slot
v) thickness and material of screen

Edward E. Johnson (1966) listed the following as the desirable features for a properly
designed well screen:
i) openings in the form of slots which are continuous and uninterrupted
around the circumference of the screen
ii) Close spacing of slot openings to provide the maximum percentage of
open area.
iii) V-shaped slot openings that widen inward
iv) Single metal construction to avoid galvanic corrosion.
v) Adaptability to different ground water and aquifer conditions by the use of
various materials
vi) Ample strength to resist the force to which the screen may be subjected
during and after installation.
vii) Full series of accessories to facilitate screen installation and well
completion operations.

Screen strength

The choice of screen material may be dictated by the strength requirements. The three loads
(or forces) imposed on a screen are column load (vertical compression), tensile load
(extending forces), and collapse pressure (horizontal forces).
The screen portion is especially weak so it must have collapse, tensile and column strengths
as high as possible. It must also withstand impact loads during transportation and also during
installation, filter packing and well development. Thus, the quality of the wire and rod
material, and the manufacturing process is extremely important. It must withstand
incrustation and corrosion.

Screen Material (material Selection)

Natural groundwater contains various substances which corrode metal and which generate
incrustation. Completely neutral ground water seldom exists. An anti-corrosive screen
material should be used which will also protect against acid or chlorine used during well
development or rehabilitation. The materials most commonly used for well screens are
stainless steel, silicon bronze, silicon red brass, galvanized iron, mild steel, plastic, reinforced
fiber glass, etc. However, the choice should be made on the basis of chemical analysis of the
water or prior knowledge of the water quality.

Experience has shown that the extended screen life afforded by stainless steel and bronze
makes them the most economical in the long run. Silicon red brass gives good services in
non-aggressive waters. Galvanized iron and low carbon steel screens have limited life, and
they are most suitable for temporary wells or for observation wells.

Length of Well screen

The optimum length of well screen is based on the thickness of the aquifer, available
drawdown, and nature of stratification of the aquifer. In virtually every aquifer, certain zones
will transmit more water than others. Thus, the intake part of the well must be placed in those
zones having the highest hydraulic conductivity.

To prevent rapid clogging, the minimum length of the well screen for a non-gravel pack well
is designed on the basis of the following equation (Walton, 1962)
Q0
h = A0 V e
Where h= minimum length of the well screen, m
A0 = effective open area per meter length of the well screen, m2
Ve= entrance velocity at the screen, m/min

In the cased well screen in a gravel-pack well, the average value of the K of aquifer and the
gravel pack is used to determine the entrance velocity at the screen.
It is recommended that a screen length greater than this value should be provided wherever
possible to keep the entrance velocity lower than 3.0cm/s, in order to ensure a larger life of
the well.

The well screen is generally designed so that it fits the aquifer. However, generally, the
screen length may be selected by the following criteria:

I. When the formation being screened is homogeneous and the

ground water is under artesian
 1. If less than 7.5m thick, use a length equal to 70% of the formation thickness.
2. If less between 7.5m and 15m thick, use a length equal to 75% of the formation
thickness.
3. If more than 15m thick, use a length equal to 80% of the formation thickness.

The screen should be best positioned at equal distance between the top and bottom of the
aquifer. The screen should never be placed less than a minimum depth (say 5m) below
ground, as this would open the borehole to pollution from the surface.

II. When the formation being screened is not homogeneous and the
groundwater is under artesian pressure. In this case, it is best to
screen the most permeable strata. Select the more permeable
sections from :

1. Laboratory tests of permeability, if representative samples are available.

2. Sieve analysis
3. Geophysical logging techniques
4. Visual inspection, if TV or photographic coverage of entire interval is available.

III. If the formation being screened is homogeneous and the ground

water is unconfined (water table conditions) theory and
experience have shown that screening the bottom one-third of the
formation
IV. If the formation being screened is not homogeneous (highly
stratified) and is under unconfined conditions the principles of
design are the same as in the case of non-homogeneous artesian
aquifer.

Minimum Length of screen: - The minimum length of the screen is the one that is required to
keep the entrance velocity through the opening less than the permissible value (0.1 ft/sec). An
entrance velocity greater than the permissible value, will result in excessive pumping of sand.

Well screen Diameter

Screen diameter is selected to satisfy a basic principle: enough open area must be provided so
that the entrance velocity of the water generally does not exceed the design standard of 3.0
cm/sec. Screen diameter can be adjusted within rather narrow limits after the length of the
screen and size of the screen opening have been selected. Well yields are affected by screen
diameter, although increasing the screen diameter has much less impact on well yield than
increasing the screen length.

Slot size of water well screens

Screen openings depend upon the gradation of the sediment and the size of the filter pack.
The slot size of the water well screen has to be precise and accurate. Too large slot size
allows sand to flow into the well and too small slot size prevents sand from entering the well,
impeding smooth water flow. In order to obtain a large volume of water without sand, the
exact slot size should be determined as follows:

I. Homogeneous Formations
1. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
overlain by essentially non-caving formations, the slot size shall be that which retains
30% of the aquifer sample.
2. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
over-lain by unstable formation, the slot size shall be which retains 50% of the aquifer
sample.
3. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is
overlain by an essentially non-caving formation, the slot size shall be that which
retains 40% of the aquifer samples.
4. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is
overlain by a caving formation, the aperture size shall be that which retains 60% of
the aquifer sample.
5. For conditions between the extremes listed, the driller shall interpolate to obtain the
proper screen slot size.

II Non-Homogeneous Formation
6. Where formation to be screened has layers of differing grain size and gradations, use
the following rule:-
If the 50%of size of the coarsest layer (C.L) is less than 4 x 50% of the finest layer
(FL), i.e, if 50%C.L.< 4x50%F.L., the slot size shall be selected on the basis of the
finest layer, (F.L) or for each specific layer as indicated in 1,2,3,4, or 5.
7. If the water is corrosive or the accuracy of the chemical analysis is in doubt, select
slot size that will retain 10% more than as indicated in the above paragraphs.
Generally no allowance is required for stainless steel.
8. Where fine sand overlies coarse sand, use the fine sand size slot for the top 60cm of
the underlying coarse sand. The coarse size aperture shall not be larger than twice the
fine sand size slot.

For a filter(gravel) packed well:- A filter pack prevents sand from flowing into the well, but
the size of the filter material has to be suitable for the grain size of the aquifer material and
the slot size of the screen must be suitable for the size of the filter material. The width retains
90% of the gravel pack. The screen opening is selected to prevent most of the pack from
passing. The generally recommended range is between 10% and 20% (occasionally as high as
30%) of the envelope material to pass.

Types of well screens

The types of well screens in use are listed as below:

i) Perforated pipe
ii) Punched and slotted pipe
iii) Reinforced wire wrapped punch pipe
iv) Louvered pipe
v) Continuous slot wire wound screen
The continuous-slot type of well screen provides more inlet area per square meter of screen
surface than any other design. It is the most efficient and can be closely matched to aquifer
gradations.
The best type of opening is the V-shaped slot that widens towards the inside of the screen, i.e.
opening beveled inside.

Methods of screen Emplacement (Installation of Well Screens)

The method of installing well screens is influenced by the design of the well, the drilling
method and problems encountered during drilling. For naturally developed wells, the
common methods are:-

1. pull back method

2. Bail- down method
3. Open-hole method
4. Wash-down method
5. Driving

In gravel-packed wells: bail-down open hole and double casing (modified pull-back method)
are used.

Artificial Gravel Pack

A gravel pack (or filter pack consists of clean sand or gravel of selected grain size and
gradation which is installed in the annular space between the screen and the wall of the well
bore. The pack has a larger average grain size and usually a smaller coefficient of uniformity
than the aquifer material.

The usefulness of gravel pack in unconsolidated formation water well can be summarized as
follows:

i) it prevents or minimizes greatly the flow of sand from the aquifer into the screen
thus improving the quality of water, and reducing the wear and tear on pumps.
ii) it permits use of a larger screen slot size and consequent larger open area so that
entrance velocity is lowered and head losses to the well are reduced.
iii) it increase the effective diameter of the well to some extent since the filter has
higher permeability than the formation. This increases the efficiency and specific
capacity of a well and tends to reduce the possibility of excess sand production.
iv) it fills the space between the borehole wall and lining pipe, and thus prevents
formation slumping

No all water bearing formations require artificial gravel pack. Ellithope (1970) recommends
the use of artificial gravel

1. To stabilize fine grained, poorly sorted sand aquifers and to avoid sand pumping.
2. To permit the use of larger slot openings and the resultant higher well efficiency in
fine grained aquifers.
3. In formations of alternating zones of coarse and fine aquifer material, it is difficult to
position screens of various slot sizes accurately. The use of an artificial gravel pack
will permit the use of a single slot size screen and eliminate the positioning problem.
 4. In deep aquifers, it may be less expensive to set a small diameter, artificially gravel-
packed screen in an under-reamed section of the hole than to ream the full diameter
hole to its full depth.
5. In case of loosely cemented, fine-grained sandstone aquifers, when a well is finished
as an open hole, some fine sand particles slough from the walls of the hole, resulting
in sand pumping well. Wells in such aquifer can be constructed successfully with an
artificial gravel pack.

Gravel pack Material

Careful selection of gravel for packing is very important for the life of the well. The
following conditions must be satisfied before a gravel pack material can be used in a water
well;

1. The filter pack should consist of clean, well rounded grains that are smooth and
uniform.
2. The gravel pack should be siliceous (quartz) with a limit of 5% by weight of
calcareous material.
3. The filter should not contain more than 2% by weight of thin, flat or elongated pieces.
4. The filter should be obtained from an approved source and should consist of hard,
rounded particles with an average specific gravity of not less than 2.5
5. Not more than 1% by weight of the material should have a specific gravity of 2.25 or
less.
6. Gravel pack should be free of mica, shale, clay, and organic impurities of any kind.
7. It should not contain an iron or manganese in a form or quantity that will adversely
affect the water quality.
8. Gravel pack should be free of pollutants. There must be no chance of contamination
of the filter material during mixing.

Disinfection of Filter Material:- The filter material is adequately disinfected during

installation with chlorine solution having a 50mg/l free –chlorine residual. Filter pack should
be introduced uniformly and continuously to minimize or eliminate hydraulic segregation and
bridging.

Design criteria for Gravel pack

Installation of a properly designed filter pack extends well life and reduces maintenance costs
of wells, pumps, and meters. The basic principle in the design of the gravel pack is that the
grading of the gravel pack must be correctly chosen in relation to the particle size distribution
of the water bearing formation.

d 50 of gravel pack
If gravel-pack ratio (GPR) = d50 of aquifer = 4 to 5, generally have high efficiency.
GPR= 7-10 wells are less efficient
> 10 considerable sand is pumped
> 20 failure of well
Most commercial filter packs have Uc of approximately 2. In certain areas, however, filter
packs with Uc of 4 to 5 are used occasionally with good results.
Choice of gravel pack particle size

1. Minimum gravel pack particle size

D10 gravel pack particle size
D 10 ofaquifer particle size
=6
2. Maximum gravel pack particle size

D50 gravel pack particle size

D50 of aquifer particle size =10

Thickness of filter pack

From a practical viewpoint, filter pack are usually about 10 to 20 cm thick. Generally, the
thinner the filter the better it is. However, the thickness of the gravel pack should not
ordinarily be less than 7.5cm.

There are two types of gravel packing, which are uniform grain size and graded grain size
pack. The former is widely accepted because the size of opening of the screen can be
controlled. The practice in EWWCA is packing of wells with uniform grain size gravel.

2.7. Water Well Development

A tube well is not completely ready for use just after construction. The tube well can
function successfully only after proper development.

Water well development is a process where by the mud cake or compacted borehole wall,
resulting from drilling activity, is broken down; the mud cake liquefied and drawn with
other fines into the well. This material is then removed by bailing or pumping. Well
development, therefore, stabilizes the walls of a well adjacent to the screen by a process
which removes fine particle from the formation immediately surrounding the well screen,
leaving coarser particles to contact and surround the screen.

Tube wells are developed to increases their specific capacity, prevent sanding and obtain
maximum economic well life. Development work is necessary step in completing all types
of wells. Most wells will not perform at maximum efficiency if they are not properly
developed.

The main objectives of well development are:-

1. to correct any damage to or clogging of the water bearing formation ; i.e., to
remove mud or clay particles which may have blocked the water movement
from the aquifer into the well.
2. to increase the porosity and improve the permeability of the water bearing
formation in the vicinity of the well.
 3. to stabilize the sand formation (gravel pack) around a screened well and the
formation immediately
4. to reduce drawdown in the well during production or pumping.

Development is necessary in all gravel packed wells and other screened wells except when
the screen is formed of fine wire mesh located in a highly permeable formation.
The benefits which result from well development are:
1. sand pumping during well operation will be eliminated to a greater extent
2. the life of the well will be prolonged
3. Operation and maintenance costs will be reduced.
4. the specific capacity of the well will be improved (maximum yield at available
minimum drawdown)
Methods of well development

The methods commonly employed for well development are over pumping, backwashing, use
of compressed air, hydro fracturing, jetting and use of dispersing agents (chemicals).

Over pumping:- Loose sand and material are removed by pumping the well at a higher rate
than the well will be pumped when put into service. Over pumping has the advantage that
much of the fine material brought into the borehole is pumped out immediately.

Backwashing: - sand and fine materials are loosened by reversing the direction of flow
through the screen. By changing the flow respectively the loose material will be moved
through the screen into the well.

Air development:- Air lift technique can be used for surging and pumping. The practice of
alternatively surging and pumping with air has grown with the great increase in the number
of rotary drilling rigs equipped with large air compressors.

Surging is used to loosen sand and fine material in the screen and filter zone. The surging
action is created by lifting the water near to the surface by injecting air into the well and then
shut off the air to allow the water to flow back through the well and formation.
Pumping water with air lift can be used for cleaning a well from sand and fine material.
Using the air lift means no water, as would be the case if a submersible or turbine pump is
used to clean the well

Water Jetting:- High velocity water jetting can be used to loosen sand and fine material from
the filter zone and the screen.
A maximum development efficiency is achieved if water jetting is combined with
simultaneous pumping with air lift, as the loosened material is not allowed to settle again.

Hydro fracturing:- High pressure pumps are used to overcome the pressure of overlying rock
and inject fluids into newly opened fractures. Pressure in the production zone usually causes
small, tight breaks in the rock to open up and spread radially. The newly opened fractures
provide effective interconnections between nearby water-bearing fractures and the well bore.

Dispersing agents:- Sometimes it is necessary to add a chemical agents to disperse the clay
particles in the mud cake or in the formation to avoid their sticking to sand grains, and to
speed up the development process.
Well development work must be done in a manner that does not cause undue settlement and
disturbance of the strata above the water bearing formation, not disturb the seal effected
around the well casing and there by reduces the sanitary protection otherwise afforded by
such a seal.

Development of the well shall be continued until water pumped from the well at the
maximum test pumping rate is clear and free of sand. The water shall be considered sand-free
when samples, taken during test pumping, contain more than 2ppm of sand by weight.

2-3 ppm tolerable for municipal and industrial water supply

1ppm may be permissible limit in a system that has many values and small orifices 20ppm for
irrigation.
But it can be recognized that any kind of sand in the water can damage the pump.
Sand content testing-5 samples averages
- 15 minute after the start of the test
- after 1/4th of total planned test time
- after 1/2nd of total planned test time
- after 3/4th of total planned test time
- near the end of the pumping test

Excessive sand pumping may result in the formation of cavities around the screen and
subsidence of the soil.

2.8. Well Testing for performance

Following the development of a new well, the well should be tested to provide information on
the potential yield of the borehole and drawdown.
Purpose of conducting a pump test of water well: - water well may be pump tested for either
of two main purposes:
1. The usual objective is to obtain information about the performance and efficiency of the
well being pumped. The result in such a case is usually reported in terms of they yield,
the observed drawdown, and the calculated specific yield. These data, taken under
controlled conditions, give a measure of the productive capacity of the completed well
and provide information needed for selection of the pumping equipment.
2. Another objective of well pumping test is to provide data for which the principal factors
of aquifer performance, transmissivity and storage coefficient, can be calculated

In general, the data obtained from pumping test provide information necessary to determine:-

a) capacity of the well

b) Aquifer characteristics
c) Well efficiency
d) Pumping rates
e) Pump installation depth settings
f) Other factors which will be of value in the long term operation and maintenance of
the well
g) Well design and construction equipment.

Types of pumping Test performance

 i) Bailing test method
ii) Air Blow test Method
iii) Air lift test method

Volume of Filter pack Required

Example
Using the following data calculate the number of 50kg bags of gravel for gravel packing
the whole of the annular space (i.e. from the bottom of the well to ground surface)- No
consideration should be made over wash away (b/s it is necessitating additional filter
pack)
 Borehole depth, L= 100m
 Borehole diameter, D= 450mm
 Well screen and plain pipes outside diameter, Ds=300mm
 Total length of screen and plain pipes in borehole=100.5m
 Grain size of gravel pack material=2 to 4 mm
 Porosity of gravel pack material=36%
 Dry density of gravel pack material=2650kg/m3

Solution
Volume of gravel, V= Volume of annual space in borehole
V= 8.836m3
Mass of grave l= m
m = density x volume (1 –porosity in % /100%/)
= 2650 x 8,83 x (1-36/100)= 14975.68kg
The number of 50 kg bags required will be =
mass of gravel in kg
n = 50 kg
= 1495.68/50=299.5
Say n = 300 Formation stabilize + Filter pack
It is good practice to have extra filter pack on the site, especially if the stability of the
borehole is in doubt.