Department of Mathematics

Mathematics 1A
MATT101/MATV111

Algebra Notes

#2024 AY
 CONTENTS
PAGE

Chapter 1: ABSOLUTE VALUE 3

Chapter 2: LOGIC 5
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................5
2.2 Statements ..............................................................................................................6
2.3 Logical Connectives ................................................................................................7
2.4 Arguments............................................................................................................. 11
2.5 Predicates ............................................................................................................. 13
2.6 Quantifiers............................................................................................................. 14

Chapter 3: SETS 18
3.1 Introduction to Sets ............................................................................................... 18
3.2 Theorems of basic set theory ................................................................................ 23
3.3 Cartesian Product of Sets ..................................................................................... 24
3.4 Subsets of the Real Numbers ............................................................................... 26
3.5 Set membership .................................................................................................... 28
3.5.1 Subsets ........................................................................................................ 28
3.5.2 Closed under addition .................................................................................. 29

Chapter 4: THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 32

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 CHAPTER 1 – ABSOLUTE VALUE
After working through this chapter you should be able to:
• Define the absolute value of a number.
• Understand the properties of absolute value.
• Use the properties to solve various absolute value problems.

DEFINITION

For any real number a , the absolute value of a , written as | a | , is defined by:
a if a > 0

= | a | =0 if a 0
−a if a < 0


Example
| −2 |=−(−2) = 2 ,
| 2 |= 2 and
| 0 |= 0 .

PROPERTIES
For any real numbers a and b :
(1) The absolute value could just as well be defined by
a if a ≥ 0
|a| =
−a if a < 0
a if a > 0
=
−a if a ≤ 0
(2) | a | ≥ 0 and | a | = 0 if and only if a = 0 .
(3) | a | > 0 if and only if a ≠ 0 and also | a − b | > 0 if and only if a ≠ b .
(4) | a | = | a | .
(5) a ≤ | a | and also a = | a | if and only if a ≥ 0 .
(6) | −a | = | a | and | a − b | = | b − a | .
(7) | a |2 = a 2 and a 2 = | a | .
(8) | ab | = | a | | b | .
a a
(9) = .
b b
(10) Triangle Inequality. | a + b | ≤ | a | + | b | with | a + b | = | a | + | b | if and only if ab ≥ 0 .

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 PROPERTIES
Let c be any positive real number. For every real number x the following holds:
(1) | x | = c if and only if x = c or x = −c .
(2) | x | < c if and only if −c < x < c .
(3) | x | > c if and only if x < −c or x > c .

CHAPTER 1 EXERCISES
1. Check the validity of the the properties above.

2. Find all real numbers x for which the following is true:

(a) | 3x − 5 | = 4.
(b) | 3x − 5 | < 4 .
(c) | 3x − 4 | ≥ 4 .

3. Find real numbers a and b such that | 2 + 4 x | ≤ 3 if and only if a ≤ x ≤ b .

4. Find real numbers a and b such that | x + a | < b if and only if −5 < x < 1 .

5. Use properties of absolute value to write the following without the absolute value symbol:
(a) | −2 | −5 .
(b) | 2 − 2 |.
(c) | x 2 + 1| .

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 CHAPTER 2 - LOGIC
After working through this chapter you should be able to:
• Understand the nature of statement logic.
• Understand and use the logical connectives.
• Construct truth tables for compound statements.
• Understand and recognize logical equivalences.
• Determine the derived conditionals : inverse, converse or contrapositive for conditional
statements.
• Determine the validity of arguments using reasoning and truth tables.
• Understand and use quantifiers in statements.
• Determine the negation of quantified statements.
• Determine the truth value of quantified statements.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is often defined as the study of quantity, structure, space, and change.
Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics developed from counting,
calculation, measurement and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects.
Practical mathematics was a human activity for as far back as written records exist. Rigorous
arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid’s Elements. Mathematics
developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting
with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has
continued to the present day.
Generally, mathematicians seek out patterns and on the basis of these formulate new conjectures
(guesses).

Example 2.1
A primary school class that contained (the later famous mathematician) Gauss was asked the
following question: Find 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 100 .
While the rest of the class laboriously added the numbers, Gauss supplied the answer 5050 within a
very short time. The amazed teacher asked him how he had done this. Gauss answered that he had
done the following:
He added the sequence in two ways, then added the two sequences together:

1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + 100 = S

100 + 99 + 98 + ....... + 1 = S
∴101 + 101 + 101 + ....... + 101 = 2S
∴100 × 101 = 2S

1
from which he got 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 100 = S = (100 ×101) = 5050.
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5
 The question is now whether one can find a pattern leading to an algorithm (formula) for the sum:

1+ 2 + 3 + + n
where n is an arbitrary natural number. Can you conjecture (guess) what such a formula could be?
We will return to this problem later.
Once we have made a conjecture what the sum will be for any n, we must determine whether the
conjecture is true. This is done by mathematical proof. Since the latter part of the 19th century, it has
become customary to view mathematical proof as establishing truth by rigorous deduction (logical
reasoning) from well-chosen axioms and definitions. When defining or proving new concepts in
mathematics, concepts that have been defined or reasoned previously, are used as building blocks.
The starting point of this process is definitions and axioms.
A definition is just a name that we give to an often recurring mathematical object with certain
properties. For example, an even number is a number that can be written in the form 2n for some
integer n. An axiom is an unprovable assumption accepted (assumed) to be true as a basis for
argument or inference. For example, one of the axioms of our number systems is that the sum of two
numbers is commutative, i.e. a + b = b + a for any two numbers a and b. The Parallel Axiom of
Euclidean geometry states: Given any straight line and a point not on the line, then there is one and
only one straight line that will contain this point and never cross the given line. An axiom is a starting
point of logical reasoning.
An axiomatic system is any set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used to logically
derive results (theorems). A theorem is sometimes called a Proposition, or a Lemma (if it is used to
prove some other major theorem), or a Corollary (if it follows more-or-less directly from another
theorem). Once we have proven a theorem, we may use it, without necessarily refering back to the
axioms.
In cases where mathematical structures are good models of real-life phenomena, mathematical
reasoning often provides insight into the problem or it enables one to make predictions about future
behaviour of the variables in the problem.

2.2 STATEMENTS
We shall now establish what it means to use logic to derive or deduce theorems. Logic is the study
(or science) of valid reasoning. This means that logic is about determining whether an argument is
valid or not. Expressions like ‘not’, ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘if, then’ will be frequently used to make logical
inferences about combinations of sentences. ‘True’ and ‘False’ have no formal definitions, they are
undefined concepts. By a sentence we mean any combination of words made up from letters,
numbers or mathematical symbols.

DEFINITION 2.2
A statement (or equivalently a proposition) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false,
but not both.

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Example 2.3
Examples of sentences which are statements and sentences that are not statements:

1. ‘ 2 + 2 = 4 ’ is a statement (proposition), because it is a true sentence that can be proved from the
axioms of arithmetic.

2. ‘ 2 + 1 = 6 ’ is a statement because it is a false sentence.

3. ‘The sum of two numbers is 120’ is not a statement, as the sentence is neither true nor false (we
do not know what the numbers are).

4. ‘Is 5 = 3 ?’ is not a statement.

5. ‘ x > 2 ’ is not a statement until a specific value is assigned to x .

6. ‘Let’s have lunch’ is not a statement.

7. ‘How are you?’ is not a statement.

2.3 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

Logical connectives are used to form new statements from given statements:

Connective Symbol Connective name Connective - in natural language

¬ negation not
∧ conjunction and
∨ disjunction or
⇒ implication if then
⇔ two-way implication if and only if

Let A and B each be a statement variable, that is each represents an unknown statement. Next we
introduce statement forms:

• ‘ A and B ’ is a conjunction, written symbolically as A ∧ B .

• ‘ A or B ’ is known as a disjunction, written A ∨ B .

• ‘If A then B ’ is called an implication, written A ⇒ B .

• ‘ A if and only if B ’ is a two-way (or bi-) implication written A ⇔ B .

• ‘not A ’ is the negation of A , written ¬A .

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Note that one can form quite complex statement forms using the statement forms mentioned above,
for instance
[(¬A) ∧ ( B ⇒ A)] ∨ B .

Let X and Y be statement forms. Then ‘ X ≡ Y ’ is read as X is logically equivalent to Y

For this we need to show that X and Y have the same truth values for all possible choices of truth
value for all underlying statement variables that appear in X and Y .

Above only the notations were fixed; the meaning (definition) of the logical connectives for statements
variables A and B are:

1. If A is true statement then ¬A is a false statement,

If A is a false statement, then ¬A is a true statement.

2. A ∧ B is a true statement when A is a true statement and B is a true statement,

otherwise A ∧ B is a false statement.

3. A ∨ B is a false statement when A is false statement and B is false statement;

otherwise A ∨ B is true statement.

4. A ⇒ B is a false statement when A is a true statement but B is a false statement ;

otherwise A ⇒ B is a true statement.
In A ⇒ B , A is called the hypothesis (or assumption) and B is called the conclusion.

5. A ⇔ B is a true statement when statements A and B have identical truth values.

Truth tables are often used to give a nice overview of the truth values of statements forms involving
many different statement variables and connectives:

A ¬A
T F
F T

A B A∨ B A∧ B A⇒ B A⇔ B
T T T T T T
T F T F F F
F T T F T F
F F F F T T

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 Example 2.4
Let A be the statement ‘23 is a prime number’; A is a true statement. Let B be the statement ‘4 is
divisible by 3’; B is a false statement.

• ¬A is the statement ‘23 is not a prime number’; ¬A is a false statement.

• ¬B is the statement ‘4 is not divisible by 3’; ¬B is a true statement.

• A ∧ B : ‘23 is a prime number AND 4 is divisible by 3’ ; A ∧ B is a false statement.

• A ∨ B : ‘23 is a prime number OR 4 is divisible by 3’ ; A ∨ B is a true statement.

Example 2.5
The symbol ‘ ≤ ’, has its usual meaning as a relationship between two numbers a and b : a ≤ b
means ‘ a is less than or equal to b ’.
Consider the following three statements:
A:2 ≤ 3 ,
B : 3 ≤ 3 and
C : 4 ≤ 3.
Statements A and B are true, while C is a false statement.
What would ¬ ( ¬A ) say?

With a given implication A ⇒ B, there is associated two implications which are often used:
Converse of A ⇒ B is: B ⇒ A
Contrapositive of A ⇒ B is: ¬B ⇒ ¬A.
Inverse of A ⇒ B is : ¬A ⇒ ¬B.

An implication can be true, but its converse need not be true. For example, "for any number x, if
x = 2, then x 2 = 4 ". The converse "for any number x, if x 2 = 4, then x = 2 " is not necessarily true ( x
can also be −2).
We shall see later that an implication and its contrapositive are logically equivalent, that is,

( A ⇒ B) ≡ (¬B ⇒ ¬A)

which means for every assignment of statement to the statement variables A and B , the statements
A ⇒ B and ¬B ⇒ ¬A always have identical truth values.

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Example 2.6
A : It is raining outside.
B : The grass is wet.
P : My only pet is a dog.
Q : My only pet is a labrador.

• We see that A ⇒ B but B ⇒ A .

Also, Q ⇒ P but P ⇒ Q .
Note also that ¬B ⇒ ¬A.

• ¬A : ‘It is not raining outside.’, thus ¬ ( ¬A ) means ‘It is not (not raining) outside’, consequently it is
raining outside. Therefore ¬ ( ¬A ) ≡ A

Example 2.7
If a geometric shape is a parallelogram, then it has 4 sides.

Note that ‘A geometric shape has 4 sides’ ⇒ ‘the geometric shape is a parallelogram’.
‘A shape is an isosceles triangle’ ⇔ ‘ the shape is triangle with two sides of equal length’.

THEOREM 2.8

(Logical equivalent statements forms). Let A , B and C be statement variables.

Commutative laws : A ∧ B ≡ B ∧ A and A ∨ B ≡ B ∨ A.

Idempotent laws : A ∧ A ≡ A and A ∨ A ≡ A.
Associative laws: A ∧ ( B ∧ C ) ≡ ( A ∧ B) ∧ C and A ∨ ( B ∨ C ) ≡ ( A ∨ B ) ∨ C
Distributive laws : A ∧ ( B ∨ C ) ≡ ( A ∧ B ) ∨ ( A ∧ C ) and A ∨ ( B ∧ C ) ≡ ( A ∨ B ) ∧ ( A ∨ C )
Double negation: A ≡ ¬ ( ¬A ) .
De Morgan′s Laws : ¬ ( A ∨ B ) ≡ ¬A ∧ ¬B and ¬ ( A ∧ B ) ≡ ¬A ∨ ¬B.
A ⇔ B ≡ ( A ⇒ B ) ∧ ( B ⇒ A) .
A ⇒ B ≡ ¬A ∨ B; hence ¬ ( A ⇒ B ) ≡ A ∧ ¬B.
Contrapositive : A ⇒ B ≡ ¬B ⇒ ¬A.

All these logical equivalences can be proven by giving the appropriate truth tables. We give one
example:

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 PROOF

Show that A ⇒ B ≡ ¬B ⇒ ¬A.

For this we need to show that A ⇒ B and ¬B ⇒ ¬A have the same truth values for all possible
choices of truth value for statement variables A and B. To do this, we draw the truth table:

A B A⇒ B ¬B
T T T F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
¬A ¬B ⇒ ¬A
F T
F F
T T
T T

The columns for A ⇒ B and ¬B ⇒ ¬A respectively show that these statement forms have identical
truth values for all possible choices of truth value for the underlying statement variables A and B .
Hence, we conclude that A ⇒ B ≡ ¬B ⇒ ¬A.

2.4 ARGUMENTS

DEFINITION 2.9
An argument is a sequence of statements. All the statements except the last one are called the
hypotheses, the final statement is called the conclusion. An argument is valid if the truth of its
conclusion follows from the truth of its hypotheses.

An argument cannot be valid if the hypotheses are true and the conclusion is false. One way to verify
if an argument is a valid argument, is to draw a truth table that contains all the statements of the
argument (hypotheses and conclusion). In this truth table, mark all the lines in which all the
hypotheses are true. Call these lines the critical lines. For the argument to be a valid argument, the
truth value of the conclusion must be TRUE in all the critical lines. The following is a well-known
example of a valid argument (called modus ponens):

P⇒Q
P
∴Q
To check that this is a valid argument, we note that there are two statements in the hypothesis
namely P ⇒ Q and P with the conclusion being Q. We draw the truth table:

P Q P⇒Q
T T T critical line
T F F
F T T
F F T

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We see that P ⇒ Q is true in lines 2,4 and 5 and P is true in lines 2 and 3. Thus there is only one
critical line, namely line 2. In this line, the conclusion Q is true; hence we have a valid argument.

Using the same method, we can show that the following argument is not a valid argument:
P⇒Q
Q
∴P
We have two hypotheses P ⇒ Q and Q with the conclusion being P. We draw the truth table:

P Q P⇒Q
T T T critical line
T F F
F T T critical line
F F T

We see that P ⇒ Q is true in lines 2,4 and 5 and Q is true in lines 2 and 4. Thus there are two critical
lines, namely lines 2 and 4. But in line 4, the conclusion P is false; hence the argument is not valid
(an invalid argument).

Example 2.10
We now consider a few examples of arguments. Identify the hypotheses and conclusion of each of
the arguments below and use truth tables to verify the validity of the argument. The first two
arguments are valid arguments, but the third is an invalid argument.

(1) If I watch TV, I will not finish my homework.

If I do not finish my homework, I will not pass my test.
Thus, if I watch TV, I will not pass my test.

(2) If I watch TV, I will not finish my homework.

If I do not finish my homework, I will not pass my test.
Thus, if I passed my test, I did not watch TV.

(3) If I watch TV, I will not finish my homework.

If I do not finish my homework, I will not pass my test.
Thus, if I do not pass my test, then I watched TV.

Often the logical flow of an argument can help us solve a problem.

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 Example 2.11
I want to leave for work in the morning and can’t find my glasses. I know that the following
statements are true:

A1 :If my glasses are on the kitchen table, then I must have seen them at breakfast.

A2: I read the paper in the TV room or I read the paper in the kitchen.

A3: If I read the paper in the TV room, then the glasses must be on the coffee table.

A4: I did not see the glasses at breakfast.

A5: If I read my book in bed, then the glasses must be on the bed side table.

A6: If I read the paper in the kitchen, then the glasses must be on the kitchen table.

Where is my glasses?

I now begin reasoning:

A7: The glasses are not on the kitchen table. (Reason: If I did not see the glasses at breakfast, then
the glasses are not on the kitchen table. Because A4 is true, the glasses are not on the kitchen
table).
A8: I did not read the paper in the kitchen. (Reason: From A6 it follows: If the glasses are not on the
kitchen table, then I did not read the paper in the kitchen. Because A7 is true, I did not read the
paper in the kitchen.)
A9: I read the paper in the TV room. (Reason: This follows from A8 and A2.)
A10: The glasses are on the coffee table. (Reason: This follows from A9 and A3.)
Note. Hypothesis A5 was not used in the deduction. Such statements are called superfluous.

2.5 PREDICATES
It is the end of the school day, and it is raining outside. Jack is a pupil in the Grade 8 class at the
school. Consider the argument: It is raining. If Jack has an umbrella, he will not get wet. This
argument applies to every pupil in Jack’s Grade 8 class. We could therefore repeat the argument for
each pupil in Jack’s class; for example: It is raining. If Sipho has an umbrella, he will not get wet, etc.
....... . Alternatively we could consider the generic pupil called x and reformulate a general argument
as: It is raining. For any pupil x in Grade 8, if x has an umbrella, he/she will not get wet. Here x
represents any learner in Jack’s Grade 8 class. This general form is known as a predicate, which has
a truth value as soon as a specific student is chosen.

Another example: 6 is an even number. It is divisible by 2. But this argument is valid for any even
number. We could thus generalize to: For any number n, if n is even, then n is divisible by 2.

This general form is known as a predicate about the variable(s). A predicate is a sentence about one
or more variables which becomes a statement when we give the variables specific values. Usually we
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write a predicate as P( x, y,...) where the variables are x, y,... . For example, let P( x, y ) be the
predicate P ( x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 = 1. This is a sentence, but NOT a statement. For x = 1 and y = 0, the
predicate P( x, y ) becomes P (1, 0) ; a true statement while P (4, −1) is a false statement.
There are two important ways in which we specify the variables associated with predicates and this is
discussed in the next section.

2.6 QUANTIFIERS

Let x be an integer. The sentence x + 1 > 1 is true for some values of x and false for others. As
mentioned above, such a sentence is called a predicate, say P ( x) : x + 1 > 1. For some values of x ,
P( x) is a true statement but for others it is a false statement. If we require x to be a natural number,
then the sentence x + 1 > 1 is true for all values of x .
We will give a clearer description for the phrases like ‘for some’ and ‘for any’. These phrases are
called the quantifiers and there are two of them:

Symbol In natural language Technical name

∀ for all / for each universal quantifier
∃ there exists / there is existential quantifier

Truth value of the quantified statements:

For a predicate P( x, y,...), the statement
∀x, y, ..., P( x, y,...)
is true if P( x, y,...) is a true statement for every specified x, y, .... .

For a predicate P( x, y,...), the statement

∃x, y, ..., P( x, y,...)
is true if P( x, y,...) is a true statement for at least one specific choice of the variables x, y, .... .

In the next example, x ∈  means x is a natural number (i.e. x can be any one of 1, 2,3, 4,..... ) and
x ∈  means x is an integer. (i.e. x can be any one of ..., −3, −2, −1, 0,1, 2,3,...).

Example 2.12
The predicate P ( x) : x + 1 > 1 by itself has no truth value. When we quantify the variable x, it
becomes a statement with a truth value.

∀x ∈ , P( x), i.e. ∀x ∈ , x + 1 > 1 is a false statement (for x = −6 ∈  the statement P(−6) is false)
while
∃x ∈ , x + 1 > 1 is a true statement (for example, for x = 3, P(3) is a true statement). Moreover
∀x ∈ , x + 1 > 1 is a true statement and
∃x ∈ , x + 1 > 1 is also a true statement.

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Note that:
(1) The order of the quantifiers is important. If you change a quantifier or the order in which they
appear, then you change the meaning of the statement and you may also change its truth value.
(2) Changing the range of the variables may also change the statement and its truth value.

Example 2.13
Consider the following statements:
(1) ∀x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , xy = y. False (for x = 2, there is no y ∈  for which 2 y = y ).
(2) ∃x ∈ , ∀y ∈ ,, xy = y. True, take x = 1.
(3) ∃y ∈ , ∀x ∈ , xy = y. True, take y = 0.
(4) ∀x ∈ , ∀y ∈ , xy = y. False, eg. take x = 2 and y = 3.
(5) ∃x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , xy = y. True, take x = y = 1.

Example 2.14
Determine whether the following statements are true or false.
(1) The statement ∃x ∈ , x 2 = 8 is false since no natural number exist so that its square equals 8.
(2) The statement ∀x ∈ ,∃y ∈ , x + y = 0 is false since adding a natural number to any other natural
number will result in a number greater than 0.

NEGATION OF STATEMENTS

Negation of statements containing quantifiers

Let A represent a statement. Earlier we saw A is false if and only if ¬A is true. Hence, since the
statement ∃x ∈ , x 2 = 8 is false, ¬ ( ∃x ∈ , x 2 = 8 ) is true.
( )
What does ¬ ∃x ∈ , x 2 = 8 look like symbolically?
¬ ( ∃x ∈ , x 2 = 8 ) ≡ ∀x ∈ , x 2 ≠ 8.

Since ∀x ∈ ,2 x > x is true, its negation viz. ¬ ( ∀x ∈ ,2 x > x ) is false with
¬ ( ∀x ∈ ,2 x > x ) ≡ ∃x ∈ ,2 x ≤ x.

In general, for a predicate P( x), we have:

¬ ( ∀x ∈ S , P( x) ) ≡ ∃x ∈ S , ¬P( x) and
¬ ( ∃ x ∈ S , P ( x ) ) ≡ ∀ x ∈ S , ¬P ( x )
and more generally for a predicate P ( x, y ) :
¬ ( ∃x ∈ S ∀ y ∈ T , P( x, y ) ) ≡ ∀ x ∈ S ∃y ∈ T , ¬P( x, y ) etc.

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CHAPTER 2 EXERCISES 2.15
1. For each of the following two arguments, write a conclusion such that the argument is valid.
(a) This integer is even or odd.
This integer is not odd.
Hence: this integer is ……….….

(b) If this polygon is a triangle, then the sum of the interior angles equals 180o .
The sum of the interior angles of this polygon is not 180o .
Hence: ……………………..

2. Give the contrapositive for each of the following implications:

(a) If you work hard, you will get promoted.
(b) If you can’t do the time, don’t do the crime.
(c) If you want to be treated with respect, then respect others.

3. Find the mistake in the following computer programme:

There is an undeclared variable or a syntax error in the first 5 lines.
If there is a syntax error in the first 5 lines, then there is a missing semi-colon or a variable
name is misspelled.
There is not a missing semi-colon.
Hence, there is no misspelled variable name.

4. A thief left a note indicating where he had hidden the loot of his last robbery.
The thief’s note:
If the house is next to a lake, then the loot is not in the kitchen.
If the tree in front of the house is a pine, then loot is in the kitchen.
House A is next to a lake.
The tree in front of House A is a pine or the loot is buried under the flagpole.
If the tree in the backyard is an oak, then the loot is in the garage.
Where is the loot hidden?

5. Determine the truth values of the following given statements, motivate your answer.
Also give the negation of the statement.
(a) ∀x ∈ , x 2 = x.
(b) ∃x ∈ , x 2 = x.
(c) ∀x ∈ , x + 1 > x.
(d) ∃x ∈ , x + 2 = x.

6. Determine whether the following statements are true or false, motivate your answer:
(a) ∀x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , y 2 = x.
(b) ∀x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , y = x 2 .
(c) ∀x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , y < x.
(d) ∀x ∈ , ∃y ∈ , xy = 1.
(e) ∃x ∈ , ∀y ∈ , xy = 0.

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7. Write the following statements in symbols.
Give the truth value of each as well its negation.
The set of all real numbers is denoted by .
(a) Every natural number is a real number.
(b) The square root of every natural number is smaller or equal to that number.
(c) For every real number, there is another real number so that the product of the two
numbers is greater or equal to zero.
(d) There is a real number that will give zero if multiplied with any other real number.
(e) There is a real number of which the square root is the same as that number.

8. Use truth tables to prove all the equivalences in the Logical Equivalent Statements’
Theorem 2.8.

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 CHAPTER 3 - SETS
After working through this chapter you should be able to:
• Understand and use the set concepts and notations.
• Express sets by tabulating or using set builder notation.
• Create new sets from existing sets using various operations on sets.
• Identify and test for subsets and proper subsets of sets.
• Formally prove various properties, laws and rules related to set theory.
• Identify elements from sets containing polynomials, ordered pairs and matrices.
• Determine if sets are closed under addition.

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO SETS

The notions set and element of a set are the undefined notions of set theory. Intuitively, we
understand a set to be a collection (family, group, ... ) of objects and these objects are called the
elements of the set. For example, we may talk about the set of all students at NMU in February, or
the set of all even numbers, etc.
Usually an uppercase letter is used to denote a set ( A, B,..., X , Y , Z ) and the elements of a set will
denoted by lowercase letter. Let S be a set. The notation a ∈ S means a is an element of the set S
and the notation b ∉ S means b is not an element of S .
A set is completely determined by its elements and when we write a set and its elements, we do not
repeat elements. We use the brackets {....} to denote a set and between the brackets we describe
the elements of the set. There are two ways in which this can be done. Firstly we can tabulate (or
list) the elements, for example
{1, 2,3, 4},
or we can use set-builder notation which makes use of some predicate, e.g.
{x | x is a natural number less than 5}or alternatively,{x ∈  | x < 5}.

Two sets A and B are equal, written A = B, if they have the same elements. For example, if
A = {1, 2,3, 4} , B = {1, 2, 2, 2,3, 4} and C = {x ∈  | x < 5}, then A = B = C.
Some well-known sets of numbers are:

Example 3.1
 = {1, 2,3, 4,...} is the set of all natural (counting) numbers;
 0 = {0,1, 2,3, 4,...} natural numbers with 0;  = {..., −3, −2, −1, 0,1, 2,3,...} is the set of all integers;
a 
 =  | a, b ∈ , b ≠ 0  is the set of all rational numbers;
b 
 is the set of all real numbers (i.e. all the rational numbers and the irrational numbers
like π , 2, e, ...);
 0+ is the set of positive real numbers together with 0;∅ is the empty set, the set with no elements
and  is the universal set, the set of all objects under consideration in a particular case.

18
Given sets S and T , we can combine them in many different ways to get new sets:

DEFINITION 3.2
For two sets S and T ,
the union is the set S ∪ T = {x | x ∈ S or x ∈ T }
the intersection is the set S ∩ T = {x | x ∈ S and x ∈ T }
the difference S \ T = {x | x ∈ S and x ∉ T } (we also write S − T )
the complement of the set S is the set S c = {x ∈  | x ∉ S }.

Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅ . We will see below that A \ B and B \ A are
always disjoint.

We often use Venn diagrams to draw pictures of sets. In such a diagram, a set is drawn as a closed
circular figure and its elements inside the circle.

Union S ∪ T

Intersection S ∩ T

19
 Set difference S \ T

Set complement Ac

Example 3.3
Let A = {2, 4, 6,8} , B = {1, 2,3, 4,5} with universal set  = {n ∈  |1 ≤ n < 10}.
Then A ∪ B = {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6,8},
A ∩ B = {2, 4},
A \ B = {6,8},
Ac = {1,3,5, 7,9},
B c = {6, 7,8,9} ,
( A ∩ B) = {2, 4} = {1,3,5, 6, 7,8,9} and
c c

B \ A = {1,3,5}.

The empty set ∅ can be written as ∅ = { } , but ∅ ≠ {∅}. Note also that  c = ∅ and ∅ c =  .

DEFINITION 3.4
A set A is a subset of a set B , written A ⊆ B , if every element of A is also an element of B . The
notation A ⊆ B is also read “ A is contained in B ”.

The power set of a set A is the set  ( A) of all the subsets of A.

20
For any set A, always ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A; hence A ∈  ( A) and ∅ ∈  ( A) . Clearly every element of
the set A = {2,3, 4} is also an element of the set B = {1, 2,3, 4,5} . Thus {2,3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2,3, 4,5}; i.e.
A ⊆ B.
Note  ( A) = {∅,{2},{3},{4},{2,3},{2, 4},{3, 4},{2,3, 4}}.

DEFINITION 3.5
A set A is a proper subset of a set B , if A ⊆ B and there is an element in B that is not an element
of A . The notation A ⊂ B indicates that A is a proper subset of B .

Alternative ways of reading A ⊂ B are A is properly contained in B or B properly contains A . Let

A = {2,3, 4} and B = {1, 2,3, 4,5} . Since every element of A is an element of B we certainly have
A ⊆ B . Notice too that 1 ∈ B but 1 ∉ A , hence A ⊂ B .

DEFINITION 3.6
Two sets A and B are equal, written A = B , if A and B have exactly the same elements.

CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES 3.7

1. Let  = {1, 2,3,...,10} , A = {2, 4, 6,8,10} and B = {2, 4} . Give an example of:

(a) A subset C of A such that C ⊂ A .

(b) A subset D of A such that B ⊂ D .

(c) A subset E of A such that E  B and E  B c .

Note: E  B means ‘ E is not contained in B ’

(d) A subset F of A such that B  F , B ≠ F and F  B .

Note: This is different from the way the set of real numbers behaves with respect to ordering:
For any two real numbers x and y it is true that either x = y or y > x or x > y .

2. Let A, B and C be the subsets of  given by A = {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6} , B = {3, 6,9} and D = {4, 6,8} .
Determine:
(a) A ∪ B (b) A \ B (c) A ∩ ( B ∪ D )

(d) Ac ∩ D c (e) A ∩ D (f) B \ D

(h) ( A ∪ D )
c
(g) B \ Ac (i)  ( B)

(j)  ( D) (k)  ( A) ∩  ( B) (l)  ( A) ∩ A

21
3. Let A = {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6} , B = {2, 4, 6,8} , C = {7,8,9,10} and  = {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8,9,10} .
Determine:

(a) A ∪ B (b) A ∩ B (c) A ∪ C

(d) B ∩ C (e) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) (f) ( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ C )

(g) B c (h) ( B ∩ C )c (i) B c ∪ C c

(j) B \ C (k) A \ B c

(l) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) and ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) (do you notice anything interesting?).

(m) ( A ∩ C )c and Ac ∪ C c (do you notice anything interesting?).

4. Let A, B and C be the subsets of  given by A = {4 x | x ∈ } , B = {5 x | x ∈ } and

C = {6 x | x ∈ } .

(a) Write down the sets A , B and C by tabulating their elements.

(b) Describe the sets A ∩ B, A ∩ C and B ∩ C and A ∪ C.

5. Let A be a subset of  . Complete the following:

(a) A ∩ A =  (b) A ∩ Ac = 

(c) A ∩  =  (d) A ∩ ∅ = 

(e) A ∪ A =  (f) A ∪ Ac = 

(g) A ∪  =  (h) A ∪ ∅ = 

6. Let  = {2, 4,8} . For each of (a ) and (b) below, find sets A , B and C such that:

(a) A \ ( B \ C ) ≠ ( A \ B) \ C

(b) A \ ( B \ C ) = ( A \ B) \ C

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3.2 THEOREMS OF BASIC SET THEORY
THEOREM 3.8
For all sets A and B :
(1) A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
(2) ( A \ B ) ∩ ( B \ A ) = ∅ .

PROOF OF THEOREM 3.8

(1) Suppose A = B. We have to show A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. To show that A ⊆ B : Let a ∈ A. Since
A = B, the two sets have exactly the same elements and so also a ∈ B. Thus A ⊆ B. The other
inclusion B ⊆ A can be shown simmilarly.
Suppose now A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. We must show that A = B. The definition of equality of sets,
requires us to show that A and B have exactly the same elements. Now any element from A is in
B (since A ⊆ B) and every element of B is in A (since B ⊆ A). We may thus conclude that A and
B have the same elements; hence A = B.

(2) We will show by contradication that A \ B and B \ A are disjoint. Suppose there is an element
x ∈ ( A \ B ) ∩ ( B \ A ) . This means x ∈ A \ B and x ∈ B \ A by the definition of intersection. From the
definition of the set difference, we get the statements (x ∈ A and x ∉ B ) and (x ∈ B and x ∉ A).
Since conjunction is associative and commutative, we can rewrite this as x ∈ A and x ∉ A and x ∈ B
and x ∉ B; clearly a contradiction ((i) a conjunction is true only if all the statements in the conjunction
are true and (ii) a statement and its negation cannot both be true). Hence ( A \ B ) ∩ ( B \ A ) cannot
contain any elements, i.e. ( A \ B ) ∩ ( B \ A ) = ∅.

THEOREM 3.9
Distributive Laws: For all sets A , B and C :
(1) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) .
(2) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) .

Proof: One of the two proofs will be provided in a lecture; the other you have to do.

THEOREM 3.10
De Morgan's Rules: For all sets A and B :
(1) ( A ∪ B ) = Ac ∩ B c .
c

( A ∩ B)
c
(2) = Ac ∪ B c .

Proof: One of the two proofs will be provided in a lecture; the other you have to do.

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CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES 3.11
Complete the proofs of the three theorems above.

3.3 CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF SETS

The rectangular xy -coordinate system (Euclidean plane) is well-known in mathematics. Every point in
the xy -plane is denoted by an ordered number pair ( x, y ) . The order in which the two numbers
appear is important. As is well known (a, b=
) ( x, y ) ⇔ (a= x and b= y ) . The concept of number pair is
generalised in the next definition.

DEFINITION 3.12
The Cartesian product of sets A and B is the set A × B = {( a, b ) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B} .

The Cartesian product A × A is written briefly as A2 . This means the xy -plane is just the set  2 .

If A = {∩, ∪} and B = {×, ÷} , then A × B = {( ∩, × ) , ( ∩, ÷ ) , ( ∪, × ) , ( ∪, ÷ )} .

CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES 3.13

1. Determine A × B, B × A and ( A × B ) ∩ ( B × A ) for each of the following cases.

(a) A = {2, 4} , B = {3,5, 7} .

(b) A = {2, 4} , B = {4,5} .

(c) A = {5, 6} , B = {5, 6, 7} .

2. Let A = {a, b} , B = {c, d } and C = {d , e} . Determine

(a) A × ( B ∩ C ) (b) ( A × B ) ∩ ( A × C )

(c) ( A × B ) ∪ ( A × C ) (d) A × ( B ∪ C )

3. Let A = {1, 2} . Determine A2 .

24
4. Sketch the following subsets of  2 in the Euclidean plane:

(a) A = {( x, y ) | y = 2 x}. (b) B = {( x, y ) | x = 2 y}.

(c) C = {( x, y ) | x 2 + y 2 = 3}. (d) D = {( x, y ) | y ≤ x}.

5. Let A and B be non-empty subsets of  . Show that:

(a) A ∩ B = A ⇔ A ⊆ B.

(b) A ∪ B = A ⇔ B ⊆ A.

(c) B c ⊆ Ac ⇔ A ⊆ B.

25
3.4 SUBSETS OF THE REAL NUMBERS

DEFINITION 3.14
A set I of real numbers is an interval if whenever x, y ∈ I and c ∈  with x ≤ c ≤ y, then c ∈ I .

There are 10 types of intervals. Let a, b ∈  with a ≤ b :

Name Definition Notation Picture

open interval {x ∈  | a < x < b} ( a, b)
a b

closed interval {x ∈  | a ≤ x ≤ b} [ a, b]
a b

half-open interval {x ∈  | a < x ≤ b} ( a, b]

a b
half-closed interval
half-open interval {x ∈  | a ≤ x < b} [ a, b)
a b
half-closed interval
open ray {x ∈  | a < x} ( a, ∞ )
a

open ray {x ∈  | x < b} (−∞, b)

b

closed ray {x ∈  | a ≤ x} [ a, ∞ )
a

closed ray {x ∈  | x ≤ b} (−∞, b]

b

real number line  (−∞, ∞)

empty set ∅ ( a, a )

In the table of intervals given above the numbers a and b are called the endpoints of the intervals.
The intervals (a, b),[a, b], (a, b],[a, b) and ∅ are bounded intervals, (a, ∞) and [a, ∞) are bounded
below, (−∞, b) and (−∞, b] are bounded above and  is an unbounded interval. All intervals
except [a, a ] = {a} and (a, a ) = ∅ = (a, a ] = [a, a) have infinitely many elements.

Example 3.15
(1) The set {x ∈  | −1 ≤ x < 3} is the interval [−1,3) while the sets {x ∈  | −1 ≤ x < 3} = {−1, 0,1, 2}
and {x ∈  | x ≥ 1} = {1, 2,3,... } are not intervals.

(2) Let  =  , A = ( −1,5 ) , B = [ 0,10 ) and C = [8,15 ) . Then Ac ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = [5,15] (verify!). Represent
the given set on a number line.

26
CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES 3.16
1. Sketch the following sets on the number line:

(a) { x | −2 < x ≤ 1, x ∈ }

(b) { x | x ≥ −5, x ∈ }

(c) { x | x > −1, x ∈ }

(d) { x | −2 < x < 5, x ∈ }

2. The subsets A, B and C of  are given by:

{
A = x ∈  | ( x 2 − 1)( x 2 − 4 ) = 0 ,}
B = { y ∈  | ( y − 2 )( y + 1)( y − 4 ) = 0} and

{ }
C = z ∈  | ( z 2 − 16 ) ( z + 2 )( z − 1) = 0 .

List the elements of each set and determine:

(a) A ∪ B ∪ C (b) A ∩ B ∩ C

(c) A \ ( B \ C ) (d) ( A \ B ) \ C

3. Let A = [ 0,3] , B = (1, 4 ) , C = [2,5) and  = [ 0, 6] . Determine each of the following sets:

(a) A ∩ B (b) A ∪ C

(c) A \ B (d) B \ A

(e) ( B ∪ C ) \ A (f) Ac \ B

(g) Ac \ C c (h) ( A ∩ B ) \ C c

(j) ( A \ B c )
c
(i) B c ∩ C c

(l) ( Ac ∩ B c )
c
(k) ( A ∪ B ) \ C c

27
3.5 SET MEMBERSHIP
In general, if a set consists of numbers and it is not specified whether the numbers are integers,
rational numbers or real numbers, we always assume the numbers are real numbers. For example,
{x | −1 ≤ x < 3} is the interval [−1,3) while {x ∈  | −1 ≤ x < 3} = {−1, 0,1, 2}. All the sets we have
considered up to now are subsets of the real numbers. But sets need not only consist of numbers.

Example 3.17
Sets of Ordered Pairs: Consider the set S = {( x, y ) | x = 2 y} .
The elements of this set are ordered pairs. For example, ( 4, 2 ) ∈ S , ( −8.4, −4.2 ) ∈ S , ( 0, 0 ) ∈ S but
(1,1) ∉ S . If we represent the element of this set graphically, it would be all the points on the straight
1
line y = x in the Euclidean plane.
2

Example 3.18
Sets of Polynomials: Let P = {a + bx + cx 2 | a = b = c} .
This set has polynomials in the variable x as its elements. For example, p = 2.01 + 2.01x + 2.01x 2 ∈ P,
q = −1 − x − x 2 ∈ P and r = 0 ∈ P,
while f = 2 − x + 3 x 2 and g = 2 + 2 x + 2 x 2 + 2 x3 are not in P.

Example 3.19
Sets of matrices: A 2 × 2 matrix is an ordered arrangement of real numbers into two rows (horizontal
lines) and two columns (vertical lines) with a rectangular bracket around all the numbers, for example
a b 
A=   with the matrix entries a, b, c and d being real numbers. Since the entries of the matrix A
c d 
are real numbers we speak of a 2 × 2 , read as ‘2 by 2’, matrix A over the set of real numbers  .
  a b  
Consider the set B =    b = c = 0 .
  c d  
2 0  −3 0  4 0
Then   ∈ B and   ∈ B , but  ∉B.
0 1  0 25 1 0

3.5.1 Subsets

Recall the definition of a subset: A set A is a subset of a set B , written A ⊆ B , if every element of A
is also an element of B . To show that A ⊆ B , we need to find at least one element of A (there
could be many more), that is not an element of B .

28
 Example 3.20
Let P = {( x, y) | x > 0 and y > 0=
} and Q {( x, y ) | xy ≥ 0} . We show P ⊆ Q.
Let ( x1 , y1 ) ∈ P. Then we know that x1 > 0 and y1 > 0 . This means that x1 y1 > 0 (since the product of
two positive numbers is positive). Then x1 y1 ≥ 0 , so ( x1 , y1 ) ∈ Q and P ⊆ Q follows. But Q  P since
(−2, −3) ∈ Q but (−2, −3) ∉ P.

Example 3.21
  a b     a b  
Let A =    a, b, c, d ≠ 0  and B =    a+b = c+d.
  c d     c d  
We show B ⊆ A. For this we need to find at least one element of B that is not an element of A .
 a b   0 5
Consider the matrix  1 1  =  .
 c1 d1   2 3
a b 
Then  1 1  ∈ B since a1 + b1 = 0 + 5 = 2 + 3 = c1 + d1 , but
 c1 d1 
 a1 b1 
c ∉ A since a1 = 0 . So B  A .
 1 d1 

Note, there are many other matrices that are in B , but not in A (give one), but we only needed one
matrix to show B ⊆ A .

3.5.2 Closed under addition

DEFINITION 3.22
Let S be a set and suppose there is some addition + defined on S . Then S is closed under
addition if a + b ∈ S ∀a, b ∈ S .

The set of even numbers is closed under the usual addition of numbers, but the set of odd numbers in
not closed under addition. In general if we want to check if a set is closed under addition, we must
clearly understand what the elements of the set are and how the addition is defined. One can define
addition on sets which have elements that are not numbers. A few common ones are:

Addition of ordered pairs: ( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 ) = ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

Addition of polynomials:
( a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n ) + ( b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + ... + bn x n )
= ( a0 + b0 ) + ( a1 + b1 ) x + ( a2 + b2 ) x 2 + ... + ( an + bn ) x n

Addition of 2 × 2 matrices:
29
  a1 b1   a2 b2   a1 + a2 b1 + b2 
c + = .
 1 d1   c2 d 2   c1 + c2 d1 + d 2 

Let S = {( x, y ) | x = 2 y} . Is S closed under the addition of ordered pairs?

If we are given that a = (16,8 ) and b = ( −2, −1) , then a and b are in S and we can test whether
a +b∈S :
a + b = (16,8 ) + ( −2, −1) = (14, 7 )
Now (14, 7 ) meets the requirement that x = 2 y , so a + b ∈ S . But to show that S is closed under this
addition, we need to show that a + b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S ; we cannot work with specific elements of S
since we need to look at all a, b ∈ S where a and b could be any of the elements from S .

Example 3.23
Show that the set S = {( x, y ) | x = 2 y} is closed under the addition for ordered pairs as defined above.

Let a, b ∈ S with a = ( x1 , y1 ) and b = ( x2 , y2 ) . Since a, b ∈ S , we know that x1 = 2 y1 and x2 = 2 y2 . Now,

a + b = ( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 ) = ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) . What we need to show is that a + b ∈ S so we need to show
x1 + x2 = 2 ( y1 + y2 ) . But we know that at x1 = 2 y1 and x2 = 2 y2 .
∴ x1 + x2 = 2 y1 + 2 y2 = 2 ( y1 + y2 ) and hence a + b ∈ S .

Remark. We can also check if sets are closed under other operations besides addition. However,
determining whether a set is closed under addition holds specific application for further studies.

CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES 3.24

1. For each of the sets below, give three different elements in the set as well as 2 objects of the
same type (ordered pairs, polynomials, matrices, ... ) not in the set.

(a) A = {( x, y ) | x 2 = y} (b) B = {( x, y ) | x, y > 0}

(c) C = {( x, y, z ) | x = z} (d) D = {( x, y, z ) | x 2
+ y2 = z 2}

(e) E = {( x, y ) | 2 x + 3 y = 0} (f) F = {ax 2 | a < 0}

{
(g) G = ax 2 + bx + c | a + b = c } (h) H = {bx + c | b > c}

 1 2     a b  
(i) A =    b, c > 2  (j) B =    ad = bc 
 b c     c d  
30
2. Write the following sets in set-builder notation.

(a) The set of all positive real numbers.

(b) The set of all ordered pairs ( x, y ) for which the sum of the x and the y values is 5.
(c) The set consisting of all quadratic polynomials for which the coefficient of the x 2 term
is negative.

(d) The set of all polynomials in x of degree one.

(e) The set of all 2 × 2 matrices for which the sum of the entries in each row is 4.

3. Are the following statements true or false? Explain your answer.

(a) {( x, y ) | x, y > 0} ⊆ {( x, y ) | x > 0}

(b) {( x, y) ∈  ×  | x= 2 y} ⊆ {( x, y ) ∈  ×  | x is even}

(c) {( x, y ) | y = 5} ⊆ {( x, y ) | y > 0}

4. Show that the following sets are closed under the specified addition.

(a) B = {( x, y ) | x, y > 0} ; addition is the addition of ordered pairs.

(b) C = {( x, y, z ) | x = z} ; addition is the addition of ordered tripples.

(c) G = {ax 2 + bx + c | a + b = c} : addition is the addition of polynomials.

 1 2  
(d) A =   b , c > 2  ; addition is the addition of matrices.
 b c  

(e)  with addition given by n ⊕ m = n + m − nm for all n, m ∈ .

 a c ad + bc 
(f)  with respect to the usual addition of fractions  + = 
b d bd 

31
 CHAPTER 4 – THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
After working through this chapter you should be able to:
• Use the binomial theorem to expand binomial expressions.
• Use the binomial theorem to answer various questions on the expansion of a binomial.

INTRODUCTION
We know that ( x + y ) 2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 . The right hand side is called the expansion of ( x + y ) 2 . This
expansion was easy, but to expand ( x + y )100 will involve a lot of work. In this chapter we consider and
simplify the expansion of expressions ( x + y ) n where n is any natural number and x and y can be
any numbers or expressions. This leads to the famous Binimial Theorem. The word “binomial” in Latin
translates to two (bi) and names (nomens) – where x and y are the names. To start, we need to
know what is meant by factorial.

DEFINITION 4.1
For n ∈ , n factorial, written as n!, is defined by n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) ⋅ .... ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1
By definition, 0! = 1.

Example 4.2
3! = 3.2.1 = 6 and 5! = 5.4.3.2.1 = 120 and
10! = 3 628 800 .

For any natural number n , n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)! and (n + 1)n! = (n + 1)!.
n!
Also = (n − 2)! (provided what is true?).
n(n − 1)
n!
For 0 ≤ k < n, = n(n − 1)...(k + 1).
k!
But note, in general, (n + m)! ≠ n! + m! and (nm)! ≠ n!m!.

To understand the Binomial Theorem, we must also be able to count the number of ways in which we
can choose a number of objects from a bigger class of objects. For example, I have three books and I
want to choose two of them to take with me on holiday. In how many ways can I choose these two
 3
book? Mathematically we write this as 3 C2 (3 choose 2) or as   . If you denote the books by A, B
 2
and C , it is easy to see that the possible choices are A and B, or A and C or B and C ; thus
3
C2 = 3. If you have 4 books and want to choose 2, then there are 4 C2 = 6 possible choices. In

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 n n
general, we need to know what is Cr or equivalently,   , i.e. the number of ways in which r
r
different objects can be chosen from n different objects. Here n and r are non-negative integers
with 0 ≤ r ≤ n. Fortunately there is a formula for n Cr , namely

n!
n
Cr = .
r!(n − r )!

4! 4.3 10!
For example, 4 C2 = = = 6 and 10
C7 = = 120.
2!(4 − 2)! 2 7!(10 − 7)!

We want to find a formula for ( x + y ) n and we start by looking at the first few possibilities for n.

Can you see a pattern in the following expansions:

( x + y )0 = 1

( x + y )1 = x+ y

( x + y ) 2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2

( x + y )3 = x3 + 3 x 2 y + 3 xy 2 + y 3

( x + y ) 4 = x 4 + 4 x 3 y + 6 x 2 y 2 + 4 xy 3 + y 4

( x + y )5 = x 5 + 5 x 4 y + 10 x 3 y 2 + 10 x 2 y 3 + 5 xy 4 + y 5

( x + y )6 = x 6 + 6 x5 y + 15 x 4 y 2 + 20 x3 y 3 + 15 x 2 y 4 + 6 xy 5 + y 6

We note that in the expansion of ( x + y ) n :

• There are n + 1 terms.
• The exponents of each term x r y s have the property r + s = n.
• The first term is x n = x n y 0 and the last term is y n = y n x 0 .
• The exponents of x are in descending order.
• The exponents of y are in ascending order.
• The first and last terms have the coefficient 1 .
• The second and second to last terms have the coefficient n.

33
It is clear that for ( x + y ) n in general, we can immediately write down most of the expansion; the only
problem is to know what all the coefficients must be.
A table of the coefficients from the expansions above, gives

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

We can probably all guess that the next row will start and end with 1 and the second and second last
numbers will be 7. But what are the other numbers?
If, for example, we look at the term 15x 4 y 2 in the expansion of ( x + y )6 and ask ourselves, in how
many different ways can I choose 4 objects from 6 objects, the answer is 6 C4 = 15. Why this
question?
If, in the expansion of ( x + y )6 = ( x + y )( x + y )( x + y )( x + y )( x + y )( x + y ), we think of all the x' s to be
different, then in the term containing x 4 y 2 , we want four of these x' s. And these four can be chosen in
6
C4 = 15 ways from the 6 possible x' s. You may rightly ask why do we this with x and not with y? In
other words, if we need to choose two y' s from the six possible y' s, this can be done in 6 C2 ways.
But 6 C2 = 6 C4 = 15 and we get the same result. Use the same argument to check some of the other
coefficients as well.
From this observation and the comments above, our guess then is:

( x + y ) n = x n + nx n −1 y + n
Cn − 2 x n − 2 y 2 + n Cn −3 x n −3 y 3 + ... + n C2 x 2 y n − 2 + nxy n −1 + y n .

It can be verified that n C0 = n

Cn = 1, n
C1 = n
Cn −1 = n and in general n Cr = n
Cn − r . This then gives the
Binomial Theorem:

THEOREM 4.3 BINOMIAL THEOREM

For any natural number n

( x + y ) n = n C0 x n + n C1 x n −1 y + n
C2 x n − 2 y 2 + n
C3 x n −3 y 3 +..... + n
Cn − 2 x 2 y n − 2 + n
Cn −1 xy n −1 + n
Cn y n

This theorem can be proven using mathematical induction, but we will not do it here. The general
term in the expansion, which we write as the (r + 1)th term, is Tr +1 = n Cr x n − r y r . Consequently we can
write the expansion in the Binomial theorem as follows:
n n
( x + y )=
n

=r 0=r 0
∑ Tr +=1 ∑ n
Cr x n − r y r

The table above giving the coefficients in the expansions of ( x + y ) n is called Pascal’s Triangle. From
34
the Binomial Theorem, we now know that the nth row is given by
n
C0 n C1 n C2 n C3 ..... n Cn − 2 n Cn −1 n Cn
In this triangle, any row can easily be obtained from the previous row by using the property (which
you should verify):

n n n +1
Cr −1 + Cr = Cr

This means, any entry in the triangle is obtained by adding the two numbers just above it. For
example, the row corresponding to n = 7 will have the numbers 1, 7 (= 1 + 6), 21 (= 6 + 15),35
(= 15 + 20), 21 (= 15 + 6), 7 (= 6 + 1),1. The nice symmetry comes from the property n Cr = n Cn − r which
also shows that in our discussion above to determine the coefficients, we could just as well have used
y in place of x (as was mentioned above).

Example 4.4
Expand (3 x + 2 y 2 )5 . Here we have n = 5,3 x in the place of x and 2 y 2 in the place of y. By the
Binomial Theorem,
(3 x + 2 y 2 )5 = 5 C0 (3 x)5 + 5 C1 (3 x) 4 (2 y 2 ) + 5 C2 (3 x)3 (2 y 2 ) 2 + 5 C3 (3 x) 2 (2 y 2 )3 + 5 C4 (3 x)(2 y 2 ) 4 + 5 C5 (2 y 2 )5
= 243 x5 + 810 x 4 y 2 + 1080 x 3 y 4 + 720 x 2 y 6 + 240 xy 8 + 32 y10 .

Alternatively, using sigma notation

5 5 5
(3 x + 2 y 2 )5 =
=r 0=r 0
∑ Tr +1 = ∑ 5
Cr (3 x)5− r (2 y 2 ) r =
=r 0
∑ 5
Cr 35− r 2r x5− r y 2 r
5 5 0 5 0 5
= C0 3 2 x y + C1 3 2 x y + C2 3 2 x 3 y 4 + 5C3 32 23 x 2 y 6 + 5C4 3124 x1 y 8 + 5C5 30 25 x 0 y10
4 1 4 2 5 3 2

= 243 x 5 + 810 x 4 y 2 + 1080 x 3 y 4 + 720 x 2 y 6 + 240 xy 8 + 32 y10

Example 4.5
Expand (2 z − 1) 4 . Here n = 4, x = 2 z and y = −1. Thus
4
(2 z − 1) 4 = C0 (2 z ) 4 + 4 C1 (2 z )3 (−1) + 4
C2 (2 z ) 2 (−1) 2 + 4 C3 (2 z )(−1)3 + 4 C4 (−1) 4
= 16 z 4 − 32 z 3 + 24 z 2 − 8 z + 1.

Example 4.6
Determine the fifth term in the binomial theorem expansion of (2 − x)6 .
T5 = T4+1 = 6 C4 (2)6− 4 (− x) 4 = 60 x 4 .

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 Example 4.7
1 8
Find the coefficient of x9 in the binomial theorem expansion of (2 x3 − ).
x2
The general term is 8 Cr (2 x3 )8− r (− x −2 ) r . Simplifying gives 8 Cr 28− r ( x3 ) ( − x )=
8− r r
Cr 28− r ( −1) x 24−5 r .
−2 8 r

We want the coefficient of x9 , hence we need 24 − 5r = 9. This means r = 3. Thus the term
containing x9 is 8
C3 28−3 (−1)3 x 24−5.3 = −1792 x9 and the coefficient of x9 is −1792. Note that the
coefficient of x5 is 0 (verify!).

CHAPTER 4 EXERCISES 4.8

1. Expand the following:
(a) (2 x + 3)5 . (b) (2 x − y )7 .
3
4 1 
(c) (1 − 3r ) . (d)  + b 
a 
4
 3
(e)  2 +  (f) ( y 2 − y 3 )6 .
 x

2. Verify the following properties:

n
(a) Cr = n Cn − r .
n n n +1
(b) Cr −1 + Cr = Cr .
(c) 2 = C0 + C1 + n C2 + n C3 + ... + n Cn − 2 +
n n n n
Cn −1 + n
Cn
(HINT: Use the Binomial Theorem with x = y = 1.)

3. Find the fourth term in the binomial theorem expansion of (3 x + 2)10 .

Also find the coefficient of x 6 as well as the constant term.

4. Find the seventh term in the binomial theorem expansion of (1 − x 2 )14 .

8
 1 
5. Find the sixth term as well as the constant in the binomial theorem expansion of  2 x3 + 3  .
 x 
2
What is the coefficient of x ?

36