Crack identification from concrete structure
images using deep transfer learning
Amena Qadri Syed
Department of Computer Science Department of Computer Science
2022 2nd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Signal Processing (AISP) | 978-1-6654-4290-9/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/AISP53593.2022.9760670
Birla Institute of Technology and Birla Institute of Technology and
Science Pilani,Dubai Campus Science Pilani,Dubai Campus
Dubai, UAE
f20170027@dubai.bits-pilani.ac.in angeljothi@dubai.bits-pilani.ac.in
Abstract—Early crack identification of civil structures is an
essential task to prolong the life of the structures and to promise
public safety. This research aims to develop an automated crack
identification system using deep learning models and the
SDNET2018 dataset. Image augmentation is applied to
overcome the effect of unbalanced data. Deep pre-trained
models like VGG16, InceptionV3, ResNet-50, ResNet-101 and
ResNet-152 are trained and tested using the cracked and
uncracked images of decks and pavements from the dataset. The
experimental results show that the classification models
obtained using transfer learning on the cracked and non-
cracked pavement and deck image dataset have accuracy values
of 70.59%, 60.31%71.93%, 75.40%, and 74.77% for VGG-16,
Inception V3, ResNet-50, ResNet-101, and Resnet-152
pretrained models respectively.
Keywords—Crack detection, data augmentation, machine
learning, deep learning, transfer learning, convolutional neural
network
I. INTRODUCTION
Damage to an engineering structure can be defined as any
change to its material and/or geometric properties of its
structural system. The breaking or fracturing of concrete
results in its complete or incomplete separation into two or
more parts, and this separation is called a crack. The
maintenance of concrete structures ensures its aesthetics,
durability, and public safety. Early crack identification is of
high importance and is a matter of prime concern for
inspectors to monitor the structural integrity.
In the past, manual inspection was performed to identify
cracks in structures. This took into account the information
about the structure such as its age, design, details about the
initial observation of cracks on it, deflection, staining, water
leakages, maintenance details, etc. Thus, manual inspection
required a lot of time, close observation, regular visit of the
inspectors, well-focused inspection, and manual recording of
details. Human error and negligence are unavoidable factors
which may lead to deterioration of the structures due to long-
term accumulation of damage when not detected early which
may prove to be a threat to public safety.
Development in the field of Internet of Things (IoT) and
machine learning (ML) has enabled autonomous structural
health monitoring (SHM) systems to be developed and
implemented in a cost and labour effective manner [10].
Through these systems it is possible to regularly monitor and
collect image data regarding the health of civil structures. The
images collected could be analyzed by an automatic crack
identification and detection algorithm which could warn the
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J.Angel Arul Jothi Anusree K
Department of Computer Science
Birla Institute of Technology and
Science Pilani,Dubai Campus
Dubai, UAE Dubai, UAE
p20180904@dubai.bits-pilani.ac.in
concerned personnel in case of any potential threats. Moreover
the identified cracks can be treated with the necessary
measures to reduce damage to the structure thereby increasing
its life and enhancing public safety.
Research in the past on automated crack detection from
images incorporated image processing and machine learning
techniques to facilitate reliable and accurate detection and
prediction of cracks from concrete structures. Recently, deep
learning, a branch of machine learning, has revolutionized the
way computer vision problems are solved. Deep learning
focuses on the learning of data representations based on the
human brain’s perception of information through the way
neurons interact. Though deep learning has been applied to
solve several problems in various domains, limited research
has been done to use this technique to identify if an image has
a crack.
This work aims to develop an automated crack
identification system by implementing popular transfer
learning CNN models on the SDNET2018 image dataset of
decks and pavements. Transfer learning has been a popularly
used technique recently for computer vision tasks which
enables the development of complex neural networks with
ease. In transfer learning, a pre-trained deep neural network’s
knowledge is used to solve a task which is similar to the task
the pre-trained architecture was initially trained to achieve
[10]. The automated system developed in this work classifies
an input image as cracked or uncracked. This study also
compares the performance of the various transfer learning
CNN models to identify the best performing model which can
be leveraged in further research to contribute better for
inspection of cracked structures.
The structure of this manuscript is as follows: In Section
II, we present the Literature Review followed by the
explanation of the dataset in Section III. The details of the
convolutional neural networks and transfer learning through
pre-trained models is presented in Section IV. The proposed
method is given in Section V. In Section VI, the evaluation
metrics are discussed. The results obtained from the research
and the discussion is presented in Section VII. The
conclusions drawn from the study are presented in Section
VIII.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
The advent of data driven methods have substantially
contributed to the progress in the domain of civil engineering
and inspection methods through different techniques to utilize
the data effectively. Initial work on the image data focused on
image processing techniques that included pre-processing of
image data for intensity enhancement which includes the
methods of histograms for grayscale transformations [4],
adaptive grayscale transformation, the use of canny edge
detection and morphological operations [3], logarithmic
transformation [5], and the use of thresholding methods such
as the OTSU algorithm for well thresholded results displaying
the distinguishable cracked regions [6,7].
Initial research utilizing image data leveraged different
techniques to obtain the image features and solve the crack
detection problem through basic image processing methods. It
is observed in [1] that the images were resized to only focus
on the regions of interest on which the edge detection is
performed using the Prewitt kernel through which the gradient
that is approximated with central differences is generated,
followed by the application of some element wise operations.
The gradient matrix so obtained had information that can be
used to threshold edges based on a certain criteria. Mean
detection is performed on the edges detected previously with
a clear location of the edges through a mask dilation for the
previously detected edges for better thresholded image results.
Points that were not cracks and were unwanted were removed
through orientation kernels. The angle and width of the crack
were then determined through the use of angle kernels.
In [2], the filtering and thresholding process was carried in
a different manner through first applying a gray level
transformation on the pavement images to deal with the
inhomogeneous gray level in the background as well as the
noise-based histogram analysis and identifying background
signal to segment the background from the original image,
followed by denoising through median filter for the
elimination of isolated noise points. The spatial domain
processing has histogram as its foundation that is leveraged
for effective intensification of images to transform image gray
level as per the specified gray level distribution through
histogram equalization.
The use of real time image data for crack detection was
made in [3] through an unmanned aerial monitoring which is
captured using a camera and utilizing a Raspberry Pi model 3
and ultrasonic sensors, processed by applying a grayscale
adaptive threshold for extracting the region of interest,
inverted and passed through a median filter to denoise
following image morphology techniques followed by a fitted
contour and skeletal morphology after which the region of
crack was detected and the width of the crack was measured.
Histogram thresholding is put to use for detection of
potential cracks in concrete surfaces wherein the use of line
emphasis filters is used to remove noise that is blob-like and
sheet-like, and the line structure is featured corresponding to
a crack.The moving average filters are then applied to
smoothen the histogram for further analysis for the detection
of significant peaks in the histogram based on the offset
distance and crossover index that are dynamic parameters.
The result of this is put through image binarization as per a set
threshold [4].
Pavement images collected using a camera were analyzed
for crack detection where the images were pre-processed
through logarithmic transformations for mapping a shorter
range of values to a wider range of values. The darker pixels
are thereby expanded and the brighter pixels are compressed,
thereby facilitating the enhancement of the image’s
illumination followed by the use of bilateral filters for image
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smoothing where the random noise of the images is removed
without loss in the precision of the edges. The Canny
algorithm detects the edges following which the
morphological filtering is applied. The feature extraction is
performed through calculating the horizontal and vertical
projective integrals which serves as the information to be
utilized by the Decision Tree classifier to identify the regions
of crack. The classification algorithm used is the C4.5 decision
tree algorithm implemented using the Weka suite to classify
the images into the classes of Crack and Non-Crack [5].
Adaptive linear grayscale image transformation is applied
to deal with the difficulties of low levels of colour saturation,
contrast and the high complexity of the composition of the
background. The images are denoised and their geometric
features are extracted. The OTSU segmentation algorithm is
applied to these images for crack segmentation. The suspected
crack images are now obtained and the features are extracted
for a classification task. The length-width ratio of the
rectangle that is circumscribed in a crack image, the
proportion of crack pixels in an image, the proportion of the
points of curvature mutation, the image compactness through
an equation incorporating crack area and crack perimeter, and
the ratio of fitting difference where a series of selected points
from a target image are fit into a curve are the features that are
measured for classification. The parameter optimized SVM
through cross validation is used for image classification of
crack and non-crack images which are equally divided as per
the classes in the training and test sets [6].
In [7], a similar approach is followed where the OTSU
algorithm performs the threshold segmentation followed by
feature extraction using the GLCM method and classification
based on the extracted features by a SVM. This study
additionally has the performance comparison of 5 different
SVM kernel functions, namely the dot, radial, polynomial,
anova, and neural kernels for the prediction of the Crack and
No Crack classes to identify the SVM that is best performing.
The results of the study concludes that the Anova kernel with
a penalty factor of 0.5 best classifies the cracked and non-
cracked structures.
In [9], the methods of efficient data collection through
sensors and other devices were discussed such that the data
initially collected does not require more time for pre-
processing. The development of low cost and robust networks
has been emphasized in the paper for the monitoring of the
structural health of the engineering structures. This
information helps in effective feature extraction that can be
used for prediction of the crack and its damage assessment as
well as predict the future lifetime of the structure.
The crack detection using traditional image processing
methods were not efficient enough to provide a clear
understanding and distinction of the cracked and uncracked
images. This led to research that could identify and extract
features of the images easily. The CNNs were then leveraged
to extract features from the images following which the
classification layer of the CNN classifies the images to a class
based on the extracted features. Image feature extraction and
classification is a complex process requiring extremely long
training time and an enormous dataset to build on the results.
This idea of transfer learning had been leveraged for object
recognition task was put to implementation in [11] to classify
general objects of the GHIM10K and CalTech256 datasets
using a fine-tuned pretrained VGG19 architecture followed by
a SVM classifier.
 Transfer learning gained a lot of popularity and was also
put to use for a similar task of classification in for assuring the
quality of welding structures. A pre-trained MobileNet
architecture that was followed by a softmax classification
layer that was optimized using Global Average Pooling and
DropBlock technology proved to perform much better than the
traditional convolutional neural networks in the classification
of defective welding structures [12].
The ability of pre-trained models to solve real world
problems of varying nature inspired researchers to implement
it further in the field of civil engineering and inspection. The
use of pre-trained AlexNet, VGGNet13 and ResNet18 on
manually collected crack structure images to classify crack
images and detect regions of cracks in those images following
which a comparative analysis of these three neural networks
is made to identify the best performing pre-trained
architecture for the crack detection task [10].
III. DATASET
The SDNET2018 dataset [8], which contains RGB images
of cracked and uncracked concrete structures (decks,
pavements, and walls) is utilized in this work. Specifically we
use only the decks and the pavements images from the dataset
for this study. The dataset contains 2025 cracked images and
11,595 uncracked images of decks, and 2608 cracked and
21,726 uncracked images of pavements. Thus, the total
number of cracked and uncracked images used in this study is
4633 and 33,321 respectively. All images are in jpeg format
captured by a 16 MP Nikon digital camera. The images in the
dataset are of the dimensions 256x256 pixels. Figure 1 shows
a few sample cracked and uncracked images of decks and
pavements from the dataset.
Fig. 1. Cracked and non-cracked pavement and deck images from the
dataset.
IV. BACKGROUND
A. Convolutional Neural Network
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is a type of deep
learning architecture that helps in classification problems. It
has revolutionized the way images could be processed and
analyzed. CNNs are composed of the convolutional layers, the
max pooling layers, the fully connected layers, and the
Softmax layers. Convolutional layers of a CNN use filters that
have learnable weights. The filters have width, height and
depth arrangement of neurons to accept the input image or
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tensor, perform the convolution operation, and apply an
activation function which produces the output tensor. The
most preferable activation function used in a CNN is the
ReLU activation function. This introduces a non-linearity in
the CNN for it to be able to learn the real world data that has
non-negative linear values.
The convolution layer helps the CNN to extract features
from the images. The convolutional layer is followed by the
pooling layer (usually a max pooling layer) that helps in
down-sampling the output obtained from the convolutional
layer so that the cost of computation and the probability of
overfitting is reduced. There can be several alternating layers
of convolutional and pooling layers in a CNN. A fully
connected layer which is in the form of a flattened vector
follows the last pooling layer in a CNN. The softmax layer
takes the features from the fully connected layer to calculate
probabilities of the individual classes through an exponential
function that is normalized. Finally, the classification result is
the class which has the highest probability. A basic
architecture of a CNN includes an input layer, multiple
convolution layers followed by pooling layers, fully
connected layers, and finally the output layers. The
convolution layers serve as image feature extractors with the
features serving as a basis for the resultant classification.
B. Pre-trained CNNs and Transfer Learning
Further studies on CNN led to the development of deeper
neural networks called pre-trained CNNs. A pre-trained CNN
is a deep learning model that has been trained on a large
amount of images belonging to some domain to solve some
classification problem. Some of the popular pre-trained CNNs
are AlexNet architecture, VGG architectures, Inception
architectures, ResNet architectures and the DenseNet
architectures. These networks along with their pre-trained
weights are available to the research community [13]. Each of
these models are pre-trained on the ImageNet dataset which is
a dataset commonly used for research in the computer vision
domain, and consists of 1,281,167 training images along with
50,000 validation and 100,000 test images in total with 1,000
categories.
Despite being highly efficient in solving several real-
world classification problems, CNNs suffer in terms of
requiring large amounts of training data and large training
time along with high computational power. The requirement
of large training data and long training time is counter-
attacked by the use of transfer learning. It is the application of
the knowledge gained by a CNN while solving a task to solve
a similar task through a pre-trained network generating results
faster, thereby reducing the training time. Transfer learning
has the main aim of transferring knowledge from the source to
accomplish a target. Different features are extracted in
different layers of a deep learning model. Transfer learning
incorporates the tasks where domain adaptation is required
where the distribution of data at the source is shifted to the
representation as per the required target domain, domain
confusion is facilitated through transferring features across
domains wherein the representations of the domain at source
and the domain at the destination are forced to be similar
which as a result confuses the domain, and classification
problems with different number of target classes as per the
task to be solved. This approach helps in solving various real-
world problems through facilitating faster training along with
good efficiency. The application of transfer learning models
on the test data yields accurate results making the models
reliable.
V. METHODOLOGY AND IMPLEMENTATION
In this work the analysis of image characteristics through
pre-trained CNNs and transfer learning have been put to use
for classification of concrete structure images as cracked and
uncracked. The proposed method is detailed in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Methodology followed for crack and non-cracked image
classification
A. Data Pre-processing
The images from the dataset are read and resized to 128 x
128 dimension. It can be observed from the SDNET2018
dataset that the number of cracked images is less than the
number of uncracked images for both decks and pavements.
To resolve the issue of unbalanced dataset, image
augmentation techniques are used to increase the number of
cracked images in the dataset. The cracked images are
augmented where each original image is rotated to a random
angle between 0 and 180 degree as well as 0 and -180 degrees,
and flipped horizontally and vertically. Each of these
augmented images are dynamically processed at runtime.
After data augmentation the images are split into two sets: one
training set and the other testing set. The images are
distributed such that the training set has 32,400 images and the
testing set has 8,208 images. The training images consisted of
16,200 cracked images and 16,200 uncracked images. The
testing images had the composition of 4,204 cracked images
and 4,204 uncracked images.
B. Pre-trained CNNs Used
In this work, the pretrained VGG16 architecture,
InceptionV3 architecture, ResNet-50 architecture, ResNet-
101 architecture, and ResNet-152 architecture are used for the
classification of cracked and non-cracked surfaces. These
architectures are considered due to their wide use in the
transfer learning studies of the past.
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The VGG16 architecture is a CNN architecture that has 16
layers composed of 13 convolution (conv) layers and 3 fully
connected layers. Therefore the name VGG16. It has
approximately 138 million parameters. The conv layers have
a 3x3 receptive field and a stride of 1. The conv layers use
padding so that the output has the same spatial resolution as
that of the input after convolution. Max pooling layers of 2 x
2 with a stride of 2 are used after certain conv layers. Finally,
two fully connected layers having 4096 units in each, followed
by a softmax layer having 1000 units (as it is trained to classify
the 1000 classes in the ImageNet dataset) are present. The
activation function used in the conv layers is ReLU due to the
efficient computation for faster learning and reduction in the
vanishing gradient problem [13].
InceptionV3 is a deep learning network having 48 layers
and fewer parameters than VGGNet, and is Google’s third
edition of the Inception CNN. The Inception CNN, initially
introduced with the name GoogLeNet is known popularly
today as InceptionV1 which was made of inception modules.
The InceptionV1 architecture was refined through the
inclusion of batch normalization in InceptionV2. This was
followed by the addition of the ideas of factorization, auxiliary
classifiers and grid size reduction in the third iteration.
Different approaches to factorization have been incorporated
in the InceptionV3. First, factorization into smaller
convolutions was implemented which replaces a bigger
convolution by smaller convolutions. Another approach to
factorization is through asymmetrical convolutions wherein a
n x n convolution can be achieved by having a 1 x n
convolution followed by n x 1 convolution. Factorization
helped in the reduction of the number of parameters without
causing the network efficiency to reduce. [14]
The ResNet architectures are residual networks which are
extremely deep and have convolutional layers and identity
blocks. It was the first network with the concept of skip
connection which helps in mitigating the vanishing gradient
problem through gradient flow with the means of an alternate
path. ResNets of variable sizes can be constructed. The model
is then able to ensure that the performance of the higher layers
is at least good as layers in the lower portion. They are
designed to perform 3x3 convolution in all convolutional
layers, and there is an increase in the number of filters on the
basis of the depth of the network; it varies from 64 to 2048 (in
ResNet-50, ResNet-101, and ResNet-152). Only one 3x3 max
pooling layer is present in all the different ResNet models with
a stride of 2 applied after the first layer. Every model ends with
an average pooling layer that replaces the fully connected
layer that helps replace the model complexity as this layer will
then have no parameters to optimize. This is followed by an
output layer with 1000 neurons to classify the 1000 classes of
the ImageNet dataset having the Softmax activation function
applied to it to provide the probability of the class the image
belongs to. A ResNet-50 pretrained model is 50 layers deep,
ResNet-101 is 101 layers deep, and ResNet-152 is 152 layers
deep.
C. Transfer Learning the models
The pre-trained CNNs with Imagenet weights are loaded
and their fully connected layers are left out so that the models
can be modified for solving the task of concern as per the
requirements. Each layer of the pre-trained CNNs is already
trained before, therefore the layers are made as non-trainable
explicitly to implement transfer learning effectively. Then, the
output layer of the pre-trained CNNs are flattened to obtain a
single dimension. This is followed by a fully connected layer TABLE I. CONFUSION MATRICES WHERE 0 IS FOR CRACKED AND 1 IS
FOR NON-CRACKED IMAGES FOR TRANSFER LEARNING BASED MODELS : (A) :
having 128 neurons along with the ReLU activation function. VGG16, (B) : INCEPTIONV3, (C) : RESNET-50, (D) : RESNET-101, (E) :
A dropout layer with 50% dropout rate follows this RESNET-152
arrangement and is succeeded by the final output layer which
is again a fully connected layer. The final output layer has 2 Class 0 1
neurons to represent the cracked and the non-cracked classes
with the Softmax activation function. The properties are 0 2265 1335
selected to be applied on the dataset used in this paper based
on the research results of the papers studied and other online 1 1079 3529
sources that have utilized these values for classification of
other image data. These properties, called the (A)
hyperparameters, play a crucial role in the training process.
The hyperparameter values are set the same for each transfer Class 0 1
learning model implemented in this paper to compare their
performances based on the evaluation metrics. 0 537 3063

VI. MODEL IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION 1 195 4413

All the models in this work are implemented in python
with stochastic gradient descent (SGD) optimizer, number of (B)
epochs as 100, learning rate as 0.00015 and binary cross
entropy loss. An Early Stopping condition was used with a Class 0 1
patience value of 10 where the validation loss is monitored
and checked for minimum value of the validation loss. A 0 2178 1422
Model Checkpoint is also set to capture the model for the
1 882 3726
maximum validation accuracy.
The performance of the pre-trained deep learning models
(C)
leveraged for the classification of cracked and uncracked
images through transfer learning is evaluated through a Class 0 1
confusion matrix that enables to obtain the accuracy,
precision, recall, and F1-score. Since two classes (cracked and 0 2241 1359
non-cracked) are considered by this study, we obtain a 2x2
confusion matrix. Let true positives be the instances whose 1 660 3948
predicted and actual class labels are cracked, true negatives be
the instances whose predicted and actual class labels are non-
(D)
cracked, false positives be the predicted cracked images that
are actually non-cracked images, and false negatives be the
Class 0 1
predicted non-cracked images that are actually cracked
images. 0 2172 1428
The accuracy is a measure of how accurately the model
1 643 3965
has made its predictions for the task. Precision is another
metric which helps compute how many correctly predicted
cracked images were present out of all cracked images (E)
predicted by the model. Precision values showcase a model’s
reliability. Recall value highlights the value of the correctly TABLE II shows the results of the comparison on the basis
predicted cracked images divided by the correctly predicted of accuracy of classification suggests that the best
cracked images and wrongly predicted non-cracked images performance was by ResNet-101 with an accuracy of 75.40%
which were actually cracked region images. Recall values are followed by ResNet-152 with an accuracy close to it which is
necessary to not let go of an actual cracked image, even if it 74.77% and this is succeeded by the ResNet-50 having an
may be at the cost of raising a false alarm. The F1-score is accuracy of 71.93%. The VGG16 had a closer accuracy of
calculated such that the harmonic mean is obtained from the 70.59% and the InceptionV3 was found to be the model with
recall and precision values, thereby reducing the need for the the least accurate performance with an accuracy of 60.39%.
use of multiple metrics. It is used to understand the impact of On the basis of precision, the ResNet based models again
high or low precision values along with high or low recall displayed better values in comparison to the VGG16 and
values obtained for a classification model. A higher value of InceptionV3 models. ResNet-101 had a precision of 74.39%,
F1-score implies high precision and high recall values, followed by ResNet-152 with a precision of 73.52%, and
implying a better performance. VGG16 had 72.55% as its precision. The ResNet-50 had a
close precision value of 72.38%. The InceptionV3 had the
VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION least precision of 59.03%.
The models VGG16, InceptionV3, ResNet-50, ResNet-
The results for recall values show that InceptionV3 had
101, and ResNet-152 are compared based on accuracy,
better recall values when compared to all the other models
precision, recall, and F1-score. TABLE I presents the
which is in contrast to the results of accuracy and precision.
confusion matrices of all the pre-trained models used. The
InceptionV3 had a recall value of 95.77%, followed by
class ‘0’ represents the uncracked image class and the class
ResNet-152 having a recall of 86.05%, succeeded by ResNet-
‘1’ represents the cracked image class.

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neural networks with greater depth with respect to the number
of layers serve as better classifiers. The idea of transfer
learning facilitates better working and easier implementation
in terms of training time and ease of use. The issues of concern
thereby can be resolved with minimal resource utilization and
can be available for the use of all despite the limitations of
resources. Future studies can solve the tasks of segmentation
as discussed in the papers referred through neural networks
that are pre-trained on large datasets which serve as
convenient feature extractors and the last layers of the network
can incorporate the use of a machine learning classifier to
classify the images with even better accuracy.
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