UNIT – III

ELEMENTS OF IOT

Application Sensors & Actuators – Edge

Networking (WSN) – Gateways – IoT
Communication Model – WPAN & LPWA.

.
Application of sensor and Actuators:

❖ Sensors and Actuators Introduction Although

Sensors and actuators are often found in similar
areas of applications i.e. in equipment and systems
within industries and often interact, they are still two
separate components.
❖ They are often said complementary to each other
and work together to ensure that different assets and
systems are operating effectively.
❖ In one line Sensors are detectors whereas actuators
are mover. Both play an important role in process
control units and conditional maintenance.
What are sensors?

• Sensors are such devices which are used to convert

physical quantities, events or characteristics into the
electrical signals for the purpose of monitoring and
controlling. So sensor takes input from environment and
converts into electrical form then fed to the system or
controller. Sensor works as an input device. For example
Thermocouple, photo cell, RTD, LVDT, strain gauge, Load
cell etc. A block diagram for sensor is shown below
What are Actuators?
❖ On the other hand actuators are such devices which deliver physical
quantity (like force or motion) to the environment by converting source
energy according to control signal received that can be in electrical form.
Here source energy can be pneumatic, hydraulic or electric type and
motion produced (by actuator) can be either linear or rotary. Actuator acts
as output device. For examples- different types of electric motor actuator,
heaters, electro pneumatic actuator, electro-hydraulic actuator, magnetic
actuator etc. A block diagram of actuator is shown below
Sensors and actuators in Iot
❖ The Internet of Things is defined as a paradigm in which objects equipped
with sensor, actuator and processor communicate with each other to serve a
meaningful purpose. IoT can also be seen simply as an interaction between
the physical and digital worlds. Once a stand alone device and application
now has the ability to connect to the network via sensors, actuators,
processors and transceivers. Internet of Things (commonly known as IoT) is
composed of several technology layers that enable ordinary things to share
the data. They collect information over the Internet to ultimately deliver
intelligence, autonomous actions and value which largely depend on the
quality of the data itself. An IoT device is basically made up of a Physical
object (things) + Controller (brain) + Networks (Internet) along with sensor
and actuator. Sensor and Actuators are devices that enable interaction with
the physical world in IoT technology. The following diagram shows how a
sensor and actuators works together
Here in basic form, sensors in the device sense the
environment and fed to the controller, then based on set
value, control signal is generated for the actuator to
perform actions required to maintain set value. Such
control signal is sent to actuator that moves or controls
the mechanism or the system. It is to be noted that an
actuator needs external energy to perform action
Difference between sensor and actuator

A comparison between sensor and actuators is shown in table

Sensors and actuators in Iot

The Internet of Things is defined as a paradigm in which objects equipped

with sensor, actuator and processor communicate with each other to
serve a meaningful
purpose. IoT can also be seen simply as an interaction between the
physical and digital worlds. Once a standalone device and application
now has the ability to connect to the network via sensors, actuators,
processors and transceivers.
Internet of Things (commonly known as IoT) is composed
of several technology layers that enable ordinary things to
share the data. They collect information over the Internet
to ultimately deliver intelligence, autonomous actions and
value which largely depend on the quality of the data itself.
An IoT device is basically made up of a Physical object
(things) + Controller (brain) + Networks (Internet) along
with sensor and actuator. Sensor and Actuators are
devices that enable interaction with the physical world in
IoT technology. The following diagram shows how a sensor
and actuators works together
Here in basic form, sensors in the device sense
the environment and fed to the controller, then
based on set value, control signal is generated
for the actuator to perform actions required to
maintain set value. Such control signal is sent to
actuator that moves or controls the mechanism
or the system. It is to be noted that an actuator
needs external energy to perform action.
A diagram for Sensor to actuator flow in IoT is shown.
Sensors, actuators, computer servers, and the
communication network form the core infrastructure of an
IoT Framework. Data collection, handling, communication,
and processing of the data are done under IoT technology.
The IoT device collects a high amount of information from
various sensors, and it is being decided through decision
making which data is relevant for their condition and
which places it is to be processed or stored, as well as
which is desired communication level, while actuators
enable the automation of the system for relevant
information processing
What Is IoT Edge?
❖ IoT Edge Meaning …

❖ The Internet-of-Things (IoT) edge is where sensors and

devices communicate real-time data to a network. IoT edge
computing solves latency issues associated with the cloud,
as data is processed closer to its point of origin. Along with
reduced latency, IoT edge architecture brings enhanced
safety and a smoother end-user experience.

❖ On a high-throughput network, such as 5G, IoT edge can be

used to process large amounts of data nearly
instantaneously, creating a more immersive,
comprehensive experience for the user. At the same time,
even when relatively small sums of data are transmitted,
IoT edge can make machines and other devices that impact
human safety work faster, keeping operators and others
safer.
Why IoT Edge Computing is Important

❖ Edge computing involves processing data near its source instead

of sending it long distances to be processed by a remote server.
This solves several important problems,many of which are
associated with the latency created when data has to travel long
distances.

❖ For example, if a factory uses machines on its assembly line and

their inputs are processed using a remote, cloud-based server,
there could be significant safety issues. The time it takes for an
input to be received by the device, get sent to the server in the
cloud, processed, and then have the corresponding command
sent back to the machine could be too much. If the command
involves telling the machine to stop functioning because a human
limb is in the way, serious injury could result.

❖ With IoT edge, the data may only have to travel yards instead of
miles, saving precious time and enhancing safety.
IoT Edge Devices:
❖ IoT edge computing depends on devices to receive, process,
and output IoT data. This involves a system of connectivity
dependent on devices and sensors. The data gets sent
through a messaging system, processed by a computer, and
then stored. Because IoT devices generate, process, and
implement large amounts of data, keeping the computing
process near the edge prevents latency and operational
issues.

❖ An IoT edge device is internet-enabled and typically

comprised of sensors. These sensors collect data and then
pass it on to the processing unit. Here, it is processed locally
instead of going through the time-consuming sequence of
sending it to the cloud and back. IoT devices can save
network resources by collecting and processing data in a
distributed fashion. In this way, workloads are spread among
available devices, ensuring that none gets overworked or
underutilized.
Examples of IoT Devices:
❖ Some common IoT edge devices include an IoT server, which
processes data at the edge, and an IoT router, which works as an
IoT hub, transmitting data to the necessary recipients. Self-
driving cars are also IoT devices in that they produce, process,
and use data without needing the cloud—for at least some of
their processes.
The Need For IoT Gateway :
❖ Organizations commonly deploy an array of different
IoT devices, which can make it difficult to monitor and
manage these devices. An IoT gateway is a centralized
hub that connects IoT devices and sensors to cloud-
based computing and data processing.

❖ Modern IoT gateways often allow bidirectional data

flow between the cloud and IoT devices. This allows
IoT sensor data to be uploaded for processing and
commands to be sent from cloud-based applications
to IoT devices.
How Does An IoT Gateway Work?

IoT gateways are designed to simplify and streamline IoT device communications and
management. Some common functions of IoT devices include:

❖ Inter-Device Communications:If a company has deployed different types of devices from

different vendors, they may not be able to communicate directly. An IoT gateway can act as
a central hub and perform the necessary translations to allow inter-device
communications.
❖ Device-to-Cloud Communications: IoT devices commonly send data to cloud-based
infrastructure for processing and use in applications. An IoT gateway aggregates data from
multiple devices, providing a single point of contact for cloud infrastructure.
❖ Data Preprocessing: IoT devices can collect a massive amount of data, which requires a
significant mount of bandwidth to send to cloud-based applications for processing. An IoT
gateway performs data filtering and pre-processing to reduce the volume of data sent to
the cloud.
❖ IoT Device Security:IoT devices have notoriously poor security, making it inadvisable to
make them accessible directly from the public Internet. IoT gateways sit between IoT
devices and the Internet and can include integrated security functionality to help protect
these devices against attack.
❖ Intelligent Edge:IoT gateways can natively understand and process the data produced by
IoT devices. This may allow them to support basic device management directly.
IoT Gateways In The IoT Architecture:

IoT infrastructure
can be divided into
four architectural
layers. These
include:

Sensor Layer: At the sensor layer, devices collect data for future processing. IoT devices operate at this
layer.
Network or Data Acquisition Layer: At this layer, data is aggregated from multiple sources and securely
transmitted to processing systems. Data acquisition systems (DAS) are responsible for aggregating and
converting data to a desired format. IoT gateways operate at this level to provide secure connectivity
between IoT devices and processing infrastructure.
Data Pre-processing Layer: At this layer, IoT sensor data undergoes pre-processing and basic data
analytics to reduce data volume before it is transmitted on to cloud-based infrastructure. IoT edge
devices operate at this layer.
Cloud Analysis or Application Layer: Cloud-based infrastructure performs in-depth data analytics and
provides applications and users with access to data and analytic results. Data storage or warehousing
may also occur at this layer.
IoT Edge Security:

❖ IoT gateways are an example of an intelligent IoT device deployed at the network edge. These devices c
provide both benefits and downsides for IoT security, including:

❖ Data Minimization: IoT gateways are responsible for filtering data produced by IoT devices before sendin
it out over the Internet. This helps to reduce both the volume of data sent and the amount of sensitive
information that may be leaked in network communications or via compromised cloud-based servers.

❖ Decentralized Infrastructure: IoT gateways have limited data processing capabilities, which have benefit
and drawbacks for security. Distributed data processing via edge computing helps to improve resiliency
and data minimization; however, a distributed architecture may be more difficult to secure because it
cannot be protected by perimeter-based defenses.

❖ Edge-Based Security: IoT gateways can incorporate integrated security functionality that sits between I
devices and the public Internet. This can help to protect an organization’s IoT devices and the sensitive
data that they collect against cyber threats because the IoT helps to close the security gaps that are
common in IoT devices
Communication Models in IoT (Internet of Things ):

❖ IoT devices are found everywhere and will enable

circulatory intelligence in the future. For operational
perception, it is important and useful to understand
how various IoT devices communicate with each
other.

❖ Communication models used in IoT have great value.

The IoTs allow people and things to be connected
any time, any space, with anything and anyone, using
any network and any service.
Types of Communication Model : 1. Request & Response Model –
❖ This model follows a client-server architecture.
❖ The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This request is usually
in the encoded format.
❖ This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained and each
request is independently handled.
❖ The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and its
resource representation. This data is converted to response and is transferred in an
encoded format to the client.
❖ The client, in turn, receives the response. On the other hand — In Request-Response
communication model client sends a request to the server and the server responds to
the request. When the server receives the request it decides how to respond, fetches the
data retrieves resources, and prepares the response, and sends it to the client.
2. Publisher-
Subscriber Model –

❖ This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers. Publishers are the
source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are managed by the broker. They are
not aware of consumers.
❖ Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
❖ Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to the
appropriate consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the consumer to
which a particular topic belongs to which the publisher is unaware of.
3. Push-Pull Model –

❖ The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
❖ Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.Publishers publish the message/data and
push it into the queue. The consumers, present on the other side, pull the data out of the queue.
Thus, the queue acts as the buffer for the message when the difference occurs in the rate of push
or pull of data on the side of a publisher and consumer.
❖ Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer. Queues also
act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch between the rate at which the
producers push the data and consumers pull the data.
4. Exclusive Pair –
❖ Exclusive Pair is the bi-
directional model,
including full-duplex
communication among
client and server.
❖ The connection is
constant and remains
open till the client sends
a request to close the
connection.
❖ The Server has the
record of all the
connections which has
been opened.
❖ This is a state-full
connection model and
the server is aware of all
open connections.
❖ WebSocket based
communication API is
fully based on this model
Introduction to WPAN technologies and standards:

❖ In this era of digitalization, communication has become

more convenient with the help of ground breaking
technology – Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs).
This innovation not only brings ease but also enables swift
integration between devices in our daily lives. Moreover,
recent advancements have been made as technologies
and standards continue reshaping wireless
communication.
❖ In this article, we will explore different WPAN technologies
such as Bluetooth, Zigbee or UWB along with their parent
protocols like IEEE 802.15.1 and NFC Forum.
History and development of WPAN:

❖ Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) cover a relatively small area,

typically within the range of 10 meters in radius. The development of WPAN
can be traced back to the early days of computing when cables were used
to connect devices like printers, modems, and keyboards.
❖ In the 1990s, a new wireless networking standard called Bluetooth was
developed by Ericsson engineers Johan Ullman and Jaap Haartsen. They
introduced it as an open specification for short-range wireless
communication between mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs),
laptops, and other computers.
❖ The first commercial products with built-in Bluetooth capabilities were
released in 1999. These included a Motorola Timeport P7689 mobile phone
with an embedded Bluetooth module and an IBM ThinkPad A30 laptop
computer with an optional PC Card-based Bluetooth adapter
❖ Another critical development in WPAN technology was IEEE 802.15 group
which started working on Short-Range Wireless Personal Area Network
standards in August 1999. This group aimed at creating standards for low-
power wireless communications between nearby devices that could operate
without interfering with each other or other Wi-Fi networks operating nearby.
❖ One of the most successful implementations of the IEEE 802.15
standard was ZigBee – a low-cost mesh networking protocol
widely used for home automation systems, including lighting
control, heating/cooling systems control, and security monitoring
solutions.

❖ WPAN has become more widespread with the emergence of IoT

(Internet-of-Things) technologies. Today several protocols like NFC
(Near Field Communication), RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification), and Wi-Fi Direct provide connectivity options
among various devices within proximity, further enhancing
application scenarios for these networks ranging from smart cities
to industrial automation use-cases where battery life is critical
making useLower power efficient protocols over traditional LAN’s
costing significantly less power consumption overhead while
providing ubiquitous coverage never seen before expanding
applications beyond human interaction is driven ones thus further
proliferating gains made in both industry and commerce alike.
Types of WPAN technologies :

Bluetooth is used for connecting various devices including smartphones; Zigbee finds its
applications in
home automation & smart metering while Ultra-Wideband (UWB) provides short-range high
data rate Communications

Bluetooth:
Since its inception till now, Bluetooth remains one of the most widely used WPAN technologies even
today. It’s known for being easy-to-use having low power consumption capabilities that make it
compatible across a range of gadgets like laptops, smartphones, wearables & more making it an
essential tool for modern-day wireless communication.
For instance, BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) allows wearable tech products (smartwatches/fitness
trackers)
to communicate efficiently without draining battery life quickly.
With every new version launched, this technology continues to evolve responding effectively to user
needs by providing reliable connectivity solutions. For example, the implementation of mesh
networking fosters many-to-many connections instead of traditional pairings expanding possible
applications which includes IoT-based systems at homes/scale industry automations where numerous
nodes require seamless network spectrum links.
Zigbee:
Zigbee is one of the most used low-power wireless technologies in WPANs. It enables reliable
transmission of small data packets making it ideal for home automation or building control
systems
applications. Zigbee can support thousands of connected devices simultaneously without
affecting
throughput speed or latency.

UWB:
Another popular technology utilized by WPANS is UWB which utilizes broad spectrum
frequencies to
transfer large amounts of data quickly over shorter distances without requiring external
positioning
systems like GPS – this makes them convenient solutions primarily utilized by IoT-related
industries
involved in areas such as smart homes where user locations play an essential role controlling
lights/temperature settings automatically via indoor location-based services needing high
accuracy
within centimetres.
WPAN standards and protocols:

❖ IEEE 802.15 protocols define standards ensuring

effective device-to-device connectivity across
different brands among Bluetooth-enabled
products/devices via IEEE 802.15.1 standard
protocol which defines rules on pairing
mechanisms/security features/power
management rates.
❖ Similarly, globally recognized IEEE 802.15.4
provides standardized physical/media access
controls allowing Low-Rate Communications
necessary when wirelessly connecting LR- WPAN
networks common amongst various industry
sectors from process-control-systems (PCSs)
through Home-Automation (HA)-based IOT-
devices.
NFC Forum Standards:

Near Field Communication (NFC) offers specialized forms/wireless tech enabling information
exchange/data transfers between proximity NFC enabled devices using formats known
collectively
under Near Field Communications (NFC). These include NDEF format developed specifically
providing
efficient storage/exchange formats suitable mainly for contactless payments/small amount-
data
transfers compatible with any other similar system/device configured accordingly.

Advantages and Disadvantages :

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) are a type of wireless network

that enables short-range
communication between devices. They offer numerous benefits, but also
have some disadvantages.
 Benefits :

❖ Low Power Consumption – WPAN technology is designed to consume low power and thus
extends the battery life of connected devices.Short Range Communication – The limited
range makes it nearly impossible for unauthorized users or hackers from accessing data
transmitted through WPAN networks without physical access to the device transmitting
information.
❖ Cost-Effective Solution – Implementing WPANS can be cost-effective compared with other
networking solutions as they require less infrastructure investment due their shorter-range
capabilitiesInteroperability – Due to standardization efforts such as IEEE 802 standards family
in which Bluetooth operates under different types of electronic gadgets like smartphones,
computers etc.,
❖ connect seamlessly and allow better integration within IoT ecosystemsEase of use and
installation – Setting up a personal area network using technologies like Bluetooth requires
minimal technical knowledge making connecting various peripherals easy.
Disadvantages :

❖ Security Risks – As alluded earlier on, since these systems rely heavily upon radio
frequency communications, over-the-air transmissions may result in
eavesdropping by third parties who might gain unauthorized access of sensitive
files thereby compromising privacy concerns related to user’s confidential data if
not properly secured against cyber-attacks.
❖ Limited Coverage Areas – These networks typically cover small areas only hence
requiring additional equipment when trying to expand coverage beyond its
intended reach.
❖ Speed Limitations – While many modern-day applications work well with today’s
Wi-Fi speeds, others need higher transfer rates than what current generation
WLAN protocols provide at present time resulting in reduced efficiency overall
especially where there exist high bandwidth requirements needed for multimedia
content streaming services among others.
❖ WPANs offer numerous benefits including low power consumption,
interoperability and ease of use but can pose security risks while also having
limited range capabilities that may require additional equipment to expand their
reach beyond its intended purposes making it important to weigh the pros and
cons before deciding if these networks are suitable for your needs or not!
Future predictions for WPAN :

In the coming years, Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) are expected to undergo significan
changes. This includes greater integration with fifth-generation networks (5G), increased adoption
of
Internet of Things (IoT) devices, emergence of new technologies and advancements in
communication
efficiency and security

Integration with 5G Networks :

As wireless technology evolves to handle increasing data demands from

interconnected systems across various sectors such as healthcare monitoring
systems or home automation applications that require a short-range
connection; we can expect the integration between WPANs and fifth-
generation networks like 5G connectivity will revolutionize how Personal Area
Networks operate. For instance, wearable devices connected via WPANS
could better communicate with each other through higher-level network
connections like internet-enabled ones made possible by this development.
Emergence of new WPAN Technologies :

In addition to integrating more seamlessly into existing infrastructures within smart homes or IoT
ecosystems generally speaking – there is also set be an increase seen around emerging low-
power
wireless sensor networking solutions which use less energy than traditional protocols while still
providing efficient communications over longer distances without running out battery life too
quickly
due largely thanks these advances

Increased Adoption in IoT Devices :

The trend towards seamless interconnectivity shows no signs slowing down anytime
soon either –particularly when it comes specifically related usage cases involving
shorter range transfers enabled using Bluetooth Low Energy protocol known
commonly abbreviated BLE/Zigbee/NFC Forum Standards among others all poised to
make their mark during upcoming years ahead.
Advancements in Efficiency and Security of
Communication :

❖ With improvements on signal filtering capabilities already

reducing interference caused by competing frequencies
coupled with stronger encryption algorithms being
implemented for example AES-CCM making sure secure
transmission happens smoothly and efficiently allowing
wearables/IoT gadgets take full advantage because of the
latest tech available.
❖ Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) have undergone
significant advancements since their inception and will
continue to evolve. The integration with fifth-generation
networks like 5G connectivity coupled with improvements in
efficiency and security of communication promises more
powerful WPAN capabilities than ever before. Whether it’s
Bluetooth or Zigbee technology – shortrange wireless
communications enabled by WPANS offer various
advantages for wearable devices or Internet of Things
applications
Lpwa-for-the-iot-standard-vs-proprietarytechnologies:
What is a Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) network?

❖ LPWA (sometimes called mobile IoT) networking technologies, such as LTE-M and NB-
IoT, transmit data at slower rates than other cellular technologies. However, LPWA
technologies also cost less, use less power, have better wireless coverage inside
buildings, underground and in rural areas, and can transmit data to more devices in a
condensed area than these other cellular technologies.
❖ Five years ago, Low Power Wide Area (LPWA) technologies weren’t on the radar,
however the Internet of Things was coming alive and taking off because people were
inspired by the possibilities.
❖ At that time, the market for connected things was small and mostly dominated by
Personal Area Network (PAN) technologies, such as Bluetooth, and Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN) technologies, like Wi-Fi. With all the hype around IoT, many analysts
were predicting there would be more than 20 billion connected devices by 2022.
❖ Most of this volume was predicted to go to PAN/WLAN technologies, not to traditional
cellular. That’s because PAN/WLAN technologies do a better job of meeting the cost
and power requirements of IoT applications. However, these technologies provide little
coverage, which is a key requirement for many IoT applications. Even traditional
cellular, with its superior coverage, still has dead zones deep inside buildings or in very
remote locations.
❖ It’s important to note that no one technology will serve every IoT application. There are
definitely applications where PAN/WLAN technologies, such as low energy Bluetooth,
Zigbee and Wi-Fi, are still the clear choice. Traditional cellular also has its own unique set of
advantages that PAN /WLAN and LPWA technologies cannot provide, such as full mobility
at very high data rates and without the complexity and need to pair devices to an access
point
Re-engineering cellular for the IoT :

❖ As with many things in life, there are trade-offs, and designing wireless
technology is no different. Traditional cellular has always been designed for
consumer applications (e.g. smart phones and laptops), so the technology has
been engineered to deliver higher and higher speeds to transmit more and
more data in a very efficient way.

❖ When it comes to IoT, many applications are happy with low data rates and
only need to transmit small amounts of data, thus efficiency is not as big a
concern compared to consumer applications, which send gigabytes of data.
These differences allowed engineers to make tradeoffs that dramatically
reduced the complexity but were unacceptable for traditional cellular.

❖ As a result, cost savings are achieved as LPWA technologies require much less
processing power and less memory. Low current results from the reduced
processing and more opportunities to enter deep sleep. Higher coverage
comes from slowing the data rate. And more capacity comes from the
evolution of LTE networks to support a million connections per square kilometer.
In short, LPWA technologies are designed from the ground up to meet those key
four C’s for IoT.
❖ Let’s look at some examples. If the objective of IoT is to connect as many objects as
possible, we know that there is no single technology that is going to be perfect for
everything.
❖ Take connected home applications as an example. A furnace could be connected
to a thermostat via Wi-Fi and, since the furnace and thermostat are not mobile, a
WLAN technology provides the coverage required and thus makes it a suitable
technology choice.But what about services you want to bring into your home from
third parties? Due to reliability concerns, a security service may not want to rely on
your home Wi-Fi network to monitor your house and property. Here, using an LPWA
technology that supports the data rate requirements and allows voice calls for the
alarm panel might be the best fit. Moving outside the home, things like container
and vehicle tracking devices would also be ideally suited for LPWA. As would
tracking devices for your pets, children, or elderly parents.
❖ However, LPWA technology is not well suited to creating mobile hotspots or high-
rate video streaming services in vehicles, buses, and trains, due to the low data
rates LPWA technologies provide, thus these applications are best serviced by
traditional cellular technologies.
❖ The applications and deployment scenarios are nearly infinite, but the bottom line is
that LPWA technologies unlock the potential of IoT and open new IoT use cases by
providing the three C’s, which other wireless technologies can’t provide.
UniT iii …

… The end