31/10/2023, 12:22 For South Sudan, It’s Not So Easy to Declare Independence From Arabic – Foreign Policy

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For South Sudan, It’s Not So Easy to

Declare Independence From Arabic
When the world’s newest country broke away from Khartoum, it
discarded Sudan’s main official language, too. But casting aside the
oppressor’s tongue did not heal the country’s divisions.

NOVEMBER 14, 2018, 8:49 AM

By Laura Kasinof

JUBA, South Sudan—When South Sudan declared independence in

2011, breaking away from Republic of Sudan to become the world’s
newest country, all facets of state-building had to be finalized: ratifying
a new constitution, printing money, and distributing passports.

There was also the issue of language. South Sudan is a diverse country,
with some 60 languages spoken by dozens of ethnic groups in a
population of around 13 million. The majority of South Sudanese also
speak what is known as Juba Arabic, a dialect far removed from
standardized Arabic and named for the South Sudanese capital. But
Arabic was also the language of the Sudanese government in Khartoum,
which the South Sudanese viewed as their longtime colonizer.

“People developed hatred toward Arabic partly because it was imposed

on us by the regime in Khartoum before our independence,” explained
Rajab Mohandis, the executive director of a local group called the
Organization for Responsive Governance. As with Afrikaans in South
Africa, a language that has declined in status due to its image as the
medium of apartheid policies and its history of being forced upon black
students, Arabic was seen as the language of the oppressor.

Consequently, in July 2011, South Sudan embedded in its new

constitution a declaration that English, not Arabic, would henceforth
be the country’s official language, while “all indigenous languages of
South Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed
and promoted.”

English, of course, was also a “colonizer” language, brought by the

British empire, but that colonization was not as recent a memory. And

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because English wasn’t the language of the most recent oppressor, it

seemed a positive step to use English for official purposes.

Moreover, South Sudan’s government envisioned a future in which the

country would position itself closer to Anglophone East African nations
such as Kenya and Uganda. Leaders of the liberation struggle, who
subsequently became politicians in the new state, had lived in exile in
English-speaking parts of East Africa. The government thought it could
avoid the sort of conflict that comes with making one indigenous
language dominant over all the rest by designating English as the
language of state affairs instead. In theory, the plan seemed viable. But
in reality, the government lacked the capacity to provide proper
education so that English could become more widely spoken, rather
than just a lingua franca of the upper echelons of society and
government.

The government thought it could avoid the sort of

conflict that comes with making one indigenous
language dominant over all the rest by designating
English as the language of state affairs

Seven years later, the hope of a new nation—one that was initially
cheered by the United States and Europe—is hanging on by a thread.
South Sudan has been engaged in a brutal civil war that displaced a
third of the country’s population and killed tens of thousands. A
September peace deal between President Salva Kiir and rebel leader
Riek Machar offers a hint of optimism, but whether peace will hold is
another more troublesome issue altogether. South Sudan’s conflict
often breaks down along ethnic lines, as infighting among elites has
polarized South Sudan’s diverse population. And despite all of the
government’s ambitious linguistic plans, English remains the language
of a minority, and indigenous languages have become more politicized
than ever.

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31/10/2023, 12:22 For South Sudan, It’s Not So Easy to Declare Independence From Arabic – Foreign Policy

Left: Nuer students in the Protection of Civilians Camp 3 write in their native language, which is not taught in schools outside the camps, in Juba, South
Sudan, on March 23. Right: Students sit in class at a school where teachers struggle to teach in English, rather than in Arabic or their local languages, in
Juba on March 21. (Alex Potter for Foreign Policy)

Language is inextricably tied to the modern nation-state.

Around the world, official language policy has been used to create
coherent national identity. It has shored up governments and unified
diverse peoples within borders. Leaders, especially those who rule over
multiethnic territories, have known this and exploited it. Through
language, politicians can brandish their anti-colonial credentials and
avoid favoritism toward particular tribes or ethnic subgroups. Language
policies can also serve to marginalize peripheral minorities within a
population or bring them into the fold of the centralized state.

In the post-colonial world, many countries have pushed back against

designating languages imposed by former colonizers. Yet in
multiethnic nations—with borders drawn by former colonial powers—
sometimes the language of the outsider has turned out to be the best
compromise for state institutions. If a country functions in the
language of a particular group of people, tribe, or ethnic group—even if
that group is the majority—it marginalizes the rest of the population,
leading to protests. Linguistic hegemony, after all, can lead to other
forms of cultural imperialism as well.

India is a prime example. When the country adopted its first

constitution after independence from Britain in 1950, Hindi became
India’s official language, while English was permitted for official
purposes, with the goal of phasing it out over the course of the next 15
years. But Dravidian language-speaking regions in the south pushed
back. There were deadly protests in Tamil Nadu (then Madras State)
over the issue, and the constitution was amended so that both Hindi
and English would continue as the country’s official languages. The
issue remains heated today, especially under Prime Minister Narendra
Modi, whom critics accuse of trying to make Hindi more dominant in
politics, going so far as to put in a bid for Hindi to become an official
language of the United Nations.

In other countries, language planning took root, proliferated, and

accomplished its goal largely as a result of more aggressive education
policies and timing. Periods of intense nationalist fervor seem to make
people more willing to learn new languages for the sake of the
homeland, especially if a new language does not come with the threat
of one group’s hegemony over others.

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Following its independence in 1945, Indonesia, another multiethnic

country where some 700 languages are spoken, was faced with the
problem of designating an official language. Javanese was spoken by
nearly half of its citizens and the elites of the country, but, as in India,
the same conundrum existed as to whether Javanese should be
promoted over all other languages. Ultimately, the government decided
to make what is known as Bahasa Indonesia the state’s official language,
even though it was spoken as a mother tongue by only a small portion
of the population at the time. Bahasa Indonesia is derived from Malay
and was a trade language that for centuries was the lingua franca of
much of coastal Southeast Asia. Its successful propagation came as a
result of an aggressive education campaign by the government and
advantageous timing, because the initial adoption of the language was
during a period when post-colonial nationalism was running high.

In Tanzania, the country’s first post-independence president, Julius

Nyerere, pushed his countrymen to learn and speak Swahili while
downplaying tribal affiliations, a move that is credited with unifying
the nation and helping pacify the sorts of tribal tensions that continue
to exist in neighboring East African nations. Like Bahasa Indonesia,
Swahili was a trade language used in the region prior to European
colonialism, though it was certainly not spoken by everyone, especially
inland tribes, at the time of independence. Also, as in Indonesia,
Nyerere’s government invested in linguistic education. Today,
Tanzanians’ mastery of the so-called purest form of Swahili, which
comes from the island of Zanzibar, is endowed with a sense of national
pride.

In Tanzania, the country’s first post-independence

president, Julius Nyerere, pushed his countrymen to
learn and speak Swahili while downplaying tribal
affiliations, a move that is credited with unifying the
nation

Turkey also manufactured major changes to its language at a time of

sweeping nationalism under the republic’s first president, Mustafa
Kemal Ataturk. Ataturk shifted modern Turkish from Arabic to Latin
script in its written form and purged the language of many words that
were of Persian or Arabic origin and replaced them with Turkish
equivalents. The move was part of his larger reform agenda of pivoting
Turkey toward Europe and constructing a modern secular nation-state
following the founding of the republic in 1923.

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A more repressive version of language imposition is the history of much

of Western Europe and the Americas. Native Americans were forced to
enroll in English-language schools in the United States, and post-
revolutionary France sought to stamp out minority languages like
Breton and Occitan through standardized schooling in French. In more
recent times, Chinese authorities have slowly eroded minority
languages within their borders such as Tibetan and Uighur—and they
have tried to do so with Cantonese—by promoting Mandarin through
education and the media, ostensibly for the sake of national unity,
though also as part of an effort to curtail the political power of ethnic
groups that are viewed as a threat to the state.

Girls write on the blackboard during English class in their high school in Juba, South Sudan, on March 21. The school’s mandate is to primarily teach in
English, but teachers admit to struggling to stick to the curriculum without any Arabic. (Alex Potter for Foreign Policy)

South Sudan’s efforts never made it as far as those of

Indonesia, Tanzania, or Turkey. Public schools today in South Sudan
use a variety of curriculums. The closer a school is to the border of
Sudan, the more likely it is to still rely on the Sudanese curriculum.
University of Juba professors have found that students who had gone to
Arabic-speaking schools that switched to English following
independence, particularly those just entering high school at the time,
are now struggling to keep up at university because they essentially lost
their high school education due to poor English comprehension and
instruction.

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University of Juba professors have found that

students who had gone to Arabic-speaking schools
that switched to English following independence,
particularly those just entering high school at the
time, are now struggling to keep up

“The current generation has a problem. When we were a country before,

it was all in Arabic, and they thought that they would study in Arabic,”
said Venansio Muludiang, a professor of statistics and demographics at
the University of Juba.

Bakhita Ireneo is an education student on the same campus and, after

graduation, she will be expected to teach in English. She had attended
school her whole life in Arabic in the Bahr el Ghazal region, so her
English is quite weak. “It’s difficult for me when I am taking the exams.
It’s really hard for me to understand the questions,” she said.

When hostilities broke out in Juba in December 2013, marking the start
of South Sudan’s civil war, government soldiers reportedly spoke to
civilians in the Dinka language to distinguish those who belonged to
the pro-government Dinka ethnic group from those who belong to the
Nuer, that of opposition leader Riek Machar, whom the army targeted
during the fighting. (Dinka and Nuer people tend to share a similar
physical appearance, but Nuer living in the capital often cannot speak
Dinka.)

Approximately 40,000 people who fled violence in Juba, most of whom

are Nuer, now live in ramshackle camps for internally displaced
persons inside a U.N. compound on the outskirts of the capital. Nuer
students who study at the University of Juba while living in the camps
make sure to conceal their ethnic affiliation when commuting to classes
and even on campus grounds.

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Bakhita Ireneo, an education student at Juba University, struggles with the English curriculum after studying in Arabic her whole life.
(Alex Potter for Foreign Policy)

“We speak Nuer, but not in front of people. We have to hide our
identities,” a law student told me when we spoke inside a tent that
served as a tea shop for the displaced. He asked to remain anonymous
due to political sensitivities.

On the other side of the camp, inside a school for displaced children, a
teacher taught Nuer language to an overfilled classroom. Children of
various ages dutifully wrote Nuer sentences in an adapted Latin script
into their notebooks. The head of Nuer language education at the
school, Lam Deng, insisted that teaching Nuer wasn’t a political act.
“This has nothing to do with the conflict,” he said, but that surely is not
how it is seen from the outside.

Periods of political tension tend to cement an us-versus-them

mentality, and South Sudan is no exception. In such fraught times,
language and the way one speaks it becomes a loaded act, signifying a
specific identity. In recent years, the emphasis on Nuer language
among Nuer people has coincided with the prevalence of Dinka on
Juba’s streets as the civil war has ground on. Both groups are retreating
into linguistic cocoons, with little to unite them under the umbrella of a
common national identity.

In such fraught times, language and the way one

speaks it becomes a loaded act, signifying a specific
identity.

There was a brief moment in South Sudan’s short history when an

inclusive nationalism devoid of ethnic divisions was running high, as in
post-independence Indonesia, Ataturk’s Turkey, and Tanzania—but the
country struggled, and ultimately failed, to create a coherent identity
before that window began to close. The failure to turn English into a

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unifying force did not destroy the country, but it is one among many
failures. The new deal between Kiir and Machar could renew a sense of
common national identity in the coming months, or old divisions could
spark a return to civil war.

Meanwhile, South Sudan’s foreign policy has since switched course, a

symptom of having isolated itself from regional allies. Rather than
courting Anglophone leaders in East Africa as it once hoped, South
Sudan’s government has made a U-turn and, according to reports,
requested to join the Arab League, a group of 22 mostly Arabic-speaking
nations, including its old nemesis: Sudan.

The country, once hailed by world leaders such as U.S. President Barack
Obama and British Prime Minister David Cameron, has fallen into an
identity crisis, flip-flopping on the foundational question of where and
to whom it belongs. In the end, its failure as a modern-day state-
building project has shown that while selecting and adopting the right
official language may not be able to make or break a new nation, it can
certainly hasten its success or collapse.
Laura Kasinof is a journalist and author of Don’t Be Afraid of the Bullets: An Accidental War
Correspondent in Yemen. She was the New York Times correspondent in Yemen during the Arab Spring.
Twitter: @kasinof

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