**ADS BSC*

*Botany-1*

Q1

I can't provide visual diagrams, but I can describe the structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus
(TMV). TMV is a rod-shaped virus composed of a single-stranded RNA molecule surrounded
by a protein coat. The protein coat forms a helical structure, giving the virus its characteristic
appearance.

**Life Cycle:**
1. **Attachment and Entry:** TMV enters host cells through small breaks or wounds in plant
tissues.
2. **Replication:** Once inside the cell, the virus hijacks the host's cellular machinery to
replicate its RNA and produce viral proteins.
3. **Assembly:** Newly formed viral RNA and proteins assemble to form new virus particles.
4. **Release:** The assembled viruses exit the host cell, often causing cell damage in the
process.

**Transmission:**
TMV spreads primarily through direct contact. It can be transmitted by contaminated hands,
tools, or even by infected plant sap. Additionally, insect vectors like aphids can also transmit
TMV as they feed on infected plants.

**Disease Control:**
1. **Hygiene:** Practicing good hygiene by thoroughly washing hands, tools, and equipment
can help prevent the spread of TMV.
2. **Resistant Varieties:** Planting resistant cultivars can be an effective control measure
against TMV.
3. **Vector Control:** Managing insect vectors, such as using insecticides for aphid control,
can help reduce the spread of the virus.
4. **Quarantine:** Isolating infected plants can prevent the virus from spreading to healthy
ones.

It's important to note that there is no cure for TMV once a plant is infected, so prevention and
control measures are crucial.

Reg;
*JAM Haseen Sahito 03080010034*

*Sir Asma Solangi Sahib*

**ADS BSC*

*Botany-1*

Q2
Bacteria are called prokaryotes because they lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles. Their genetic material is typically a single, circular DNA molecule located in the
nucleoid region, without the surrounding membrane found in eukaryotic cells.

**Bacterial Growth:**
1. **Binary Fission:** The primary mode of bacterial reproduction is binary fission. In this
process, a single bacterial cell divides into two identical daughter cells. It involves DNA
replication, elongation of the cell, and then division into two separate cells.

2. **Exponential Growth:** Bacteria exhibit exponential growth, where the population

doubles in a fixed time period under favorable conditions. The growth curve consists of lag
phase, exponential phase, stationary phase, and death phase.

**Genetic Recombination in Bacteria:**

1. **Transformation:** Bacteria can take up free DNA from their environment. When this
foreign DNA is incorporated into the bacterial genome, it can lead to genetic variation.

2. **Conjugation:** In conjugation, two bacterial cells physically connect via a pilus, and
genetic material, often in the form of a plasmid, is transferred from one bacterium to another.

3. **Transduction:** Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) can transfer bacterial DNA
from one cell to another during the infection process. This can introduce new genetic
material into the recipient bacterium.

4. **Plasmid Transfer:** Bacteria can exchange genetic material through the transfer of
plasmids, small, circular DNA molecules. This process can occur during conjugation or
through other mechanisms.

These genetic recombination mechanisms contribute to bacterial diversity and adaptation to

changing environments. They enable the exchange of beneficial traits, such as antibiotic
resistance, among bacterial populations.

Reg;
*JAM Haseen Sahito 03080010034*

*Sir Asma Solangi Sahib*

**ADS BSC*

*Botany-1*

Q3

**General Characteristics of Chlorophyta (Green Algae):**

1. **Pigments:** Chlorophyta contain chlorophyll a and b, giving them a green color. They
also often have accessory pigments like carotenoids.
2. **Cell Structure:** They are eukaryotic organisms with cells containing a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
3. **Cell Wall:** The cell walls are composed of cellulose.
4. **Storage Products:** Green algae store food in the form of starch.
5. **Habitats:** They inhabit a variety of environments, including freshwater, marine water,
and terrestrial habitats.
6. **Reproduction:** Reproduction can occur through both sexual and asexual means,
involving various life cycle stages.

**Structure and Reproduction of Chara (a genus of green algae):**

Chara is a freshwater green alga that exhibits unique characteristics, including a complex
multicellular structure.

1. **Structure:**
- **Branching Filaments:** Chara forms branching filaments of cylindrical cells.
- **Node and Internode:** The filaments have nodes (where leaves and branches arise)
and internodes (elongated segments between nodes).
- **Calcified Structures:** Some species of Chara have calcium carbonate deposits on
their cell walls, providing structural support.
- **Rhizoids:** Filaments anchor to the substrate through rhizoids.

2. **Reproduction:**
- **Asexual Reproduction:** Chara reproduces asexually through fragmentation.
Fragments of the plant can grow into new individuals.
- **Sexual Reproduction:** Sexual reproduction involves oogamy, where non-motile eggs
and motile sperm are produced. Fertilization occurs when sperm swim to the eggs, forming a
zygote.

Chara's complex structure and reproductive strategies contribute to its adaptability in various
freshwater environments. The presence of calcium carbonate structures distinguishes Chara
from many other green algae.

Q No 5 BOTANY

Amphibious plants are typically referred to as those that can grow either partially or fully
submerged in water, as well as on land. They have adaptations that allow them to thrive in
both aquatic and terrestrial environments. These adaptations might include specialized root
systems, modified leaves, or the ability to tolerate fluctuating water levels.

Regarding the life cycle of Funaria, it's a moss, and like other bryophytes, it exhibits
alternation of generations. In the gametophytic stage, the dominant and independent stage,
haploid gametes (sperm and eggs) are produced through mitosis. These gametes fuse
during fertilization to form a diploid zygote.

The zygote develops into the sporophytic stage, which is dependent on the gametophyte.
The sporophyte consists of a foot, a seta (stalk), and a capsule. Within the capsule, meiosis
occurs, producing haploid spores. These spores are released and dispersed, eventually
germinating into new gametophytes, completing the life cycle of Funaria.

Question No 4 botany

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in the term "Ascocrap." The correct term is
"Ascocarp," which refers to the reproductive structure or fruiting body of fungi belonging to
the phylum Ascomycota. Ascocarps contain the structures where sexual reproduction takes
place, including the production of sexual spores called ascospores.

Here are various types of ascocarps found in Ascomycota fungi:

1. **Cleistothecium:**
- A closed, spherical ascocarp with no opening.
- Ascospores are formed internally.
- Example: Genus Aspergillus.

2. **Perithecium:**
- A flask-shaped ascocarp with a small opening called an ostiole.
- Ascospores are produced inside the perithecium.
- Example: Genus Neurospora.

3. **Apothecium:**
- A cup-shaped or saucer-shaped ascocarp with an exposed hymenium (fertile surface) on
the upper side.
- Ascospores are released into the air from the exposed hymenium.
- Example: Genus Morchella (morels).

4. **Pseudothecium:**
- A flask-shaped ascocarp with a longitudinal split (pseudothecial slit) exposing the
hymenium.
- Ascospores are released through the pseudothecial slit.
- Example: Genus Venturia.

Each type of ascocarp has unique characteristics that contribute to the dispersal and
reproduction of the fungi. Below is a diagram illustrating these different types of ascocarps:

```
+-----------+
| Cleistothecium |
| (Closed) |
+-----------+
|
|
+--------+-------+
| |
| |
+------------+ | +-----------+ | +--------------+
| Perithecium| | | Apothecium| | | Pseudothecium|
| (Flask) | | | (Cup) | | | (Flask) |
+------------+ | +-----------+ | +--------------+
| |
| |
+--------+-------+
|
|
+---------+--------+
| |
| |
+-----------+ +-----------+
| Ascospores| | Ascospores|
| Internal | | External |
+-----------+ +-----------+
```

This diagram illustrates the diversity in ascocarp morphology among Ascomycota fungi and
how each type is associated with different mechanisms of spore dispersal and reproduction.

Compelt