Michael Ngim

Biosc 145
Dr. Dixon
Fungi Lab

Introduction:

Fungi are organisms that are classified in its own kingdom separating them from other
eukaryotic organisms such as plants or animals. Fungi evolved from unicellular protist ancestors
that contained flagellum similar to the existing choanoflagellates. What distinguishes fungi from
choanoflagellates are presence of chitin in their cell walls and fungi are absorptive heterotrophs.
Unlike plants they do not photosynthesize, they acquire food more like animals by absorbing
dissolved molecules and secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. The fungus
kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies,
and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. In this lab we
will be focusing our efforts on specific categories of fungi zygomycote, ascomycote,
basidiomycote and lichens. These fungi are classified based on their sexual reproductive
structures that will be identified and discussed. The purpose of this lab is to be able to identify
structures and functions of fungi as well as examine processes of sexual and asexual
reproduction in the fungi kingdom. 

Methods:

Zygomycota: Figure 1
Prepared slide of Rhizopus provided and examined with microscope at 400x with structures
identified.

Ascomycota: Figure 2 and Figure 3

Prepared slide of Morchella provided and examined with microscope at 400x with structures
identified.
Penecillium live specimen provided and viewed under dissection microscope at magnification 3x
with structures identified.

Basidiomycota: Figure 4A/B, Figure 5A/B and Figure A1

Prepared slide of Coprinus provided and examined with microscope at 400x with structures
identified.
Figure 5A and 5B are two live fungal specimens viewed under dissection microscope at
magnification 1.5x and sketched macroscopically. Spore print made on SDA agar and labeled
with initials and class.
Obtained live basidiomycota (mushroom) from store (has been dry lately and was unable to
obtain a sample from nature). Parts labeled and scanned, discussion of parts on results.
Lichens: Figure 6A/B
Prepared slide of Phycia provided and examined with microscope at 400x with structures
identified.
Due to foldoscope being out of order and unusable, obtained online pictures of foliose lichen
under microscope found on tree bark locally. Pictures shown at 100x and labeled appropriately.
(https://in.pinterest.com/amp/pin/438678819923287424/)

Results/Data:

Results and Data on next two pages

Conclusion/Discussion:

Zygomycota (Rhizopus: black bread mold)

Zygospore fungi include major lineages of terrestrial fungi that live in soil as saprobes, parasites
of insects or in a symbiotic or mutualistic relationship with other fungi and invertebrate animals.
The mycelia of zygomycota are divided into three types of hyphae. The rhizoids reach below the
surface and function in food absorbtion. Above the surface, sporangiophores bear the spore-
producing sporangia. Groups of rhizoids and sporangiophores are connected above the surface
by stolons. Rhizopus is a zygospore fungi and reproduce sexually when hyphae in close
proximity release pheromones to attract each other. When the hyphae fuse they make a
gametangia then undergoes plasmogamy to form a zygosporangium. Then fertilization occurs
and the gamete nuclei within the zygosporangium fuse to make unicellular multinucleate
zygospore. This stage with multiple diploid nuclei is what gives the zygospore fungi its name.
Then the nuclei will undergo meiosis and a sporangiosphore will sprout along with the
sporangium. The sporangium encloses haploid nuclei in the spores that will disperse and
germinate to form new haploid hyphae. In figure 1 we can identify the sporangium with the
spores at the head that will later disperse to create new generations of zygospore fungi. 

Ascomycota (morchella, penecillium):

The sac fungi are diverse class of fungi found in freshwater, marine and terrestrial habitats.
Ascomycota are distinguished by the production of sacs called asci. Penecillium is an example of
a sac fungi that is a green mold that has been essential to combat bacterial diseases in humans by
producing antibiotic penicillin (figure 3). The asci undergo meiosis and cytoplasmic cleavage,
then contain sexually produced haploid ascospores. Sac fungus yeasts like saccharomyces
cerevisae reproduce asexually by budding or formation of conidia that forms at specialized tips
of hyphae. The sexual reproduction cycle of sac fungi includes formation of dikaryon which are
mating structures of two different mating types. In this process the nucleus of one of the mating
types will enter the hyphae of the other mating type (i.e. A,a). Ascogenous hyphae develops
which now forms the dikaryotic hypha. The two mating types nuclei divide which form the asci
at the tips of the ascogenous hyphae. Then nuclear fission and after meiosis occurs and produces
haploid ascospores. Then like in budding the ascospores are shot out and released to germinate
new generations. In figure 2 we see the ascus with the ascospores at the tips of the ascogenous
hyphae which will eventually be shot out to germinate. Similarly, we see asexual reproduction in
the penecillium (figure 3) by identifying the conidia and conidiospores which gives the mold its
color characteristics. 

Basidiomycota:
Many of the Basidiomycetes are of great economic importance because of their beneficial as well
as harmful nature. Some of them are the causative agents of most destructive diseases of our
cereal crops. Some of the higher Basidiomycetes such as the pore fungi are the common wood
rotters. They destroy lumbar and timber. Mushrooms which also belong to this group are of great
economic value as food. The toad stools, however, are poisonous. Some of these such as
Amanita are fatally poisonous whereas others cause only discomfort. Many members of this
class form ectotrophic mycorrhizal associations with the roots of forest trees. The association is
mutually beneficial. The fungus obtains sugars and other organic substances from the roots of the
tree partner whereas the mantle of the fungal partner serves to pass on nitrogen, phosphorus, and
other elements absorbed by the mycelium to the root. The club fungi get their names from the
fruiting structures of what we think of in mushrooms called basidiomata. The puff ball structures
are found in damp places on trees and fallen logs. Basidiomycota play an important role in
returning carbon to the carbon cycle. This fungus has septa with small distinct pores and the
basidia is the swollen head of specialized hypha is the characteristic sexual reproductive
structure. Similar to the ascus in ascomycota the basidium is the site of nuclear fission and
meiosis. In the gills of the club fungi they are line with basidium and haploid basidiospores
forming from the basidium. The basidiospores are ejected out to and germinate hyphae with
haploid nuclei, after these hyphae grow haploid hyphae of different mating types will begin to
fuse or mate together and grow dikaryotic hypha each cell containing two nuclei one from each
parent hypha. When triggered by an environmental stimulus the dikaryotic mycelium produces a
basidioma (fruiting structure) which houses more basidium and basidiospores for germination f
the next generation. In figure 4 with the coprinus we can see the gills and the basidiospores
forming on the hyphae. In figure 5A and 5Bwe can see the gills with the dissection microscope
but are unable to see the basidiospores at the end of the gills. 

Lichens: 
A lichen is a mixture of a fungus and a photosynthetic organism. This symbiotic relationship
allows lichens to grow and survive in the harshest of environments for instance Antarctica
habitats. Lichens are unable to excrete toxic substances which make them a good indicator of
pollution which is why they are not found in industrialized regions or city environments. The
fungal components of lichen are sac fungi and the photosynthetic portion is often unicellular
green algae or Cyanobacterium or both. Lichens are found in diverse habitats like tree bark, on
rocks and open soil. They come in different forms including crustose (crust like), foliose (leafy)
and fruticose (shrubby). Also, in Physia figure 6A the dark layer along the top is an apothecium.
An apothecium is a fungal reproductive structure, that the fungus reproduces itself through the
production of spores. These spores will disperse and germinate into new fungi, but they
will not produce new lichens. The fungal partner can go through its sexual cycle producing
haploid spores. For a lichen to reproduce, but the fungus and the alga must disperse together.
Lichens reproduce in two basic ways. One way is for a lichen to produce soredia, or a cluster of
algal cells wrapped in fungal filaments. These may disperse and form new lichens. The second
way for the lichen to reproduce itself is through isidia, which are much like soredia except that
isidia are enclosed within a layer of protective cortex tissue. An isidium is much more like a
miniature lichen.

References:

1. Sadava, David E. Life. the Science of Biology. 9th ed., Sinauer Associates, 2011. 
2. Chris, T. (2017). Lab Manual for BioSc 145 (Organismal Biology). 

3. M., Van De Graaff Kent, and John L. Crawley. A Photographic Atlas for the Biology
Laboratory. Morton Pub. Co., 2009.