Cracking Bgcse Physics

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CRACKING BGCSE
PHYSICS
WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS
Freedom Books Publishers
©Word Crackers Tutorials

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form. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise
without prior written permission from the publisher. IT IS ILLEGAL TO
PHOTOCOPY ANY PAGE IN THIS BOOK.

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ISBN: 978-99968-437-4-7
© 2014 By Word Crackers Tutorials
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__________________________________________________________________________________
Writer: Dennis Sibanda

Editor: Sydney Sebifelo
Reviewed by: Rodney Phetlhe
Cover design by: Olerile Garekwe

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Contents
LENGTH AND TIME ............................................................................................................................ 4
SIMPLE PENDULUM ........................................................................................................................... 8
VECTORS AND SCALARS ................................................................................................................ 12
MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS ...................................................................................... 13
MOTION .............................................................................................................................................. 17
FORCES ............................................................................................................................................... 22
MOMENT ............................................................................................................................................. 24
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER........................................................................................................ 28
PRESSURE ........................................................................................................................................... 32
WAVES PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................................ 35
SOUND ................................................................................................................................................. 37
THE ELECTOMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ........................................................................................... 40
LIGHT .................................................................................................................................................. 41
MAGNETISM ...................................................................................................................................... 48
ELECTROMAGNETISM .................................................................................................................... 53
THERMAL PHYSICS .......................................................................................................................... 56
STATIC ELECTRICITY ...................................................................................................................... 67
CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE .................................................................................... 71
MAINS ELECTRICITY ....................................................................................................................... 76
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTIION ............................................................................................... 81
TRANSFORMERS ............................................................................................................................... 82
INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS ................................................................................................... 86
RADIOACTIVITY ............................................................................................................................... 89
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 94
ABOUT WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS ...................................................................................... 95

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LENGTH AND TIME
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Exam tips:
Understand the fundamental physical quantities and their SI units.
 Learn to read a vernier callipers and micrometer screw gauge.

 Know each instrument’s precision
All measurements in physics are related to three quantities.

The diagram below shows the different measurements, their SI units and the symbols
attributed to each.
LENGTH
Metre
(m)
FUNDAMENTAL
PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
MASS TIME
Kilogram Seconds
(kg) (s)
MEASUREMENT AND UNITS
Units and Units Conversion
mm cm m km
Km m cm mm
Kg g mg

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MEASURING LENGTH
Length can be measured using a RULER, the precision of a ruler is 0.1cm or 1mm, but for
small objects more precise length can be measured using Vernier callipers and Micrometer
screw gauge.
Vernier Callipers
This instrument consists of fixed jaws and sliding jaws and it has two scales in it and it
measures the internal and external diameter of objects.
Fig. 1
Jaw A measures the internal diameter
Jaw B measures the external diameter
Reading a Vernier Calliper

 Take the reading of the main scale before a zero of the vernier scale.
 Look for a division in the vernier scale which is in line with a division of the main
scale.
 Multiply it by the precision of the instrument ( 0.1mm = 0.01cm )
 Add the two readings and get the final answer.
NB: When zero is coinciding then ten is also coinciding, so take zero.

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Micrometer Screw Gauge
This is an instrument consisting of two parts of the jaws a shaft, a rotating drum, a fine
adjustment knob. It has two scales; principal scale and circular scale.
Fig. 2
How to Read Micrometer
 Record the reading on the main scale (horizontal scale).
 Record the reading on the circular scale (vertical scale).
 Divide the reading from circular scale by 100 and add the answer to the reading from
the main scale. Give the answer appropriate units usually (mm).
During practical wipe the dirt between the jaws, because a small amount of dirt can make the
micrometer to have a reading.
Sources of Error
Parallax error: This is due to the wrong position of the eye when taking the reading from an
instrument. The eye should be positioned in line with the mark that is being read.
With Parallax error
No Parallax error
With Parallax error
Fig. 3

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Zero error: this is the error that occurs if the scale of the instrument does not begin with
zero.
Positive zero error-it occurs when the zero of the vernier callipers is on the right hand side of
the main/principal scale. After measuring an object the reading has to be subtracted from the
reading of the object.
Negative zero error- it occurs when the zero of the vernier callipers is on the left hand side of
the main/principal scale. After measuring an object the reading has to be added to the reading
of the object.
Human reaction error-this occurs when starting or finishing times are recorded before or
later than the event.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy: When an instrument is said to be accurate, it means that it can record the closest
value to the true value of a particular physical quantity. For example, if ruler has +1 error it
can still be used to measure length, if the length is 24cm it means for every 10cm 1cm is
subtracted from the final reading.
Precision: The smallest division of a measuring object.

Precision of a ruler is 1mm or 0.1cm.
Precision of vernier callipers is 0.1mm or 0.01cm.
Precision of a Micrometer Screwgauge is 0.01mm or 0.001cm

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SIMPLE PENDULUM
This a ball tied to a string which can swing from one point to another.
Fig 4 Fig 5
Figure 4 and Figure 5 shows a simple pendulum
Factors Affecting the Period of Pendulum
-Length of the pendulum

-Gravitational field strength
Factors Not Affecting Period of Pendulum
-Mass, shape and size of the

pendulum
-Angle displacement(amplitude)

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Oscillation: is the complete to and from motion of the bob.

Period (T): this is time taken per oscillation.
Frequency (f): is the number of oscillations completed in one second.
( )
MASS, VOLUME AND DENSITY

Density: this is mass per unit volume. The SI unit of density is kg/m3.
It is measured using hydrometer.
Mass: The product of density and volume. The SI unit of mass is kg.
Volume: mass per unit density.
MEASURING THE VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID

Using a Displacement Can
 Fill the displacement can with water until it overflows
 Lower the solid into the can and collect the displaced in the measuring cylinder
 The mass of an object is measured on a triple beam balance
 Divide mass by volume to get the density.

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Copy and complete the table shown below: [6]

Measurement SI Unit Symbol
m
Time
kg
2. Write down the number of
a) 500g in kg
b) 453mm in km
c) 876km in m
d) 46cm in m [8]
3. The volume of a rectangle is calculated as the area of cross section multiplied by
length. Use this relation to complete the table below: [8]
Length Width Height Volume
a) 6cm 3cm 4cm
b) 5cm 10cm 200
c) 10cm 3cm 300
4. A student measures the period of the pendulum using a stop watch and he records that
the time taken for 20 oscillations is 45.26 seconds.
a) Calculate the period of the pendulum? [2]
b) Calculate the frequency of the pendulum? [2]
c) Explain how the student could measure the period more accurately? [2]
5. (a) The figure below shows a micrometer screw gauge write down the reading in the
figure below? [3]
(b) State two precautions to be considered when using a Micrometer Screwgauge. [2]

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6. (a) Write down the reading shown by the vernier calliper below? [1]
(b) State two precautions to be considered when using a vernier calliper. [2]
7. Write down the name of the instrument shown below?
8. Name the instrument that is used to measure; [3]

(a) The diameter of a test tube.
(b) The width of a book.
(c) The diameter of a wire.
9. A swinging pendulum will ultimately stop. State two reasons. [2]
10. Name two vertical forces that act on a pendulum. [2]

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VECTORS AND SCALARS
EXAM TIPS
 Define scalar and vector quantities and give examples
 Determine the resultant of any two vectors.
 Classify any physical quantity as a vector or a scalar.
A scalar quantity has magnitude only

A vector quantity has both direction and magnitude
Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities
Length, area, volume,

Displacement, velocity,
speed, time, mass,
force, weight,
distance, density,
acceleration, momentum,
pressure, temperature
If two forces act parallel to one another in the same direction e.g. 5N→ and 3N→ the
resultant is 8N.
If these two forces are acting the opposite directions the resultant is ←5N-3N→=2N. The
resultant is going to be in the direction of the longer force.
Note: vector is shown by an arrow-like and the length of the line represents the magnitude of
the force.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW
If two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of a
parallelogram drawn, the point of their resultant is represented in size and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point.
NB: Applies only when two or more forces are acting at a point and an angle.

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MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS
EXAM TIPS:
 Show the relationship between mass, weight and centre of mass
 Define inertia and weight and relate them to mass
Mass:
This is the measure of the amount of matter in an object.
MASS-the
amount of matter
Instruments used to Measure Mass in an object
 Triple beam balance

 Lever arm balance
 Electronic top pan balance
Inertia:
This is the tendency of the body to resist change in its state of motion.
Factors That Affect Inertia

 It is difficult to change velocity of a body with large mass than small mass therefore
inertia is a property of mass.
 The larger the mass of a body the greater the inertia therefore the quantity of mass can
be defined as the measure of inertia.
Mass and Weight

Weight: This is the amount of gravitational pull on an object. It is measured using a
forcemeter. SI unit is Newton (N).

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Difference between Mass and Weight
MASS WEIGHT
Amount matter in a body Pull of gravity acting on a body

Vector quantity
Scalar quantity
Change with gravitational field
Does not change strength
Centre of Mass
This is a point in the body where the mass of object is concentrated. It is also called centre of
gravity (c.g.).
Finding the Centre of Mass of a Regular Object

To determine the centre of mass, draw two diagonal lines on the object, where they meet is
the centre of mass.

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Finding the Centre of Mass of an Irregular Object
An irregular object is also called a plane lamina.
Method
 The lamina is freely suspended from a point (hang here) in the diagram.
 The lamina (irregular object) is allowed to swing, when it comes to rest a straight line
is drawn from the point to the bottom this is called a plumb line.
 The procedure is repeated using the two remaining points.
 Where the two lines crosses is the centre of mass.
STABILITY
This is the ability of an object to resist toppling.
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Stable equilibrium: the body is in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced it retains its
original position.
Neutral equilibrium: a body is in neutral equilibrium if when it is displaced it stays in its new
position.
Unstable equilibrium: a body is in unstable equilibrium if it moves away from its previous
position if it is slightly displaced.
Fig. 7

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT STABILITY

 Contact area with base-the larger the contact area with the base the better the stability.
 Position of centre of gravity-the lower the c.g. the better the stability.
1. A man was chased by an elephant on the way he took a sharp turn explain which body
will stop first? [2]
2. Find the weight of a 500g rock:
a) On the earth ( g= 10N/kg ) [2]
b) On the moon ( g= 1.6N/kg) [2]
3. Find the weight of a girl with mass 230kg on the earth? Taking g= 10N/kg [2]
a) What is the weight of the girl on the moon? Taking g=1.6N/kg [2]
4. Calculate the mass of a rocket with weight of 5000N on the earth? [2]
5. Explain two factors that affect stability? [2]
6. A spacecraft travels from the Earth to Mars, where the gravitational field strength near
the earth surface is 3.7N/kg. The spacecraft is carrying a probe which has a mass of
100kg when measured on earth.
a) What is the probe’s weight in Earth? [2]
b) What is the probe’s mass on Earth? [2]
c) What is the probe’s weight on Mars? [2]
7. Give three differences between mass and weight. [3]
8. Explain why babies always survive car accidents as compared to adult. [2]
9. Differentiate between scalar and vector quantity, give two examples of each. [4]
10. Explain why a double decker bus should fill the lower decker before filling the upper
decker? [2]

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MOTION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Distance (m): it is the space between two points.
Displacement (m): this is distance travelled in a stated direction. For example a car travelled
10m due west.
Speed (m/s): the distance moved per unit time.
Velocity (m/s): is displacement per unit time.
Acceleration ( ): is change in velocity per unit time.
MOTION GRAPHS
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH AND DISTANCE TIME GRAPHS

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DESCRIBING THE MOTION OF A GRAPH

EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 2
Use the graph below to answer the following questions:
1. Calculate the acceleration for the first 4s?

ANSWER
Acceleration = the gradient
2. Describe the motion of the graph for the first 10s?

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ANSWER
 From 0-4s uniform increasing acceleration
 From 4-10s zero acceleration or constant velocity.
3. Calculate the distance travelled for the first 4 seconds?
ANSWER
 Distance travelled = Area under the graph


4. Calculate the distance travelled after 4s?
EQUATIONS OF MOTION (UNIFORM ACCELERATION)
( )
Where:





EXAMPLE 1
1. A car moving at 5m/s accelerated at for 10s then travels at a constant speed
for 1 minute and finally accelerates as until it stops.
a) Calculate the maximum velocity of the car?
b) What is the maximum time taken by the car during deceleration?
ANSWERS
a)
( )
b)

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ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

All bodies falling near the earth’s surface experience some acceleration provided there is no
air resistance.
This acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity, g= 9.8m/ or g= 10 .
The value of g is 10m/s2. g is positive when things fall freely and it is negative when things
are projected vertically upwards.
FALLING BODIES
Consider an object falling in air under the influence of the force of gravity. Air resistance
increases with the increase in the speed of an object. As air resistance increases, the
acceleration due to gravity decreases until it is equal to zero. At this point, the air resistance
(frictional force) will be equal to the weight of the object and it will be moving at constant
velocity known as terminal velocity.
MOTION OF AN OBJECT IN A LIQUID, VISCOSITY

Consider a ball falling in a liquid. At the start, the downward (weight) force is greater than
the upward (viscous) force opposing its motion. As the motion increases viscous force
increases until it is equal to weight. The ball then moves with constant velocity called
terminal velocity.
1. Use the graph below to answer the questions that follows:

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a) Describe the motion of the graph from point A to point E? [1]

b) Calculate the acceleration of the body in the first 2s? [2]
c) Calculate the distance travelled by the object between point B and C? [3]
2. Use the diagram below to answer the questions that follows:
a) Explain the motion of object in graph (a), (b) and (c)? [3]
b) Calculate the distance travelled by the object in graph (a) and (b)? [4]
3. A car accelerates uniformly from 10m/s to 60m/s in 2s. Calculate its acceleration? [2]
4. A cyclist accelerates uniformly from rest at 10m/ until it reaches a maximum
velocity of 50m/s. How long does it take to reach this speed? [3]
5. A body accelerates uniformly at 10m/ from rest and reaches its maximum velocity
in 15s. Calculate its maximum velocity reached? [2]
6. A driver moving at 100m/s sees a donkey crossing the road ahead of him. He stepped
on the brakes and stopped the car in 5s. Calculate his acceleration? [3]

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FORCES
.
Exam Tips:
Understand Hooke’s law and the limit of proportionality.
Understand Newton’s laws of motion.
A force is a push or a pull
Instrument: Forcemeter
SI units: Newton (N)
Effects of Forces
 A force can affect an object in three ways it can change the shape of an object, motion
and can cause a turning effect.
EFFECTS OF FORCES ON SHAPE AND SIZE

 This is illustrated by using a spring and a load added to the spring.
 Different loads are loaded to a spring and the scale is read from the ruler, then, the
extension of the spring is calculated.
 Extension= new scale reading - original scale reading
Hooke’s Law
The law states that extension is directly proportional to load; that is upon increasing the load,
the extension also increases at same rate.
Where k= spring’s constant, e = extension and F = force

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The law is true as long as the spring is not permanently stretched. After this point (limit of
proportionality) the extension is no longer proportional to the load and the spring does not
obey Hooke’s Law.
SPRINGS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

IN SERIES
Calculate the extension and multiply it by two.
Extension=2e
IN PARALLEL
Calculate the extension and divide it by two.
EFFECTS OF FORCES ON MOTION

A force can;
 Accelerate a body
 Stop a moving body
 Decelerate a moving body
NB: Friction force reduces motion hence in calculations it should be subtracted from the
forward force.
CIRCULAR MOTION
Motion along curved path is called circular motion. It is caused by a force called centripetal
force. Consider a car moving around a circle, if the speed remains constant the car is in
uniform circular motion and that means the body is constantly accelerating towards the centre
of a circle so there is force acting towards the centre called centripetal force. This force acts
at a right angle to the direction of travel.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
1. Car moving around a circle-centripetal force provided by friction between tyres and road
surface.
2. Stone and string-tension and string
3. Satellite-gravitational force
4. Train in circular railway-railway tracks and train wheels
NB: If the string were to break at any point, it would travel at tangent to the circular path.

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NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
1. A body stays at rest or if moving it continues to move with uniform velocity unless an
external force makes it behave differently.
2. The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, and it is
inversely proportional to the object’s mass. The direction of acceleration is in the direction of
the net force acting on the object.
3. Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second exerts an equal force in
the opposite direction on the first.
MOMENT
It is the turning effect of a force. It is calculated by multiplying the force with the
perpendicular distance. The pivot is also called the fulcrum.
THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

Anticlockwise moments=clockwise moments.
Experiment to verify the principle
 Balance a meter ruler at its centre
 Hang equal masses on either side of the meter ruler.
 Keep one mass e.g. m1 at a fixed point and then alter the mass m2 forward and
backwards until the ruler is horizontal.
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM

 If the object is in equilibrium the forces in one direction must equal the sum of the
forces in the other direction.
 Anticlockwise moments should be equal to clockwise moments.

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LEVERS
It is straight or bent rigid bar capable of turning around a fixed point or an axis commonly
called the pivot.
Example 1
Calculate the moment of person A and B and show if the body is in equilibrium?
Answer
Person B
Person A
The body is in equilibrium since the sum of clockwise moment is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moment and also the principle of moments applies.

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EXAMPLE 2
Show that the principle of moments applies for the diagram above?
 The principle of moments applies since clockwise moments is equals anticlockwise.

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1. Calculate the value of W using the principles of moments? [2]
a) State whether the beam is in equilibrium? [1]

b) Show whether the sum of clockwise moment is equals the sum of anticlockwise
moment? [3]
2. Calculate the value of F in the diagram below? [2]
3. Use the diagram below to show whether the beam is in equilibrium? [2]
4. What equation relates mass, force and acceleration? [1]

5. Calculate the acceleration of a block of mass 500kg when a force of 1500N is applied
on it? [2]
6. Calculate the force acting on an objects of mass 650g accelerating at 25m/ ? [3]
7. A mass of 3kg accelerates at 2.0m/ in a straight line. Calculate the average force
needed to accelerate the mass? [2]

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

EXAM TIPS
 Acquire knowledge on the relationship between kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy
 Understand the concept of work and power and how they are relational
ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. It is measured in Joules.
FORMS OF ENERGY
 Chemical Potential Energy-stored in food, fuel like coal, oil etc.
 Elastic Potential Energy-energy stored in objects that are able to change shape or size.
 Gravitational Potential Energy-energy in an object when is most above the ground.
 Heat Energy-comes from hot things when they cool down.
 Sound Energy-produced by vibrating objects.
 Electric Energy-energy carried by wires in an electric current.
 Potential Energy-this is stored energy.
 Kinetic/movement energy-energy that an object has when it is in motion.
KINETIC ENERGY
It is the energy an object has because of being in motion or moving.
WHERE,
Example 1
How much kinetic energy is exerted by a body of mass 200g moving at 20m/s?

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Gravitational Potential Energy

It is the energy a body has because of its position above the ground surface.
Where:
Example 2
How much GPE is processed by an object of mass 5kg raised to a height of 4m?
In case the velocity is not stated use;
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to
another.
WORK
Work is done if a force is acting on an object towards its direction. It is the amount of force
multiplied by the distance covered in the direction of force.
Example 1
A bag of cement has mass of 50kg; Botho loads a bag from the ground into a truck of 1.5m.
How much work is done?

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POWER
It is the rate of doing work and is measured in Watts (w)
Example
A crane lifts up a load of bricks using work of 2000J, calculate the power generated if it took
40s to lift the load up.
EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE

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1. A car of mass of 5000kg accelerates at 1.2m/s2.

a) Calculate the time taken to reach a velocity of 30m/s? [3]
b) Calculate the force required to accelerate the car at 1.2m/s2? [2]
c) Calculate the power exerted by the engine? [2]
2. A crane is lifting up a 300000N load at a distance of 10m. Calculate the work done by
the crane when lifting up the load? [2]
3. An object of mass 200g has a velocity of 5m/s. What is its kinetic energy? [3]
4. A car engine does 1500J of work in 6s. What is the power developed by the engine? [2]
5. A group of student’s attempts to find out how much power each student can generate.
They work in pairs in order to find the time taken for each student to run up a flight of
stairs.
a) Make a list of all the readings that would be needed. Where possible, indicate how
the accuracy of the readings could be improved. [4]
b) Using words, not symbols write down all equations that would be needed to work
out the power of a student? [3]
c) When the student has reached the finishing point and is standing at the top of the
stairs, what form of energy has increased to its maximum? [1]
6. A carcass of mass 100kg is lifted up at a constant speed thorough a height of 2.0m by
force F.
a) Calculate the force F? [3]
b) Calculate the work done on the carcass? [2]
7. A racing car is travelling along a level track at constant speed. The car has kinetic
energy due to its motion.
a) Explain the meaning of the term energy? [1]
b) State the unit of energy? [1]
c) The car breaks as it approaches a corner, in what form of energy is its kinetic
energy changed to? [2]
d) Name the type of force that work is being done against? [1]
8. Dennis has a mass of 40kg and is playing on a trampoline. He jumps to a maximum
height of 3.0m. (g= 10N/Kg).
a) Calculate Dennis’ gravitational potential energy at the height of 3.0m? [2]
b) Assuming there is no energy loss,
calculate his velocity as he hits the trampoline? [3]
c) Dennis rebounces to a height less than 3.0m. Explain why this happens? [2]

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PRESSURE
It is the force applied per unit area on an object. It is measured in Pascals (Pa) or N/m2.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The greater the area, the smaller the pressure. A nail would exert more pressure than an
elephant’s foot.
LIQUID PRESSURE
1. Pressure increases with depth, the further you go down, the greater the weight of the liquid
above.
2. Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.
3. Pressure is the same at all points at the same depth.
4. Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The heavier the liquid, the greater the
pressure at any given point.
Liquid pressure= height × density × gravity
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Force exerted by air.
EEFECTS
A collapsing can.
Remove air with vacuum pump.
Loss of air results in no resultant force.
It will collapse because the pressure inside becomes less than pressure outside.

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USING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
MERCURY BAROMETER
It consists of a tube 1m long which is completely filled with mercury. It is then converted and
open end sub-emerged into a dish of mercury. The mercury in the dish drops until the
pressure at the base of the dish is equal to the air pressure acting on the mercury in the dish.
Height mercury supported is equal to 760mm.
Atmospheric pressure= 760mmHg= 101325 Pa
MANOMETER
It is used to measure fluid pressure.
The pressure to be measured is fed into one side of the tube and the other is left open to the
atmosphere.
Gas pressure= liquid pressure + atmospheric pressure
ISOBARS
These are lines on a weather chart that connects places of similar atmospheric pressure. They
occur in steps of 4 millibars. Isobars show patterns of the weather of a particular place.
Closely packed isobars indicate big pressure difference over a short distance and suggest that
strong winds are likely to occur while widely spaced isobars suggest light winds. Winds do
not blow directly from place of high pressure to place of low pressure. The rotation of the
earth makes them blow more to less along the isobars.

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1. A water reservoir has an exit pipe 3m deep and a valve to control water flow. The
density of water is 800kg/m3 and the acceleration of a free fall is 10m/s2.
a) Calculate the pressure of the water acting on the closed valve in the exit pipe?
b) The cross sectional area of the pipe is 0.5m2. Calculate the force exerted by the
water on the closed valve.
c) The valve is then opened and the water, originally at the surface of the
reservoir, finally flows out of the exit pipe. State the energy transformation of
this water between the surface of the reservoir and the open end of the pipe?
2. The diver is 50m below the surface of water. The density of water is 1000kg/m3 and
the acceleration of the free fall is 10m/s2.
a) Calculate the pressure that the water exerts on the diver?
b) The window of the diver’s helmet is 120mm wide and 60mm from top to bottom.
Calculate the force that the water exerts on the window?
3. Draw a simple diagram of a mercury barometer and mark a vertical distance that
would provide a measurement of atmospheric pressure?
4. State and explain what happens to the level of mercury in the tube when atmospheric
pressure increases?
5. How much pressure is exerted by the weight of the bucket of 300N and base area of
0.15m2 when it is on the floor?
6. A mercury barometer with the height of the mercury column at 0.460m. Given that
the density of the mercury is 13.6 x 103kg/m3 and g = 10m/s2 calculate the
atmospheric pressure in Pa.
7. A rectangular block with length 1.2m, width 0.5m and height 0.5m is filled with
water. The water exerts pressure on the base of the tank. The density of water is
1000kg/m3.
a) What is meant by pressure?
b) Calculate the pressure exerted by the water on the base of the tank?
c) The water is then transferred into another rectangular tank, which has a smaller
base area. The two tanks have the same volume. How will the pressure exerted by
the water differ from the first tank?
8. Write down the relation between pressure, force and area?
9. Define isobars and state how the distance between isobars shows pressure difference?

35
WAVES PROPERTIES
Exam Tips:
 Acquire basic knowledge about wave motion

 Know how to differentiate longitudinal and transverse waves
 Understand the wave equation
Wave: a wave is a vibration or an oscillation that carries energy from one point to another.
TWO TYPES OF WAVES

 Longitudinal waves
 Transverse waves
Transverse Waves: a wave that carries vibrations or individual particles perpendicular to
the direction of motion of the wave E.g. water waves, electromagnetic waves (gamma,
infrared, radio waves).
Fig 8

36
Longitudinal Waves: It is a type of wave in which vibrations or individual particles vibrate

along or in line with the direction of motion of a wave.
Compression-it is a region of high pressure.

Rarefaction (decompression)-it is a region of low pressure.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following are terms used to describe wave motion.
Amplitude (A): this is the maximum displacement of a wave from its rest position. The unit
measure for amplitude is metre (m)
Wavelength (λ): the distance between any two successive or corresponding points. The unit
of measure for wavelength is metre (m)
Period (T): It is the time taken per oscillation. The unit measure is second (s).
Frequency (f): the number of complete waves passing a point per second. The unit measure
for frequency is hertz (Hz)
Wave front: it is any line or section through an advancing wave in which all the particles
are in the same place. (A line joining points that are in the same place)
WAVE EQUATION

37
PROPERTIES OF WAVES (WAVES EFFECTS)

The properties of waves are investigated using a ripple tank.
REFLECTION
It is the bouncing back of a wave. Waves are reflected such that the angle of incident is
equals the angle of reflection.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
The incident ray, the normal and reflected ray all lie in same plane.
REFRACTION
Waves are refracted such that the frequency remains unchanged, speed decreases and
wavelength also decreases, so when the wavelength decreases the wave fronts closes up each
other.
SOUND
Sound is produced by vibrating sources e.g. loudspeaker, this vibrating sources moves in the
form of compression and rarefactions.
NATURE OF SOUND
Sound is longitudinal in nature. In longitudinal there are regions of high and low pressure
called compressions and decompressions (rarefactions) respectively. Pressure is high during a
compression due to high concentration of particles in that region, and vice versa in
rarefactions.
NB: Sound requires a medium to travel through that is sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
The medium of transport are in three stages solid, liquid and gas.
MEDIUM VELOCITY (m/s)
Steel 5000m/s
Water 1500m/s
Air 3000m/s
Sound waves travel fastest in solids, then liquids and least in gases.

38
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES

 Sound waves are longitudinal waves
 Sound waves need a material to travel through
 Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids and gases
 Sound waves are caused by vibrations
ECHO
This is the bouncing back of sound or the reflection of a sound wave.
USES OF ECHO
 Echo sounders: this are used to measure the depth of water under a boat.
 Electronic tape measures: a surveyor can use this to measure the distance
between two walls.
REVERBERATION
If the reflecting surface is nearer than 15m, the echo joins up with the original sound which
seemed to be prolonged. This is called reverberation (multiple reflection of sound).
RANGE OF AUDIBLE FREQUENY
 Human beings; from 20 Hz to 20 KHz
 Dogs; can detect lower than 20 Hz and higher than 20 KHz
 Bats; can detect more than 20 KHz up to 130 KHz.
ULTRASOUND: this is sound that is beyond the range of human hearing (20Hz- 20000Hz).
USES OF ULTRASOUND
 Cleaning and breaking: this is used to clean delicate material without dismantling it.
 Echo sounding: ships use echo-sounders to measure the depth of the water beneath
them.
 Metal testing: some echo sounding principles are used to detect flaws in metals.
 Womb scanning: echo sounding transmitters are used to send pulses from the mother
body thus picking up pulses reflected from the baby.
 Determining cracks in water pipes which are located in between walls.
SOUND POLLUTION
This is sound that is too much unpleasant in the surrounding. The loudness of sound is
measured in decibels.
SOURCES OF SOUND POLLUTION
 Train
 Traffic
 Industries

39
 Generators
 Bombs
REDUCING NOISE POLLUTION

 Lubricating moving parts
 Wear ear muffs
 Install silencers in cars and guns
 Separate residential from industrial areas
EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

 Stress
 Irritation
 Increase heart problems
 Deafness
SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
PITCH, LOUDNESS AND QUALITY OF SOUND

Pitch is the property of sound determined by its frequency. High pitched sound is associated
with high frequency, low sound (deep, low notes) with low frequency.
Pitch depends on frequency of a sound the higher the frequency the higher the pitch.
Loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the sound.
QUALITY OF SOUND (TIMBRE)

A sound note consist of a fundamental frequency mixed other frequencies overtones,
overtones are usually weaker than the main frequency but have frequencies which are exact
multiples of the fundamental frequency. The note of a different instrument sounds differently
that is they differ in quality. This is because no instrument can produce a pure note. There are
only two instruments that are able to produce pure notes.
i. Tuning folk
ii. Signal generator

40
THE ELECTOMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

This is a group of waves with common properties but different wavelengths and frequencies.
PROPERTIES
 They are all transverse waves.
 They travel in a vacuum at a speed of 3 x m/s.
 They obey refraction and reflection laws.
 They can be absorbed and emitted by matter.
 They transfer energy.
 All obey equation , where c=3×108m/s.
NAME SOURCE DETECTION PROPERTIES USES
Gamma Nuclear Photographic Very Treatment of
radioactive film penetrating and cancer
atoms G-M tube dangerous Sterilising
medical
equipment’s
and food
X-Ray X- ray tubes Photographic Very Used for
film penetrating and radiography
Fluorescent dangerous Inspection of
screen welds in pipes
Treatment of
skin disorders
Ultraviolet rays Very hot object Photographic Causes sun burn Gives sun tan
above 500 film fluorescent Damages and Makes clothes
degrees Photocells kills living cells washed with
mercury lamp washing powder
look wither
Helps detect
forgeries
Visible light The sun Eyes Refracted by It is essential
Hot objects Photographic glass lenses and for
Laser and lamp film prism photosynthesis
Photocells Seeing
Infrared The sun and hot Skin Makes skin feel Used for
objects Light dependent warm heating
resistor Causes heating Remote sensing
when absorbed Infrared satellite
microwaves Microwave Microwave It is absorbed Microwave
oven receiving by water and cooking
fats in food Communication
Radio waves Aerials They induce Radio, TV’s
connected to alternating and satellite
tuned circuits in electric circuits communications
TVs and radio

41
LIGHT
FEATURES OF LIGHT
 Light is a form of radiation this means that light can spread out
 Light travels in a straight line
 Light transfers energy
 Light is the fasted thing in a vacuum
 Light travels as waves
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
This is the bouncing back of light when it heats a medium.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
 The angle of incidence is equal the angel of reflection.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lies on the same plane
REFLECTION ON A PLANE MIRROR

 The image is upright
 The image is the same size as the object
 The image is virtual
 The image is laterally inverted

42
DIAGRAM SHOWING REFLECTION IN A PLANE MIRROR
REFRACTION
This is the bending of light when it passes through a medium. Light can be refracted when
passing from one medium to the other for it to be refracted it must not be perpendicular to the
boundary.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN A GLASS BLOCK
1. A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium at an
angle (e.g. from air to glass), i.e. the angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence.
2. A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense medium
(e.g. from glass to air).
3. A ray emerging from a parallel-sided block is parallel to the ray entering, but is displayed.
4. A ray travelling along the normal is not refracted.

43
REFRACTIVE INDEX
This is the ratio which shows the extent to which a light ray will be bend in a medium.
( )
EXAMPLE 1
Light travels at 3 x m/s. in glass its speed falls to 2 x m/s find the refractive index?
REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH
CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

CRITICAL ANGLE: This is the angle beyond which total internal reflection occurs.
When light passes from a denser medium to a less dense medium there is a strong refracted
ray and a weak reflected ray back into the denser medium.
At a certain angle of incidence, called the critical angle the angle of refraction is 90°. The
refracted ray disappears and all the incident ray is reflected into the denser medium thus
TOTAL INTERNAL REFECTION occurs.

44
OPTICAL FIBRES
These are thin flexible threads of transparent materials that transmit light by total internal
reflection, they are used to transmit and receive light from inaccessible places by repeated
total internal reflection.
IMAGES
An image is a point from which rays of light entering the eye appear to have originated.
VIRTUAL IMAGES
These are images that cannot be formed on a screen and rays of light do not actually pass
through it e.g. images formed by plane mirrors. Therefore imaginary dots are drawn from the
image.
REAL IMAGES
These are images that can be formed on a screen because rays of light actually pass through it
e.g. image formed by pinhole camera.
NB: A real ray of light is represented by a line with an arrow in the middle.
PROPERTIES OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS

 The image is the same size as the actual object.
 The image is virtual (cannot be formed on a screen).
 It is laterally inverted.
 The image is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the
mirror.

45
USES OF MIRRORS
1. PLANE MIRRORS
 They are used daily to view the person’s image.
 They used in designing a periscope.
2. CONVEX MIRRORS
 Car driving mirrors-the image gives a wide field of view.
3. CONCAVE MIRRORS
 It is used as reflector in a car headlamps and flash lamps.
 It is used to make makeup and shaving mirrors-a concave mirror forms magnified
images.
LENSES
A lens is a transparent material which refract light ray such that they either converge or
diverge.
TYPES OF LENSE
CONVEX LENSES
These are thickest in the middle and thin round the edge. They are also knows as converging
lenses.
CONCAVE LENSES
These are thin in the middle and usually thickest round the edge a concave lens is a diverging
lenses.

46
RAY DIAGRAMS OF CONVEX LENSES AND APLLICATIONS

DIAGRAM (b): this kind of lens I used in cameras because the image is diminished, real and
upside down.
DIAGRAM (d): this kind of lens is used in projector because the image is larger, real and
upside down.
DIAGRAM (f): this kind of lens is used in magnifying glasses, the image is not real, larger
than the object, upright and behind the object.

47
1. Differentiate between transverse waves and longitudinal waves? [2]

2. State two examples of transverse waves? [2]
3. Give two examples of longitudinal waves. [2]
4. State two uses of ultrasound? [2]
5. The speed of sound in air is 330m/s.
a) Why do you hear sound after seeing lightning? [1]
b) If lightning strikes and you hear sound 4s after you see it, how far away was it?
[3]
6. A rocket is 220m from a large cliff when it sounds its foghorn.
a) When the echo is heard on the racket, how far has the sound travelled? [3]
b) What time delay is there before the echo is heard? [2]
c) The racket changes its distance from the cliff. When the echo time is 0.5s, how far
is the racket from the cliff? [3]
7. A student stands 300m from a tall building and when he produced a sound the time
taken to hear the next pulse of sound was 2s. Calculate the speed of sound in air? [2]
8. State how the frequency affects the pitch and how amplitude affects loudness? [2]
9. Give three features common in all electromagnetic waves? [3]
10. Name the type of electromagnetic wave that is:
a) is emitted by hot objects
b) is visible to the eyes
c) used for detecting fractured bones
d) used for verifying invisible bank signatures
e) can cause fluorescence [5]
11. A radio station emits radio waves at a frequency of 10000000000000Hz what is its
wavelength? [2]
12. State two laws of reflection? [2]
13. State three properties of images formed by a plane mirror? [3]
14. Differentiate between reflection and refraction. [2]
8
15. The speed of light through a diamond is given as 2 × 10 . Calculate the refractive
index of a diamond? [2]
16. A ray entering a glass block is at an angle of 45. Calculate the angle of refraction
given that the refractive index is 1.5? [3]
17. State two uses of total internal reflection? [2]
18. State two uses of a concave and convex lens? [2]

48
MAGNETISM
EXAM TIPS:
 Know the basic properties of a magnet
 Acquire knowledge on the permanent and soft magnetic materials
 Understand methods of magnetisation and ways of demagnetisation
Magnetic material: it is a piece of material that has the ability to attract certain materials
and can be made into a magnet. These materials are called ferromagnetic e.g. iron, steel,
cobalt, nickel and their alloys.
Non-magnetic materials are not attracted by magnet this includes copper, aluminium, zinc,
brass, bronze, brass and non-metals.
Examples of Magnets
PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET
 A magnet consists of two poles; the NORTH and SOUTH POLE
 LIKE poles REPEL while UNLIKE poles ATTRACT.

 Magnets attract magnetic materials only e.g. iron, steel, cobalt.
 Magnetic strength is concentrated at the poles.
 Magnets show a north-south direction.

49
INDUCED MAGNETISM
When a permanent magnet is brought near a magnetic material, the magnetic material gains
magnetism from the permanent magnet, the magnetized material then behaves like a magnet.
This process is called induced magnetism.
Steel paper clips

Iron nails
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

In the diagram shown above the steel paper clips and iron nails can cling to the magnet
because they are being magnetized i.e. behave like a magnet. But when the magnet is
removed the chain of iron nails falls, (this shows that iron can be used as a temporary
magnet) while steel remains in the chain for a longer time (thus steel is used for making
permanent magnets).
IRON STEEL
1. Easily magnetised 1. Not easily magnetised
2. Easily demagnetised 2. Not easily demagnetised
3. Forms stronger magnets 3. Forms weaker magnets
4. Does not retain its magnetism 4. Retains its magnetism
5. Makes temporary magnets 5. Makes permanent magnets
6.Soft magnetic material 6. Hard magnetic material
MAGNETIC FIELDS
This is a region around a magnet where magnetism is detected. Magnetic force is experienced
in this region. Magnetic fields around a magnet are shown by a pattern of lines with the
following rules:
 Magnetic field lines are always running from North Pole towards the South Pole.
 The field lines should never touch each other.

50
Example
MAGNETISATION
This is the process of making a magnet.
METHODS OF MAGNETISATION
 Stroking
A steel bar is stroked from end to end several times in the same direction with a known pole
of a permanent magnet the end of the steel bar where the stroking end will have an opposite
pole.
 Electric method (using direct current)
Magnetising an iron rod

51
Temporary magnets are made using the effect of electricity. A simple electromagnet passes
current through a long insulated copper wire or solenoid having iron as its core. When the
current is switched off soft iron losses its magnetism.
DEMAGNETISATION
This is the process of destroying magnetic property of a material.
Methods of Demagnetisation
 Heating-if a magnet is heated strongly with Bunsen burner flame the magnet will lose
its magnetism quickly.
 Hammering-if a magnet is hammered vigorously while lying in east-west direction its
magnetism will become weaker and weaker.
 Dropping a magnets several times
 Using alternating current--the solenoid is connected to an alternating current supply.
A magnet to be demagnetised is placed inside the solenoid parallel to the east-west
direction. Following the east-west direction slowly withdraw the magnet far away
through the solenoid while the a.c supply is still flowing. As this process is repeated,
the magnet will be demagnetised.
USES OF MAGNETS
 Magnetic compasses
 Dynamos
 Small generators and motors
 Loud speakers
 Refrigerators
 Voltmeters
MAGNETIC SATURATION
When a magnetic material is magnetised electrically the magnetic strength increases with the
increase in current. But magnetization does not increase indefinitely with current. The
magnetization will ultimately reach a maximum constant value. At that point the magnetic
material is said to have attained magnetic saturation.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
These are lines which show the direction in which the magnet force acts.
Lines of force are always from north to south.
A compass can be used to draw a line of force around a magnet.

52
MAGNETIC SCREENING (SHIELDING)

Magnetic shielding is a process that limits the coupling of a magnetic field between two
locations. This can be done with a number of materials, including sheet metal, metal mesh or
ionized gas. The purpose is most often to prevent magnetic fields from interfering with
electrical devices.
Unlike electricity, magnetic fields cannot be blocked or insulated, which makes shielding
necessary. Therefore, magnetic field lines must terminate on the opposite pole. There is no
way to block these field lines; nature will find a path to return the magnetic field lines back to
an opposite pole. This means that even if a nonmagnetic object — for example, glass — is
placed between the poles of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic field will not change.
Instead of attempting to stop these magnetic field lines, magnetic shielding re-routes them
around an object. This is done by surrounding the device to be shielded with a magnetic
material. Magnetic permeability describes the ability of a material to be magnetized. If the
material used has a greater permeability than the object inside, the magnetic field will tend to
flow along this material, avoiding the objects inside. Thus, the magnetic field lines are
allowed to terminate on opposite poles, but are merely redirected.

53
ELECTROMAGNETISM
EXAM TIPS
 Know the applications and uses of electromagnets
Temporary magnets are made using magnetic effects of electricity; this is known as electro
magnetisation.
AN ELECTROMAGNET
It is only a magnet when current is flowing through a solenoid. When the current is switched
off, the magnetism of the magnet cease to be. Iron is used to make electromagnets.
The strength of electromagnets depends on;
 The number of turns/coils in the solenoid
 The amount of current passing through the solenoid.
USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
 Electric bells
 Telephone earpiece
 Relay switches
 Picking up scrap magnetic material
 In magnetic separators
 In circuit breakers
 Electric bell
Electric Bell
 When current is switched on the soft iron core becomes magnetised

 The magnetised core attracts the soft iron armature
 The hammer hits the gong and the electrical circuit is broken at the contacts

54
 The soft iron core then demagnetises and the armature is pulled back to its original
position
 The electrical contact is remade and the bell rings again.
Magnetic Relay
The magnetic relay also uses the same effect as the soft iron armature

55
1. State three properties of a magnet? [3]

2. State materials that are used for making temporary magnets and permanent magnets?
[2]
3. Differentiate between hard and soft magnetic materials? [2]
4. Define demagnetisation and state three methods of demagnetisation? [4]
5. Draw a magnet showing magnetic fields of a magnet? [3]
6. State two methods of magnetisations? [2]
7. Explain the method of magnetisations below? [3]
8. Describe how the electric bells works? [4]

9. Explain what happens to the nail when it is removed from the coil? [2]
Iron nail
Battery
Coil of insulated wire
Switch
10. State three uses of electromagnets. [3]

56
THERMAL PHYSICS
EXAM TIPS:
 Understand applications of thermal expansion

 Acquire basics of consequences of thermal expansion
 Understand the difference between boiling and evaporation
 Know methods of heat transfer and their applications
 Differentiate between absorbers and emitters
SIMPLE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF MATTER
GAS LIQUID SOLID

Particles are very far apart Particles close together but Particles are tightly packed
not regular in regular rows
Forces of attraction are Forces of attraction are Forces of attraction are
very weak or negligible strong very strong
Random motion of Molecules slide over each Tiny vibrations about fixed
particles other points
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

According to the kinetic theory of matter; all matter is made up of tiny particles which are in
constant motion.
THERMAL EXPANSION IN MATTER

When matter is heated its particles increase in size gain kinetic energy and move further
apart.
SOLIDS (the ball and ring)
When heated the metal ball expands and increase in size therefore it cannot pass through the
ring.
LIQUIDS
When liquids expand they increase in volume. As in the example below, when the flask is
heated it expands then the level of the water will slightly decrease because the flask expands
then after some time the water level will increase thus water level rises.

57
APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION
THE BIMETALLIC STRIP

Two thin metal stripes can be bonded together to form a bimetallic strip. The bimetallic strip
is made of two metals; metal A (aluminium) and metal B (copper). When heated metal A
expands more than metal B this makes the bimetallic strip bend with metal A on the outside
of the curve.
The BIMETTALLIC THERMOSTATS

Thermostats are devices that are used to control temperature they are fitted to immersion
heaters, ovens, and refrigerators.
The ELECTRIC IRON
 When the electric circuit is switched on the heater heats up and the bimetallic strip
bends away from the contact thereby breaking the circuit.
 This means there will be no electricity flowing to complete the circuit, overtime the
bimetallic strip will cool down and straighten up making contact again and electricity
flow starts again and this process is repeated the whole time of using the iron, as a
result desired temperature will be maintained.
 If more temperature is needed the control knob is turned such that it pushes the
bimetallic strip towards the contact.
CONSEQUNCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION

I. BRIDGES
Bridges are usually made of concrete and steel if the temperature rises during the day the
bridge hits up and becomes long it moves smoothly over the rollers to enable the other end to
join the road.
II. RAILWAY LINES

Railway lines are designed such that there is a gap between them, this cater for expansion and
prevent the railway line from warbling due to expansion.
III. POWER LINES AND TELEPHONE CABLES

58
Cables are designed such that they expand during the day and become tight during the night
or winter. When cables are suspended from poles they are slack to allow contraction that
would happen on cold day.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Temperature is the measure of coldness or hotness of a substance. Temperature is measured
in degrees Celsius (°c)
INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE
 Lab thermometer
 Clinical thermometer
 Thermocouple
DESIGNING A THERMOMETER
Properties used in designing a thermometer
 The expansion of a capillary tube
 The electrical resistance of a wire
 The voltage or electromotive force in a thermocouple
 The expansion of a bimetallic strip
 The pressure of constant volume
These properties must change and vary with temperature.
CALIBRATION OF A THERMOMETER
1. THE LOWER FIXED POINT
 This is defined as the temperature of pure melting ice given at a value of 0 °C.
 A capillary tube with a bulb is placed in a funnel containing pure ice. The
thread of liquid is allowed to fall and become steady when ice starts to melt
the level at which the thread stops is marked the lower fixed point.
2. THE UPPER FIXED POINT
 It is defined as the temperature of steam above boiling water at normal
atmospheric pressure and is given the value 100°C.
 The capillary tube is placed above boiling water when the temperature stops
rising the level is marked 100°C.

59
After marking the two fixed points the distance between them is divided into smaller
divisions such that each division will be equal to 1°C if the distance is 100°C the distance
between each degree is 0.1cm.
TWO TYPES OF LIQUIDS IN GLASS THERMOMETER

 Alcohol(clinical thermometer)
 Mercury(lab thermometer)
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
 It is used to measure body temperature
 It has a short range of 34°C - 42°C.
 The clinical thermometer has a large bulb and a narrow capillary tube this feature
helps it to be more sensitive, a sensitive thermometer is the one that can detect small
change in temperature.
 The clinical thermometer has a short range because it has a narrow bore. The narrow
bore gives the short range because the liquid fills up the stem quickly for a small
change in temperature. The lab thermometer has a long range and is used to measure
temperature of substances.
 The clinical thermometer has a constriction this does not allow the mercury to fall
back into the bulb once the temperature is recorded.
ADVANTAGES OF USING MERCURY

*Being a metal it is good conductor of heat.
*It exerts very low vapour pressure
*It has high boiling point (357 ) and low freezing point (-39 ).
*It is shining visible.
*It has low specific heat capacity.
*It is expansion uniform.
DISADVANTAGES OF MERCURY
*Very small expansion
*It freezes at so it cannot be used at Arctic and Antarctic.

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ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL
*It freezing point is below -100 hence very useful.
*Can expand even to slight change in temperature.
*Can be coloured bright and hence easily visible.
DISADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL
*It boils at 78 hence cannot be used for high temperatures.
*It sticks to the sides of the glass.
*It has a high vapour pressure.
*It is not a good conductor of heat.
*It has high specific heat capacity.
*It is difficult to obtain 100% pure alcohol.
THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER
It is a device used to measure very high temperatures and rapidly changing temperatures it
consists of two wires of different materials joined together.
 It comprises of two junctions hot and cold when one is heated the other one is kept
cool.
 The difference in temperature causes an electric current to flow which is observed
in the voltmeter
 The greater the temperature of the junction the greater the voltage.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLINICAL AND LAB THERMOMETER

CLINICAL LABORATORY
Has constriction No constriction
Small scale Bigger scale
Used in clinic for body Used in lab
temperature

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MELTING AND BOILING

MELTING is change of state from solid to liquid while BOILING is change of state from
liquid to gas.
FREEZING AND CONDENSATION
FREEZING is change of state from liquid to solid while CONDENSATION is change of
state from a gas to a liquid.
EVAPORATION it is the escape of more energetic molecules from the surface of the liquid.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

BOILING EVAPORATION
Occurs at a specific temperature Occurs at any temperature
Bubbles are formed in the liquid No bubbles formed within the liquid
Quick process Slow process
Temperature remains constant Temperature may change
Takes place within the liquid Takes place on the surface of the liquid
Heat supplied by energy source Heat supplied from the surrounding
TRANFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

There are three methods of heat transfer:
 Convection
 Conduction
 Radiation
Conduction Convection Radiation

-It is the transfer of thermal -It is the transfer of thermal -This is the flow of heat by
(heat) energy from one energy by means of currents means of electromagnetic
particle to the next through in the material medium waves.
the medium of a material (liquids or gas).
resulting from physical
contact.
-Used for cooling utensils -Used for household hot -Used for electricity
and in domestic water water systems, electric generation and in medical
radiators kettles, air conditioners, and applications,
refrigerators

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Poor Conductors: All materials that cannot transfer thermal energy, they are mostly used as
insulators. They are used for:
 Handle of kettle
 Table mats
EMITTERS AND ABOSBERS

Emitters are those materials that give out heat while absorbers are those materials that take in
heat.
Good emitters of heat radiation are also good absorbers of heat radiation. Generally black
surface are better absorbers of heat radiation than shiny surface so this is also for emitters.
White and silver are bad absorbers of heat radiation.
White and silver are the best reflectors of heat or light.
Applications
 Vacuum flask
FEATURES OF THE VACUUM FLASK

 Double glass walls: Container with a gap between the walls where air has been
removed to reduce conduction and convection.

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 Rubber stopper: Reduce conduction and convection.

 Silver surfaces: Reduces thermal radiation.
TEMPERATURE AND THE KINETIC THEORY

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles.
THE ABSOLUTE ZERO

As temperature falls the particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly until they can no
longer move slower. At this point they have the lowest temperature and minimum amount of
thermal energy, this is called absolute zero. Absolute zero is the lowest temperature
theorically obtainable. It is equal to zero (0 Kelvin). Zero Kelvin is the zero on the scale.
There are no negative temperatures on this scale.
The relationship between the degree Celsius and the absolute scale is temperature in
Kelvin=temperature in + 273K.
GAS PRESSURE
Pressure exerted by gas molecules.
*Reducing the volume of the container-the same number of molecules make more collisions
with the walls of the container because they travel less distance between collisions.
*Increasing temperature-this can be done by heating the container. The molecules travel
faster and they hit the container walls harder.
*Increasing number of molecules-this increases the chance of many molecules hitting the
container walls more often.
GAS LAWS
1. Effect of volume on pressure of a gas.
Temperature is kept constant.
Pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
Boyle’s Law
This is Boyle’s law which states that; temperature of a given mass of gas at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to its volume. This means that when volume is doubled
pressure is halved and vice versa.
2. Linking volume and temperature (at constant pressure).

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Charles’ Law: for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional
to the Kelvin temperature.
3. Linking pressure and temperature (at constant volume).
Pressure Law: for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional
to the Kelvin temperature.
Combined Law
BROWNIAN MOTION
It is the random molecular bombardment of particles.
HEAT CAPACITY
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
( )
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (Lf)
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION (Lv)

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1. State the kinetic theory of matter?

2. State and explain three methods of heat transfer?
3. Differentiate between evaporation and boiling?
4. In sunny countries some houses have a solar heater on the roof. It warms up water for
the house.
a) Explain why the panel in the solar heater is black?
b) Why is there a layer of insulation behind the panel?
c) What are that advantages of using a solar panel instead of the heater?
5. Explain the applications of convection in refrigerators?
6. Explain why there are some fins at the back of a refrigerator?
7. Explain how the features of a vacuum flask shown below enable it to work
effectively?
Plastic stopper
Trapped air
Hot liquid
Vacuum
Double walled
gas bottle
Outer case
Thin silvered
walls of glass
Cork to hold
flak in place
8. Three materials are mentioned as follows a black metal surface, a white metal surface
and a silver metal surface which of the following material is best at:
 Absorbing thermal radiation
 Emitting thermal radiation
 Reflecting thermal radiation
9. State and explain three effects of expansion?

66
10. Describe how a bimetallic strip is used in thermostats.

11. A student wants to estimate the amount of solar (heat) energy absorbed by the water.
The student measures the temperature of water at sunrise as 25°C, and at noon as
33°C.
a) Calculate the energy needed to raise the temperature for 3000kg of water
between sunrise and noon. (The heat capacity of water is 4.2kJ/ (kg°C) [2]
b) State two reasons why the sun has provided more energy than you have
calculated in (a) to warm the water. [2]
3
c) A plastic bottle is completely filled with 200cm of water at 0°C. The bottle is
closed and placed into a freezer. The density of water is 1.0g/cm3. Calculate
the mass of water? [2]
d) Calculate the heat given out by water as it turns to ice at 0°C. (the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice = 340J/g) [2]
e) Explain why the bottle may burst as the water freezes? [2]
12. Define the following terms, heat capacity, specific heat capacity, latent heat of fusion
and latent heat of vaporisation? [8]
13. How much energy is needed to heat 500g of water from 30°C to 50°C? (Specific heat
capacity of water = 4200J/Kg°C)? [2]
14. On a hot day, the water level in the tank drops by0.0030m. The area of the water
surface is 5.0m2. The density of water is 1000kg/m3 and the specific latent heat of
vaporisation of water is 2.2 x 106 J/kg. Calculate the energy supplied to evaporate the
water? [2]
15. In an experiment to find the specific latent heat of water, the following readings were
taken.
M1 mass of water at 100°C, before boiling starts = 120g
M2 mass of water at 100°C, after boiling finishes = 80g
V Voltage across the heater = 12 V
l Current through the heater = 2.0A
t time that the heater was supplying energy = 3750s
a) Using the symbols above write down the equation that must be used to find the
value of the specific latent heat L of water? [1]
b) Use the equation to calculate the specific latent heat of water from the
readings above? [3]
c) Explain in terms of the molecule why the specific latent heat of water has a
high value? [2]

67
STATIC ELECTRICITY
EXAM TIPS
 Understand static electricity
 Acquire knowledge on methods of charging and discharging
 Know the principles of static electricity using spheres
Static electricity can be defined as the accumulation electric charge on an object which is a
poor conductor of electricity or insulated in some way. This is the state or behaviour of
charges at rest. There are two types of charges positive and negative charges.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTROSTATICS
1. When polythene is rubbed with a woollen cloth the polythene pulls electrons from the
wool. When the Perspex is rubbed with a cloth the wool pulls the electrons from the
Perspex.
THE LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
An electric charge is defined as the overall electrons or deficiency of electrons. Electric
charge comes from batteries, generators and it can be as result of rubbing materials together.
Charge is measured in Coulombs (C).
TYPES OF CHARGES
1. Positive charge-it results when electrons are rubbed off from the outermost shell of an
atom.
2. Negative charge-results when electrons are gained by being rubbed onto a material.

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ELECTRIC FIELD
It is a region or area surrounding a charged material in which electric force is experienced or
detected. They have direction which is from the positive charge to the negative charge.
CONDUCTORS
This are materials which let electrons pass through them, metal are best conductors.
Why metals are good conductors?
This is because each atom of a metal has at least one loosely held electron which is free to
move. When a current passes through a wire it is because the free electron(s) move from one
atom to another which is not the case with insulators.
INSULATORS
This are materials that hardly conduct at all, their atoms are tightly held together and are not
free to move.
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
It is a redistribution of electrical charge in an object, caused by influence of nearby charges.

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THE GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
Presence of charge on a material can be detected by a goldleaf electroscope. It is made up of

a metal plate, with a metal rod and goldleaf at the end of the rod.
How it works?
1. Bring a charged rod i.e. positively charged rod and bring it closer to the metal plate but not
touching it.
2. The goldleaf will rise.
This is because the positively charged rod induces charge on the electroscope by attracting
the electrons up to the metal cap. Since the metal rod and goldleaf both carry a positive
charge, the goldleaf will rise because like charges repel.
What happens when the rod is removed?

The goldleaf falls back down because there is redistribution of charge.
What happens when you touch the metal cap with the rod?
The goldleaf will rise.
Why does it rise?
Electrons are transferred from the electroscope to the rod, such that the electroscope has a
large positive charge.
METHODS OF DISCHARGING
 Touching
 Earthing

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LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS
A large rain cloud carries a large amount of charge; the charge comes about as a result of
rubbing between clouds and molecules as the cloud moves from one place to another.
The charge on the cloud can be so that the cloud may want to discharge and when this
discharging occurs lightning is observed. This is observed when charge from the cloud to the
earth or another cloud. To reduce the effect of the lightning tall buildings are often fitted with
lightning conductor. A lightning conductor consists of a thick copper rod with spikes on the
outside of a building connecting it to a metal plate underground.
The lightning conductor has spikes at the top this is because the spikes this is because the
spikes help to concentrate the charge. The lightning conductor reduces the amount of charges
carried by the cloud in this way; when the cloud passes overhead and it is negatively charged
at the bottom, the negative charges are going to be repelled down from the end of the spikes
to the ground and this makes the spikes to remain with a large positive charge. The positive
charge on the spikes ionizes the air around it such that there could be a large positive electric
wind above the buildings. The electric wind is therefore attracted to the cloud because the
cloud is negatively and this neutralizes some of the negative charge in the cloud therefore
reducing the charge carried by the cloud. Even if a flash does occur it will be less violent and
the conductor gives it an easy path to the earth.

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CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE
EXAM TIPS:
 Acquire knowledge on current, potential difference and electrical resistance
 Know Ohm’s law and how to apply the law
 Understand factors that affect resistance
 Know how to differentiate between series and parallel circuit
 Acquire basics of calculating voltage, current and resistance in parallel and series
circuits
CURRENT
Current is the rate of flow of charges its SI units are Ampere (A). It is measured using
ammeter.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

This is the energy needed to move electrons in a circuit. It is measured in volts (V).
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
This is the amount of used up by a component in a circuit. It is measured in volts using
voltmeter.
RESISTANCE
This is the opposition to flow of current. Electrical resistance take energy from electrons
causing them to move slowly. Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω).
OHM’S LAW
It states that the potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through the conductor provided temperature and other physical quantities
are kept constant.

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Cover the variable you want to find and

perform the resulting calculation
(Multiplication /Division) as indicated
Materials that obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors, and those that do not obey
Ohm’s law are called non ohmic conductors.
GRAPH OF OHMIC AND NON OHMIC CONDUCTORS

The graph or plot of an ohmic conductor is a straight line while the graph of a non ohmic
conductor is a curve thus the gradient of both graphs is equivalent to the resistance.
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE

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FACTORS
AFFECTING
RESISTANCE
CROSSECTIONAL
AREA
resistance is inversly
LENGTH OF propotional to the
A cross sectional area
CONDUCTOR
The longer the
lenght the more
the resistance
CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

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SERIES CIRCUIT
 Current is the same at every point in a series circuit
 The sum of potential difference in a series circuit is equal to the terminal potential
difference from the source.
 Electricity flows in only one path
A series circuit with a battery and three bulbs.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 The current from the source is the sum of the currents in separate branches of a
parallel circuit.
 The potential difference across each circuit component in a parallel circuit is the
same as potential difference across the source.
 Electricity flows in more than one path.
A parallel circuit with 3 resistors and a cell.

Calculating the Resistance in Series and Parallel

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ELECTRICAL POWER
This is the rate in which electricity is converted into other forms of energy.
CALCULATING COST OF ELECTRICITY

( ) ( )
1unit = 1Kwh

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MAINS ELECTRICITY
For households the main supply voltage is 240V in Botswana and 230V in UK. The mains
current is an alternating current (AC), it flows backwards and forward.
The Three Pin Plug
LIVE WIRE
 Its colour is brown. This is an active wire providing the path for flow of charge during
normal operation. The voltage of this goes alternatively negative and positive making
the current flow backwards and forward through the circuit. The live wire connects
the appliance directly to the power station. Electrons move at high energy in this wire.
EARTH WIRE
 Its colour is green or yellow. The earth wire connects home appliances to the ground.
This is called earthing. It carries current away from the appliance to the earth if a fault
is developed and the metal casing becomes live.
NEUTRAL WIRE
 Its colour is blue. This completes the circuit. It is kept at zero voltage by the electric
supply company. In this wire the electrons have got less energy hence it cannot give
an electric shock if accidentally touched.
DOUBLE INSULATION
 Appliances that do not have earth wire are double insulated. This means that all the
parts of the component are completely enclosed in plastic so that the any user who
touches them would not get a shock. These appliances include TV set, hairdryer etc.
FUSE
 A fuse should be included in a circuit to prevent the current from becoming too large
which will cause overheating of the cables. A fuse consists of a thin wire with low
melting point, when the current exceeds a certain limit called the rating the fuse will
melt and break the circuit. The fuse is connected to the live wire. Different appliances
have different fuses so it is important to know an appliance’s fuse rating. Fuse rating
is the minimum current that the fuse can carry without melting.

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THE SWITCH
It should also be connected to the live wire. It would function well in the neutral but then
the wire in the cable would still be live while the switch is off. This would be dangerous
if the cable was accidentally cut.
SIMPLE LIGHTNING IN THE HOUSE
Every circuit in the house is connected parallel to the supply so that it receives the full
voltage of 240V. Bulbs in the house are connected in parallel so that they be switched on and
off independently.
RING MAIN CIRCUIT

ADVANTAGES
1. In cases of a short circuit one particular appliance is disconnected from the electric circuit
without affecting other circuit since every appliance has its own fuse.
2. As a single ring fits the whole house the length of wiring is considerably small so
installation charges are reduced.
3. All sockets in the ring main are connected in parallel so the full mains voltage is supplied
to every appliance connected.
Diagnosing Steps to Be Followed When There Is Electrical Fault in an Appliance

 Switch off the power supply and remove the appliance from the socket
 Use plugs that have a rubber or plastic case
 Do not overload the sockets by using too many adapters
 Do not allow appliances cables come in contact with water
 Do not connect appliances that use large amount of current in a lighting circuit

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1. Define electrostatic and state two types of electrical charges? [3]

2. Differentiate between conductors and insulators. [2]
3. Explain one method of detecting electrical charges? [3]
4. Define electric field and use the diagram below to explain this term? [3]
5. Explain what happens at sphere a) b) c) and d) [4]
6. Explain the following electrical hazards:

i. Damaged insulation ii. Overheated cables iii. Damp conditions [6]
7. i. Calculate the total resistance of the following resistors? [6]

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b)
c)
ii. a) Calculate the current through the resistors in the above diagram? [2]
b) Calculate the voltage through the 1kΩ and the 3kΩ resistors? [2]
c) What is the voltage through the 2kΩ resistor? [2]
8. a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit below? [2]
a) Calculate the total current? [3]

b) Calculate the current through the one 5kΩ resistor? [2]
9. State the equation linking power voltage and current and the equation for electrical
energy? [1]
10. Name the circuit’s symbols shown in the diagram below? [6]

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11. If an electrical heater takes a current of 500A connected to a 240V supply what is its
power? [2]
12. If a light bulb has a power of 60W when connected to a 240V supply. What is the
current though it? [2]
13. a) If energy cost P0.15 per unit calculate the cost of using a 4kW electric fire for 6hrs?
b) A 120W hair dryer for 30 minutes? [4]
14. Label and state the function of different parts of the 3 pin plug shown below? [5]

81
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTIION
Exam Tips:
 Understand the principle of AC generators
 Acquire knowledge on way of increasing EMF on AC generators
Is the production of induced EMF by the relative motion of a magnet and the coil, wherever a
conductor is moved in such a way that it disturbs the magnetic lines EMF is induced.
The voltage is produced when a magnet is moved into the coil of wire. The process is called
induction. The direction is induced voltage is reversed when the magnet is moved out of the
coil again. It can also be reversed if the pole of a magnet is moved into the coil.
WAYS OF INCREASING THE INDUCED VOLTAGE

 Using a stronger magnet
 Moving the magnet faster
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil
GENERATOR
A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mains electricity is
produced by the generators.

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THE AC GENERATOR
It consists of a coil mounted on the axel between the poles of a magnet. The end of a coil is
fixed to the two copper slip rings, connecting them to the outside circuit. When the coil is
rotated it causes an alternating current to flow thorough the circuit.
WAYS OF INCREASING THE MAXIMUM EMF

 Increasing the number of turns on the coil
 Increasing the area of the coil
 Using a stronger magnet
 Rotating the coil faster
TRANSFORMERS
EXAM TIPS
 Know the difference between a step up and a step down transformer
 Understand the transformer equation
It is a device that can be used to increase or decrease AC voltage. A simple transformer is
shown in the diagram below:

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HOW A TRANSFORMER WORKS

When alternating current flows through the primary (input coil), it sets up an alternating
magnetic field in the core and, therefore, in the secondary (output) coil. This changing
magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the output coil.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
 Step up transformers
 Step down transformers
STEP UP TRANSFORMER
 Has more turns in secondary coil(output) than in primary coil(input)

 Has more voltage in secondary coil than in primary coil.
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
 Have more coils in primary (input) than in secondary (output).

 Has more voltage in primary coil than in secondary coil.
THE TRANSFORMER EQUATION

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POWER THROUGH A TRANSFORMER
If a transformer is 100% efficient, then OUTPUT POWER=INPUT POWER.

Output power=input power
VsIs=VpIp
Vs/Vp=Is/Is
The efficiency of a real transformer is always less than 100%.
Efficiency=output power/input power×100%
VsIs=VpIp×100%
If a transformer is only 90% efficient, then VsIs/VpIp=0.9
There are two reasons:
1. Energy is lost in the form heat in the primary and secondary coils, and in the soft iron core.
2. There is leakage of magnetic field between the primary and secondary coils.
To increase the efficiency of a transformer;
1. Use low resistant (thicker) copper wire for making coils so that the heating effect is
reduced.
2. Primary and secondary coils are wound on the same part of the soft iron core to reduce
leakage of magnetic flux.
POWER TRANSMISSION
A transformer is a useful electrical device that is essential for:
-Electrical power transmission from power station to houses and industries (users).
-Regulating voltages for proper operation of electrical appliances.
Energy loss:
-Electrical energy generated in a power station is transmitted through long cables.
-Due to resistance in the cables some energy is lost in the form of heat.
-To reduce power loss due to resistance, the output a.c voltage from the generator in the
power station is stepped up to a very high voltage (e.g. 240kV) by a step up transformer.
-The current in the cables is reduced and this reduces power loss.

85
-The high voltage is then stepped down to 240V by a series of step-down transformers so that
is safe for using.
CONCLUSION
Advantage of using A.C;
It can be stepped up and down easily by a transformer. This is not possible with D.C.
Advantage of high voltage;
Using high voltage transmission reduces power loss in the transmission cables.
The power loss in the cables can be calculated by using;
Power= (current)2×Resistance
P=I2R
1. The diagram shown the effect of electromagnetic induction:
a) Explain what happens to the pointer when the magnet is moved towards the coil? [1]
b) What happens when the magnet is reversed? [1]
c) State three ways of increasing induced EMF. [3]
2. Differentiate between a step up and a step down transformer? [2]
3. A coil with 100 turns is to be used as a primary coil of a step up transformer for
running a 12V radio on 240V supply. How many turns of a wire should a secondary
coil have? [2]
4. Explain why voltage transmitted in pylons is very high. [2]

86
INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS
THERMIONIC EMISSION
Using an evacuated glass tube with a cathode filament and anode plate. When the cathode is
heated a beam of electrons escapes at high speed from the filament which will move across
the gap towards the positively charged anode. Therefore a current flows.
EFFECT OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE CATHODE
If opposite charges are evenly spread through the metal plates a uniform electric field is
created between the plates at a right angle to the field is attracted to the positively charged
plate following a parabolic path.
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
Conventional current moves from positive to the negative terminal. However electrons flow
from the negative to the positive terminal.
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

It is an evacuated tube with three main parts, the electron gun, the deflecting system and the
fluorescent screen.
1. The electron gun
The heater heats up the cathode from which electrons escape.
The grid controls the number of electrons passing and hence the brightness.
The anodes are at high positive voltages and accelerate and focuses electrons beam into a
narrow beam.
2. The deflecting system
The y-plates are horizontal but create a vertical electric field which deflects the beam
vertically.
The x-plates are vertical and deflect the beam horizontally. The x-deflecting circuit also
includes a time base circuit, which causes the spot to move across the screen with a steady
speed determined by time base settings.
3. The fluorescent screen
Its function is to display the waveform.

87
ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

1. Potentiometer
It is a three terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider.
A potentiometer is a variable potential divider. A variable resistor with 3 terminals is used
and a slide contact is connected to the centre one. It can also be made by a chain of resistors
in series.
V=V1+V2 regardless of where the contact is.
2. Thermistor (temperature sensitive resistor)
It is a component whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases.
3. Capacitor
A capacitor stores electric charge in the form of electrons. It consists of two parallel plates
separated by an insulating material.
Capacitors can be used to block D.C, while allowing A.C to pass.
They can also be used for time-delay circuits, as it takes time for it to charge up.
4. The reed switch
It consists of a small coil wound around a glass tube containing two ‘reeds’ made of magnetic
material. When current flows through the coil, the reeds become magnetised and attract each
other. This completes the circuit. The reeds separate when current in the coil is switched off.
Input Transducers-it is a component which enables a circuit to a change in its environment.

1. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
The resistance of the LDR decreases when the intensity of the light incident on it increases
i.e. it has high resistance in darkness and low resistance in light.
When more light is incident on the LDR, its resistance decreases so the current increases.
2. Diodes
A diode allows current to pass through it in one direction only. They have very low resistance
in one direction and very high in the other.
The diode conducts current when the anode goes to the positive terminal of the voltage
supply and the cathode to the negative terminal. It is then forward biased and conventional
current passes in the direction of the arrow on its symbol. If the connections are the other way
round, it does not conduct and it is said to be reversed biased.
Diode can be used to change A.C into D.C, this is called rectification.

88
THE TRANSISTOR
It is a device used to amplify small current. It is made of three layers of semiconductors
material. The three are base, collector and emitter.
A small current in the base causes a large current in the collector, if there is no current the
base, no current will flow in the collector.
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
Transistors are often used in digital circuits as logic gates. Here the output is either a high
voltage (1) or a low voltage (0) depending on the inputs to the circuit. There are five basic
types of logic gates.
1. The NOT gate (inverter)
The output voltage is NOT the same as the input voltage, e.g. IF input is 0 output is 1.
2. OR gate
For the OR gate the output is 1 if either A-input OR B-Input is 1 or both are 1.
3. NOR gate
Nor gate can be understood as a NOT OR gate. In a NOR gate the output is 1 if neither input-
A NOR input-B is 1 (i.e. If both A and B are 0).
4. AND gate
The output is 1 if input-A AND input-B are both 1.
5. NAND (NOT AND) gate
It is the opposite of AND gate. The output is 1 if either input A or B both are 1.
USING LOGIC GATES

Two or more logic gates can be combined to get desired results.

89
RADIOACTIVITY
EXAM TIPS
 Understand three particles emitted by radiation and properties of each particle
 Know methods of detecting radiation
 Acquire knowledge on how the G.M. Tube works and background radiation
 Know the effects and dangers of radiation
Radioactivity-It is the process whereby an unstable nucleus disintegrates spontaneously by
emission of a certain particles in order to become a stable daughter nucleus.
Nuclear Radiation-these are tiny particles and waves that break up from an atom with
unstable nuclei.
Radioactive Material-these are materials which emits nuclear radiation.
Radioactive Decay-it is the disintegration of a nucleus.
IONISING RADIATION
Nuclear radiation can remove electrons from atoms in its path, so it has an ionizing effect.
Other forms of ionizing radiation include ultraviolet and X-rays. If a gas becomes ionized, it
will conduct an electric current. In living things, ionization destroy cells.
TYPES OF RADIATION
Alpha radiation (α)-helium nucleus, has a charge of +2, high mass compared with beta, strong
ionizing effect, it is not very penetrating, stopped by paper. Deflected by both magnetic and
electric fields. travel at high speed.
Beta radiation (β)-fast moving electron, has a charge of -1, very low mass, weak ionizing
effect, penetrating but stopped by a few mm of aluminium. Deflected by magnetic and
electric field.
Gamma radiation (γ)-electromagnetic wave, no charge, mass is negligible, speed of light.
Very weak ionizing effect, very penetrating, never completely stopped. Not deflected by
magnetic or electric field.
SOURCES OF PARTICLES
 Cobalt-60 Gamma
 Polonium alpha particle
 Carbon – 14 beta particle found in air plants and animals
Other sources

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 Uranium- 234 found in rocks

 Uranium 235 found in rocks
DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY
 Geiger Muller tube
 Photography
 Diffusion of clouds chamber
GEIGER MULLER TUBE
This can be used to detect alpha beta and gamma radiation. The ionising effect is used to
detect radiation. When a radium enters a G.M tube through the thin end window made at
mica once it penetrates it creates argon ions and electrons. These are accelerated towards the
electrodes and cause more ionising by colliding with argon atoms.
On reaching the electrodes the ions produce a current which is amplified and fed either to a
scale or rate meter (counting circuit). The rate meter will give 50 counts per seconds.
PROPERTIES OF THREE EMMISIONS
Type of radiation Alpha particle (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
Nature Each particle Each particle is an Electromagnetic
contains the helium electron waves
ion
Relative charge Positive charge Negative charge 0
Ionizing effect Strong Weak Very weak
Penetrating Effect Not very penetrating Penetrating but Most penetrating
stopped by a thick stopped by a fem completely stopped
sheet of paper, or millimetres of by lead
skin aluminium
Effects on electrical Deflected by Deflected by Not deflected by
field and magnetic magnetic fields and electrical fields and magnetic fields
fields electrical fields electrical fields
RADIATION DANGERS
Nuclear radiation can damage or destroy living cells and stop organs in the body from
working properly. It can cause cancer and abnormal growth. Radioactive gas and dust are
dangerous because they can be taken with air, food and drinks.
Alpha radiation is the most dangerous because it is most highly ionizing.

91
Beta and gamma rays are potentially the most dangerous because they can penetrate to
internal organs. Alpha particles are stopped by the skin.
BACKGROUND RADIATION
This is small amount of radiation around us because of radioactive materials in the
environment.
SOURCE
 Soil
 Rocks
 Air
 radon-222
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
 Tracers: checking the functions of the body, detecting leaks in the underground pipes
by adding a tracer to the fluid in the pipe.
 Testing cracks: they can be used to detect cracks in metals e.g. gamma
 Thickness monitoring: beta particles are used to monitor thickness example during
manufacturing of papers.
 Carbon Dating: carbon 14 is used by scientist to discover remains of dead plants and
animals.
THE EFFECT OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES OR DANGERS OF RADIATION
 Causes radiation burn
 Causes gene mutation
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Alpha Decay
226
Ra88→ 222Ra86 +4α2 (helium)
Beta Decay
131
I53 → 131I54 + 0β-1
Gamma emission
Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass number or atomic number.

92
RATE OF DECAY AND HALF LIFE

The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei present in any given
sample to decay.
ACTIVITY AND HALF LIFE
In a radiation sample, the average number of disintegrations per second is called activity. The
SI unit is Becquerel (Bq). An activity of 100Bq means 100 nuclei are disintegrating per
second.
The half life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for the activity of any given
sample to fall to half its original value.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear reaction-whenever a particle penetrates and changes a nucleus.
Nuclear Fusion-this is joining/combining together of nuclear particles to form atoms.
Nuclear Fission-this is splitting apart of atoms to form nuclear particles.
ENERGY AND MASS

E=mc2

93
1. Define radioactivity? [2]

2. Give two medical uses of radioactivity? [2]
3. Which form of radiation is not affected by magnetic fields and electrical fields? [1]
4. State two properties of alpha, beta and gamma? [6]
5. State two side effects of radioactivity? [2]
6. Define background radiation and state two sources of background radiation? [3]
7. Describe one method of detecting radiation? [3]
8. Differentiate between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission reactions? [2]
9. State whether the following nuclear reactions are possible or not possible and explain
why?
a)
b) [2]
10. a) Explain why some substances are radioactive while some are not? [2]
b) State any two sources of background radiations? [2]
c) Explain what you understand by half-life of a radioactive element? [2]
11. Technetium-99m is a radioactive material with a half-life of 6hr. it is used to study
blood flow around the body. A sample of Technetium-99m has an activity of 96
counts per minute when injected into the patient’s blood stream.
a) Estimate the activity after 12hrs? [2]
b) How long will it take for the radioactivity from the injection to become
undetectable? [1]
c) Technetium-99m is a gamma (γ) emitter and does not produce alpha (α) or beta
(β) radiations. Explain why it is safe to inject Technetium-99m into the body? [2]
d) The radioactive salt (sodium chloride) is used in medicine. The radioactive
sodium (Na) in the salt decays, according to the equation shown below to form
magnesium (Mg).
i) Name the particle X? [1]

12. A radioactive source has half-life of 5 hours. What is meant by half-life of 5 hours?
a) The original count rate of the source is R0. The count rate drops to half R0 after
5hrs. Complete the table to show how the count rate changes with time. [3]
Time(hrs) 0 5 10 15 20 25
Count rate
b) Sketch the graph to show how the substance decays? [4]

c) Another radioactive source has an initial count rate of 2000 count per minute.
12hrs later the count rate drops to 250 counts per minute.
What is the half-life of the source? [3]

94
REFERENCES
1. www.tutorvista.com
http://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/95/simple-pendulum.png
2. www.wistatutor.com http://image.wistatutor.com/content/feed/u1990/sine.PNG
3. www.physicstutorvista.com
http://physics.tutorvista.com/light/plane-mirror.html
4. www.physicstutorvista.com
http://physics.tutorvista.com/forces/simple-pendulum.html
5. www.wikepedia.com
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/RefractionReflextion.sv
g/2441px-RefractionReflextion.svg.png
6. www.bbc.co.uk
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/intermediate2/physics/images/200/159_bitesize_interm
ediate2_physics_optial_fibres.jpg
7. www.bbc.co.uk
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/ocr_phy_ray-diagram.jpg
8. www.brighthubengineering.com
http://brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/65356-what-is-a-
micrometer-screw-gauge/.jpg
9. www.datasync.com
http://datasync.com/-wizard/lasers/Refraction348.jpg
10. www.desktopclass.com
http://www.desktopclass.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11mirror348.jpg
11. www.edu.pe.ca
http://www.edu.pe.ca/gray/class_pages/krcutcliffe/physics521/17reflection/definitions
/man%20in%20front%20of%20mirror%202.bmp
12. www.passmyexams.co.uk
http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/gcse/physics/images/convex_lens.jpg
13. www.schoolphysics.co.uk
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-
14/light/text/Total_internal_reflection/index.html

95
ABOUT WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS
MISSION
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effective learning techniques and principles that will empower them with life
transforming skills and attitudes that value education.
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who are industrially oriented for the future.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
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back to the community. The aim was to make tuition affordable and therefore
accessible to everyone. The success that was achieved in the first year
challenged the pioneers of the program to transform it into a business and it was
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SERVICES
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Economics.
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Stars of Word Crackers Tutorials.

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2011 WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS BEST TEN STUDENTS
NAME ENG MAT BIO CHE PHY D/A BEST 6 PNTS
1. Lethabo Kgakatsi - - - A * - 2*, 2As, 2Bs 46
2. Khumo Mazunga - B A A A - 4As, 3Bs 46
3. Naomi Toise - C - - - AA 3As, 2Bs, 1C 44
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5. Chibuta Bulaya - C B B B - 1A, 5Bs 43
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8. Katlego Nthibo - C - - - BB 1A, 4Bs, 1C 42
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10. Olebile Kgosiemang - C - - - BB 2Bs, 4Cs 38
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NAME ENG MAT BIO CHE PHY SDA BEST 6 PNTS
1. Kabo Majwabe A A A A A - 1*, 7As 48
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3. Same Baeti B B - - - ** 2*s, 3Bs, 1C 43
4. Pako Molaodi B A B A B - 2As, 3Bs, 1C 43
5. Nonofo Mokubung B B - - - AA 2As, 3Bs, 1C 43
6. Othusitse Molaodi C B B B B - 1*, 4Bs, 1C 42
7. Adolph Timuno C B - - - BB 1A, 4Bs, 1C 42
8. Kegopotswe Mogorosi B B - - - BB 6Bs, 42
9. Bonnie Basima C C - - - CC 2Bs, 4Cs 38
10. Kebadiretse Gobopang D C D B C - 1A, 1B, 2Cs, 2Ds 37

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WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS

Freedom Books Publishers

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Freedom Books Publishers

Writer: Dennis Sibanda

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LENGTH AND TIME

FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

 Learn to read a vernier callipers and micrometer screw gauge.

All measurements in physics are related to three quantities.

MEASUREMENT AND UNITS

Units and Units Conversion

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Reading a Vernier Calliper

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Micrometer Screw Gauge

With Parallax error

With Parallax error

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ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Precision: The smallest division of a measuring object.

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Factors Affecting the Period of Pendulum

-Length of the pendulum

Factors Not Affecting Period of Pendulum

-Mass, shape and size of the

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Oscillation: is the complete to and from motion of the bob.

MASS, VOLUME AND DENSITY

Volume: mass per unit density.

MEASURING THE VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID

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1. Copy and complete the table shown below: [6]

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8. Name the instrument that is used to measure; [3]

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VECTORS AND SCALARS

A scalar quantity has magnitude only

Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities

Length, area, volume,

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MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS

 Triple beam balance

Factors That Affect Inertia

Mass and Weight

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Difference between Mass and Weight

Amount matter in a body Pull of gravity acting on a body

Finding the Centre of Mass of a Regular Object

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Finding the Centre of Mass of an Irregular Object

An irregular object is also called a plane lamina.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT STABILITY

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DESCRIBING THE MOTION OF A GRAPH

1. Calculate the acceleration for the first 4s?

2. Describe the motion of the graph for the first 10s?

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EQUATIONS OF MOTION (UNIFORM ACCELERATION)

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