History's Mysteries Demystified: Becoming a Psychologist–Historian

Author(s): Kelli Vaughn-Blount, Alexandra Rutherford, David Baker and Deborah Johnson
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Source: The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 122, No. 1 (Spring 2009), pp. 117-129
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 History'sMysteriesDemystified:
Becoming a Psychologist-Historian
Kelli Vaughn-Blount
ofCentralOklahoma
University

Alexandra Rutherford
YorkUniversity

David Baker
ofAkron
University

Deborah Johnson
of Southern
University Maine

More than40 yearsago, psychologist-historianRobertWatson argued thatthe studyof history

was of particularsalience to psychology.Inthisarticlewe explore the relationshipbetween

psychologyand history playsa vital role inthedisci

and argue thatthepsychologist-historian
We providea briefoverviewof theemergenceof the history
plineof psychology. of psychology
as a professionalsubdiscipline, are,explainwhy theyare
describewho psychologist-historians
needed, and detail how to join theirranks.
We argue that increasinghistoricalsophistication
among psychologists will have beneficialeffectson researchand teaching,and we inviteall
psychologiststo participateinthemakingof psychology'shistory.

None of us can
escape history.... History
can from the study of history, since psychology in itself,is
not be denied; the choice is between making stillanother view ofhuman behavior and experience"
ita conscious determinant of our behavior as (Watson, 1966, p. 64). In an even earlier article in the
or us un American Psychologist, he identified history as a ne
psychologists, allowing it to influence
awares. There is no other alternative. (Watson, glected area and gently accused American psycholo
1966, p. 64) gists ofboth geographic and historical provincialism.
He made a plea forpsychologists' greater attention
More than40 years ago, psychologist-historian Rob to and competence in history (Watson, i960). Sub
ertWatson suggested that the study of history was sequently,Watson probably did more than any other
of particular salience to psychology. As the study of single person to establish the history of psychology
human experience and thought, he argued, history as a professional subdiscipline within
psychology
adds another dimension to the science ofpsychology. (see Evans, 1982; Hilgard, Leary, & McGuire, 1991;
As he noted, "psychology is in a position to profit Watson, 1975).

American Journalof Psychology

122,No. l pp. 117-129 ? 2009 by theBoard ofTrustees of theUniversity of Illinois

Spring 2009, Vol.
 Although Watson's scholarly contributions to the
history of psychology now appear somewhat dated,
and most contemporary psychologists probably do
not recognize his name, his basic idea that
history and
have much to offerone another remains a
psychology
vital one. It continues tobe cultivated by historians of
psychology to extremely fruitfulintellectual ends. As
Kurt Danziger noted, "Human subjectivity,the reality
behind the objects of psychological investigation, is
itself strongly implicated in the historical process,
both as agent and as product. Moreover, thehistory of
psychology and thehistory of human subjectivity are
not independent of one another.... So the
grounds
for claiming a certain priority forhistory are much
stronger in the case of psychology than in the case of
thenatural sciences" (Danziger, 1994, p. 475). Roger
Smith, an eminent historian of the human sciences,
has also addressed the relationship between psychol
ogy and history.He has done so by focusing on the
implications of reflexivity for this relationship (as
have others; see Gergen, 1973;Morawski, 2005). To
brieflycharacterize his argument, he pointed out that
because knowledge about the self changes the self,
psychology's very object of empirical investigation
is changed in theprocess of psychological investiga
tion and theorizing.Historical methods allow us to
examine this process, so history is itself a form of
self-knowledge without which psychology remains
incomplete (Smith, 2007).
Historian Peter Stearns (2007) stated that "all
definitions of history's utility relyon two fundamen
tal facts (1)History helps us understand people and
societies and (2)History helps us understand change
and how the societywe live in came tobe" (pp. 5-7)
and added thathistorical research "focuses attention
on the complex processes of social
change including
the factors thatare causing change around us today"
(p. 10). Psychological knowledge and practice are
themselves social products that are heavily impli
cated in the complex processes of social change that
Stearns alludes to.As some historians ofpsychology
have pointed out, the cultural authority of psychol
ogy is now a taken-for-granted,even invisible aspect
of life inmany parts of theworld, especially inNorth
America (seeHerman, 1995;Rose, 1992;Ward, 2002).
Finally,British historian ofpsychology Graham Rich
ards put it thisway: "For thehistorian of Psychology
who is also a psychologist, the discipline's history
118 VAUGHN-BLOUNT ET AL.
is therefore in itselfa psychological phenomenon.
...
[W]e are looking at Psychology's role in the dy
namic psychological process bywhich human nature
constantly recreates, re-forms, and regenerates itself"
(Richards, 2002, p. 7).
Despite these compelling arguments for the syn
ergy between psychology and history, it is clear that
history and historical methods do not often inform
the day-to-day work of the psychological scientist.
Historians ofpsychology have come tooccupy a rela
tionalposition vis-a-vis theirnonhistorian colleagues
not unlike thatbetween any two specialists indiffer
ent subdisciplines in an increasinglyfragmentedfield.
Just as the social psychologist may not have the time
or theneed
(at least in termsof her ability topublish
research inher own field) tofind out the latestdevel
opments in, for example, physiological psychology,
one would not expect thatshewould necessarily seek
out relevant historical research.However, one could
argue thatthereis an importantdifferencebetween the
relationship between any two subfields inpsychology
and the relationship between any one subfield and
Whether you are a social psychologist, physi
history.
or clinician,
ological psychologist, developmentalist,
odds are there is body of historical scholarship on
a
your field, topic, or concern. Additionally, knowledge
of this scholarship or a historical sensibility toward
your research may appreciably enhance your ability
tomake novel contributions, avoid past errors, and
perhaps even ask your research questions in subtly
differentways.
Now that thehistory of psychology has become
its own specialized area, practiced both by psychol
ogists trained in historical methods and by profes
sional historians, have insurmountable barriers been
erected between those indoctrinated into this small
circle by virtue of formal trainingand experience and
thosewho have an avid interestbut no formal train
ing inhistory? Our position is thatall psychologists
can benefit from and potentially contribute to the
history of psychology. Furthermore, the history of
psychology has much togain from the increasing and
increasingly sophisticated participation ofpsycholo
gists across specialties. As Danziger pointed out,
People who have training inpsychology and
then enter into history have an advantage over
theprofessional historians in that these people
 would typicallyhave had a hands-on, direct
experience ofwhat it is like to do psychologi
cal research or to be engaged inprofessional
practice. They will know what it is like from the
inside, sometimes throughyears of experience.
are in a
They position, at least potentially, to
communicate with their fellow psychologists in
a way that
perhaps professional historians can
not do. (cited in Brock, 2006, p.
5)
Donald Dewsbury (2003), a prominent com
parative psychologist and historian of psychology,
described three different profiles
characterizing
psychologists' involvement with history: the dab
bler, the retread, and the straight-liner. Dabblers
are well trained in other fields of
psychology but
have an interest in the history of psychology as an
add-on to theirmain line of work. Retreads may
begin as dabblers but become more and more pas
sionate about history.They begin to studyhistorical
methods and become more engaged in the profes
sional world of historians of psychology, eventually
putting theirprevious research area aside to focus
almost exclusively on historical scholarship.
Finally,
Dewsbury defined the straight-liners as a more re
cent invention, made possible with the advent of
graduate programs in the history of psychology.
Straight-liners identify their interest in history at
an early stage and seek out
graduate training in the
field. Importantly,Dewsbury stated that "the work
of these differenthistorians is all useful" (Dewsbury,
2003, p. 144) and noted that each group brings a
slightlydifferent sensibility to theirhistorical work.
In this article,we hope toprovide information that
will be especially helpful to the first two groups,
dabblers and retreads, although students consid
a
ering straight-line approach will also find some
useful information.
In this articlewe have fourprimary aims: topro
vide a brief, updated disciplinary overview of the
origins and development of history of psychology;
to explain why it is important to have
psychologist
historians in everydepartment ofpsychology; to offer
a series of
practical suggestions forhow any interested
psychologist can become a psychologist-historian;
and to enumerate theprofessional resources thatare
available to thosewho wish topursue thisvocation.
We will startby providing a briefhistory and overview
of the emergence and development of the
history of
psychology to familiarize readers with the field.
Historyofpsychology:Originsand development
In 1991, Ernest Hilgard, David
Leary, and Gregory
McGuire wrote a chapter on the history of
psychol
ogy for theAnnual Review ofPsychology series.1 In
this chapter theyprovided an excellent overview of
thehistory of thehistory of
psychology, with sections
on representative authors and books,
historiography,
and teaching.To date, it is the
only such chapter that
has appeared in this series.2 In this section, we sum
marize some of thematerial covered in their 1991 re
view, supplemented with developments in the field
thathave occurred over thepast 15years.
As Hilgard et al. (1991) pointed out,
shortly after
psychology was established as a scientificdiscipline in
the late 1800s, synoptic accounts of its
history began
to appear. One of the firstAmerican textbooks was
G. Stanley Hall's The Founders ofModern
Psychol
ogy (1912).Hall was also the founder of theAmerican
Journal ofPsychology, so it seems fitting tomention
his work. However, the best-known
psychologist
historian isprobably Edwin G. Boring, who in 1929
published his now-classic History ofExperimental
Psychology. A second edition of Boring's book ap
peared in 1950. Boring excised large areas of psychol
ogy (i.e., applied or professional psychology) from
his account, a strategy thatwas particularly problem
atic because, until recently,his textbook served as
the template for subsequent
history of psychology
textbooks (O'Donnell, 1979).At
midcentury, much of
thehistorical work in
psychology was concerned with
thegreatmen and great theories of experimental psy
chology and was often celebratory or ceremonial in
nature. Itwas not until the late 1960s, inpart
spurred
by the increasing professionalization of thehistory of
as a field and inpart
psychology by developments in
the history of science generally, that the shortcom
ings and limitations of an exclusive reliance on this
kind of history began to be discussed. In 1966, his
torian of science Robert Young surveyed the
existing
histories of the behavioral sciences and proclaimed
them largely presentist, beset by perseveration (the
same stories were
being told time and time again),
and concerned almost exclusively with great men,
great ideas, and great dates (Young, 1966).
This was a call to arms in a subdiscipline thatwas
BECOMING A PSYCHOLOGIST-HISTORIAN 119
 just beginning to formally coalesce. The watershed
year for the history of psychology was 1965. In that
year, theAmerican Psychological Association (APA)
Division 26, History of Psychology, was formed.
The Archives of theHistory ofAmerican Psychol
ogy inAkron, Ohio, was established. The Journal
(1989) noted, itwas not until themid-1970s that
historians of psychology began to act on Young's
critique and produce scholarship thatmoved be
yond ceremonial aims and could appropriately be
called critical history. Psychologists became more
aware of thedistinctions between institutional,bio

of theHistory of theBehavioral Sciences (JHBS) was
founded, with Robert Watson as its firsteditor.Two
years later, in 1967, the graduate program in thehis
tory and theory of psychology at theUniversity of
New Hampshire was opened, followed a year later
by the founding of another professional organization,
Cheiron, theSociety for theHistory of theSocial and
Behavioral Sciences (withwhich JHBS became affili
ated). Further developments unfolded internationally
in thedecades thatfollowed (see Table 1fora fulltime
line of these developments).
graphical, social, cultural, and intellectual history
and of the challenges of combining internalist (in
sider) with externalist (outsider) vantage points. She
explained that critical histories tended to be more
contextual, inclusive, and historicist than traditional
histories. Furumoto also noted that practitioners
of the new, critical history were more likely to use
archival and primary documents in order to avoid
topass
repeating anecdotes and myths that tended
fromone textbook generation to thenext. She noted
thatFranz Samelson (1974) had recentlyhighlighted

By the late 1960s, the institutionalpresence of the the origin myth process, the retrospective selection

history of psychology was well established, at least of great thinkersand classic experiments tobuttress
in theUnited States. However, as Laurel Furumoto the legitimacy ofpresent views and to impart a sense

TABLE 1. Developmentsintheprofessionalization of psychology

of thehistory

Year Founding event

1965 APA'sDivision26, Historyof Psychology
Archivesof theHistoryofAmericanPsychology
Journalof theHistoryof theBehavioralSciences
1967 Graduateprograminthehistory ofNew Hampshire
and theoryof psychologyat theUniversity
1968 Cheiron,theSocietyfortheHistoryof theSocial and BehavioralSciences
1979 Storiae Criticadella Psicologia (Italy)
1980 Revistade Historicade la Psicologia (Spain)
1981 and theoryof psychologyatYorkUniversity
Graduateprograminthehistory inToronto
1982 CheironEurope (now the EuropeanSocietyfortheHistoryof theHumanSciences)
1984 Historyand Philosophyof PsychologySectionof theBritishPsychologicalSociety
1988 Association
Historyand Philosophyof PsychologySectionof theCanadian Psychological
Historyof theHumanSciences journal
1989 Historicalsectionof theGermanPsychological
Association
ForumfortheHistoryof theHumanSciencesof theHistory
of ScienceSociety
1998 AmericanPsychological
AssociationestablishesAPA historianposition

HistoryofPsychologytheofficialjournalof Division26
2004 BritishPsychologicalSociety'sHistoryof Psychology
Centreofficially
opened
Historyand Theoryof PsychologyStudentNetwork(http://www.yorku.ca/htnet/)
2007 programinthePsychology
Theoryand Historyof Psychology CollegeDublin
University
Department,

120 VAUGHN-BLOUNT ET AL.

 of continuity and tradition about the
development
of psychology. Benjamin Harris
(1980, p. 219) also
emphasized the importance of addressing the issue
of "what constitutes a good historical question" and
suggested that historians broaden their focus be
yond narrative description and ceremonial accounts
tomore analytical tasks.
The 1990s saw theproliferationof increasingly so
Why everydepartmentneeds a psychologist-historian
As thediversity and specialization within psy
chology continue to increase, thehistorical
perspective may be evenmore important, as
the only vantage point fromwhich we
might
maintain some sense of coherence in the field.
(Hilgard et al., 1991,p. 100)

phisticated textbooksand specialized monographs and The field of psychology has become an
increasingly
a
burgeoning journal literatureby both psychologist fractionated and complex enterprise,
encompassing
historians and professional historians. Although Hil the ever-changing facets of human behavior. As G.
gard et al. noted in 1991 thatthenumber ofpublications W. F. Hegel (1837/1953, p. xii) noted, history is the
concerned with teaching the history of "movements of the idea." The history of
psychology psychology
remained modest at thatpoint, this too has comprises the record of themovements of human
changed,
largely through thedevelopment of online resources. ideas in the context of the science that attempts to
In addition to the print resources mentioned in the understand them.However, psychologist-historians
1991 review (e.g.,Benjamin, 1979,1981;McGuire, 1990; differ frompsychological scientists in their relation
Raphelson, 1982), Ludy Benjamin published two edi ship to their subject matter. Whereas the psycho
tionsofAHistory ofPsychology inLetters (1993,2006), at least must
logical scientist, theoretically, attempt
which enable teachers to expose students to thejoys to remain detached fromhis or her research
subject,
of archival researchwithout leaving theclassroom and thepsychologist-historian "must care
enough about
provide researchers with a window on the archives it tomake it come alive for others"
(Leahey, 1987, p.
without leaving the office. In 2001, Hendrika Vande viii). It is thisdifference and the intricacy of the sub
Kemp compiled a bibliography of references from the ject matter thatnecessitate the attention and employ
psychology journal literatureon teaching thehistory ment ofpsychologist-historians in everypsychology
of psychology that includes more than 100 articles. department.
As for the status of the history of It has now become rare fordepartments of psy
psychology
course itself,a survey Perlman andMcCann
by (1999) chology to include facultymembers who are gener
reported thatas of 1997, a history and systems course alists. In thepast, the generalist was
usually the one
was
being offered at 82% of the doctoral institutions person in thedepartment who had the "big picture"
they surveyed and at 54% of institutions overall (in view of psychology; that is, the
generalist could see
cluding doctoral, comprehensive, baccalaureate, how the various parts of psychology fit
together.
and 2-year colleges). At all types of institutions the Such fitting is now best suited to the
history of psy
percentages had increased since similar data were chology. The historian of psychology serves a num
collected in 1975. Fuchs and Viney (2002) provided ber of purposes. First, the historian of
psychology
a
turn-of-the-century status report on the history teaches thehistory of psychology to undergraduate
course and concluded that
although the course was and graduate students.An importantpart of
teaching
offered inmost departments of psy thehistory of psychology is
being regularly introducing students to
was often
chology and required ofmajors, itwas historiography and helping them understand that
almost never taught by instructorswho were actu historical research and inquiry are meaningful, sys
ally publishing and doing research in thefield.They tematic activities thatcan garner new knowledge and
concluded, "The continued vitalityof scholarship in, produce new synthesis (see Table 2 forother benefits
and the teaching of, the history of psychology will to students). Despite the fact that there are many
depend on the future involvement of psychologists well-trained historians of psychology, this course is
who believe that,as one of our respondents expressed often taught by a person with an interest in thefield
it, 'nobody should be called a without a but with sparse knowledge of new historical research
psychologist
thorough background in history'" (p. 13). methods and the literature thathas been generated

BECOMING A PSYCHOLOGIST-HISTORIAN 121

 TABLE 2. Ways inwhich historiansof psychologyhelpquickenthecriticalfacultiesof students

Theme Methods

Orientingstudents Guidingstudentsas theyattemptto integratedisparatetopicstheyhave encoun

Broadeningawareness
Criticalanalysisand evaluation
tered;helpingthemrecognizeand come to termswith theenormousconceptualand
in
methodologicaldiversity thefieldof psychology.
Increasingstudents'awarenessof otherdimensionsof thediscipline:itsinstitutional
and organizationalunderpinnings, contextsof
the roleplayedby the sociocultural
the of
psychology, politics psychology, and themarginalization groupsand per
of
in
spectives psychology.
Assistingstudentsas theydevelop theirabilityto critically assess thequalityof
discussions
information; of the relative
value of primary,
secondary, and tertiary
(and beyond) sources isessential inhistorycourses and illuminating beyondthe
history course.The of
study history enrichesand potentially liberates
psychologists
and studentsbecause itsuppliessubjectmatterthatgivesbackgroundand context,
perspectiveand outlooktowhat otherwisemightbe narrowprofessional
intellectual
activities.

preconceptions
Transcending A carefulstudyof historycan highlightthedangersof presentism(examiningthe
pastwith the standards
and of thepresent)and thevalue of past-mind
sensibilities
edness (situatingaccounts intheirown context),and this lessonhas implications
for
students' day-to-day interpersonal interactions and academic work.

with thesemethods. A best-case scenario is thathe
or she has an avid interest and the time and
energy
to devote to course.
developing the
This lack of familiaritywith current historical
methods and literatureperpetuates errors in thebody
of historical knowledge passed down to students in
the discipline. Lack of formal study in the field can
be able to recognize and correct the errors for the
students. Because it is difficult to keep up with the
literature in even one specialty area, the untrained
history of psychology professor is unlikely to keep
up with this additional area. Such an expectation is
unreasonable and unlikely in this age of information
overload.

lead professors to choose textbooks that contain er
rors and misrepresent information to students.
Roger
Thomas (2007, p. 493) stated,
Many or perhaps most who teach thehistory of
psychology do not do research in thehistory of
psychology. Errors such as those revealed in the
present work and in thework of others ... point
to theneed to
give careful consideration to the
adoption of any textbook, especially when itad
dresses topics in thehistory ofpsychology. Less
experienced teachersmay want to consult more
experienced teachers of history of psychology
and may want, when possible, to read critical re
views of the textbooks theyare considering.
Thomas also pointed out that any textbook is
to contain errors, and the professional must
likely
Second, historians of psychology can help col
leagues see the interconnections between specialty
areas in
psychology. With increasing specialization
comes a strong
tendency toward isolation. Psycholo
gists tend to stick togetherwithin theirown special
ized area, and the result is a failure to see thebigger
picture of psychology. Students and professionals in
psychology often are exposed to thebarest outlines of
historical psychology without ever being allowed to
delve more deeply. Imagine ifevery course informed
students thatErikson had a theoryofdevelopment but
never explained what itwas, or that
although there is
a statisticcalled a z-score it is
really importantonly to
learn the analysis of variance. This is similar towhat
has been occurring in students' historical education.
They are offerednames, theories,and possibly a para
graph or two of historical background in each course

122 VAUGHN-BLOUNT ET AL.

 throughout theirdegree but are rarelygiven the op
portunity tounderstand the context inwhich a theory
was derived or inwhich a person worked. For
example,
teachers and students of statistics rarelyhave the op
portunity to consider the implications of the fact that
thedominance ofmany statisticalmethods was often University of New Hampshire,
based on thepolitical prowess of theiroriginators and Calgary, and University College Dublin. In the last
was shaped by thepractical problem forwhich the sta
tisticwas developed (see Cowles, 2001; Porter, 1986), become available at such
This informationis importantnot only in itsown right theMax Planck Institute
but also in thecurrent and futureprofessional's ability
to thinkcritically about the intellectual and
political
environmentofpsychology.Wayne Viney summarized
itbest by pointing out that "breadth of perspective
should be an educational goal for all students of psy
and historical studies make
chology unique contribu
tions to such a goal" (Rutherford,2004, p.
290). This
is especially truewhen we consider thateven themost
seasoned professional remains a perpetual student of hear fromyou.
the ever-changing landscape of psychology.
The question professionals and students should
be asking is not "Why does our need
department
psychologist-historian?" but rather "Why don't we
have one?" David Baker, director of theArchives for
theHistory ofAmerican
Psychology, reminds us that
the firstthing a clinician or counselor does is take a
personal history,yet psychologists continue toques
tion the value of theirown (Prieto, 2001). Furumoto
(1995, p. 126) took this line of reasoning a step further, theoretical
asking the discipline as a whole to accept psycho
logical "historicism as a legitimate approach to the
production of knowledge." Perhaps it is time forhir
ing committees to recognize the invaluable inclusion
of the trained psychologist-historian. The historian
does not advocate a unified psychology but
helps
to elucidate the commonalties that run
through all As readers will quickly learn, the
strands of psychological science and practice. Found
in the history of
psychology are a host of questions,
assumptions, hypothesis, biases, beliefs, and prac
tices that illuminatewhat itmeans to be human and
tobe a psychologist.
Becominga psychologist-historian3
BECOMING EDUCATED.
There aremany ways to become a
professional, but
most paths involve a or program of educa
period
tion.As Dewsbury (2003) noted, many
psychologist
historians are originally trained in other specialties
because of the small number of graduate programs in
the discipline. Availability of formal graduate train
ing remains limited,but some foundational programs
exist, including those found at York University, the
the University of
several years postdoctoral opportunities have also
prestigious institutions as
(History of Science Divi
sion) and the of Exeter. Ifyou are already
University
in a but are interested in receiving
graduate program
training in the area, do not despair. There are many
psychologist-historians working in various graduate
programs throughout North America and interna
tionally. If you are a closet historian working in an
other area, then you can be sure that there ismentor
who also specializes in your primary field
waiting to
Many psychologist-historians are self
trained, and itmay simply be a matter of taking the
plunge and diving into the literature.
a
WHAT TO READ.
Many volumes have been written on the practice,
theory,and methods of historical research (i.e., his
toriography). It isperilous to recommend only one or
two of these sources to the
beginning psychologist
historian because opinions and positions on how best
to conduct
history range verywidely and are tied to
allegiances. However, an accessible start
isLudmilla
ingpoint Jordanova's History inPractice
(2006). The slightlymore advanced student might
consult Jan Golinski's Making Natural
Knowledge:
Constructivism and theHistory of Science
(2005),
which, as the titlesuggests, focuses more specifically
on issues in
conducting historical studies of science.
variability of skills
required of thehistorian is equal to thatof a seasoned
experimentalist endowed with extensive knowledge
of hermeneutics, discourse analysis,
anthropology,
sociology, and historicism. Gilderhus
(2007, p. 133)
summed itup thisway:
For students of history,no matter whether
novices or professionals, the responsibilities
of reading,writing, and research hold
special
importance. As consumers and producers of
scholarship, historians need to cultivate par
ticular kinds of skills.Reading requires certain
BECOMING A PSYCHOLOGIST-HISTORIAN 123
 powers of retention and synthesis, a capacity
towork over
large bodies of information and to
establish a measure of intellectual possession.
Writing calls for an ability to communicate
clearly, in the case of history, inplain, jargon
freeprose; and research compels, among other
things,orderly, systematic, and imaginative
forms of inquiry.The degree towhich students
of history can attain such capabilities will deter
mine their successes or failures.
Puente, Matthews, and Brewer (1992, p. 3) sum
marized Robert Young and Thomas Leahey's rules
of thenew history of psychology:
Present mindedness must be replaced by past
mindedness. Ceremonial historymust give way
to critical analysis. "Great men" approaches to
history should give way to Zeitgeist approaches.
Primary sources and archivalmaterial should
be used whenever possible.
Greene (1994, p. 95) included three important
for teachers to bestow on students in this
strategies
new a
history: "Knowing how to establish scholarly
project by placing one's own ideas amidst what oth
ers have said. sources as both intellectual and
Citing
social touchstones. Justifyingone's decisions in de
terminingwhat is important."
We suggest thata systematic self-studyof thehis
toryof psychology begin with two books: A History
ofExperimental Psychology, by E. G. Boring (1929,
1952), and The Norton History of theHuman Sci
ences,byRoger Smith (1997).We recommend Boring
because itput thehistory of psychology on themap,
it influenced work in the field forhalf a century, it is
the result of a prodigious amount of scholarly effort,
and itrepresents a particular view ofwhat psychology
should be (i.e., narrowly scientific). In comparing
Boring with Smith, the student will encounter dif
ferentperspectives on what has been (historically)
as the appropriate content of psychology, Psychology, published by
regarded
the appropriate methods for thediscipline, and even
itsappropriate moniker. Comparing these twoworks
also raises historiographic issues such as the func
tions history serves for thediscipline.
A thirdmust-read isBrush's (1974) article "Should
theHistory of Science Be Rated X?" (See Tables 3,
4, and 5 for additional resources.) This article raises
124 VAUGHN-BLOUNT ET AL.
important issues about the role of critical history in
science education. Itpresents many of the arguments
both pro (e.g., historical analysis develops critical
thinkers)and
con a
(e.g., history is diversion from the
realwork of thediscipline; criticalhistoryundermines
the lessons of scientific training) thatfuturehistorians
ofpsychology are likely to encounter if they teach the
history ofpsychology in a psychology department.
JOINING SOCIETIES.
Professional societies offer insight and access to the
field toboth students and professionals. The United
States, Canada, Britain, and Europe all have their
own
primary societies for the study of the history
of psychology. The APA Division 26 (Society for
theHistory of Psychology) is thebest known to the
American psychological community.The Canadian
Psychological Association and the British Psycho
encom
logical Society both offer similar divisions
passing history and philosophy. In addition, there
are twohighly respected international organizations.
The firstisCheiron, the International Society for the
History of Behavioral and Social Sciences, and the
second is the European Society for theHistory of
theHuman Sciences. Each of these societies can be
sites.
easily located through their
Web
PUBLISHING IN JOURNALS.
Publication opportunities are always a concern for
psychologists, and psychologist-historians share this
concern. Historical work can often be found in stan
dard psychological journals such as theAmerican
Journal ofPsychology, theAmerican Psychologist,
and Teaching ofPsychology, There are several field
no means
specific journals as well. A brief but by
exhaustive list includes thejournalHistory ofPsychol
ogy,published by theAPA's aforementionedDivision
26, Society for theHistory of Psychology, theJournal
of theHistory of theBehavioral Sciences, History of
theHuman Sciences, andHistory and Philosophy of
the British Psychological
a
Society. Several history journals have cultivated
market forhistory of psychology, including theHis
toryof Science Society's journal Isis and theBritish
Journal for theHistory ofScience.
ACCESSING ARCHIVES (CLOSE TO HOME).
are finding thatmany
Today's historical researchers
a
primary sources are no longer available only in dis
TABLE 3. Additionalbooks forbeginningself-study

Title Publication year Authors

of Pioneersof Psychology
Portraits 1991-2006 (6 volumes) GregoryKimble,Charlotte
White,
MichaelWertheimer,C.Alan Boneau,
Donald Dewsbury,and LudyBenjamin(Eds.)
FromSeance toScience:A History 2004 LudyBenjaminand David Baker
of theProfessionof Psychology
inAmerica
Even theRatWas White:A Historical 2003 (2ndedition) RobertGuthrie
Viewof Psychology
Handbook of PsychologyVolume 1, 2003 Donald Freedheim(Ed.)and
Historyof Psychology Weiner (Ed.)
Irving
Models ofAchievement:Reflections 1983,1988, 2001 Agnes O'Connell and NancyRusso
ofEminentWomen inPsychology (3 volumes)
EvolvingPerspectiveson theHistory 2001 Wade Pickren(Ed.)and Donald Dewsbury
of Psychology (Ed.)
theSubject:Historical
Constructing 1994 KurtDanziger
Origins PsychologicalResearch
of
A Guide toManuscriptCollectionsin 1982 Michael Sokal and PatriceRafail
theHistoryofPsychologyand
RelatedAreas
Editors foreach series varied. Order representsyear of firstappearance as editor.For search purposes Kimble is listedas firstnamed editor for
Volumes l-V and Dewsbury is firstforVolume VI.

TABLE 4. Articlesforbeginners

Author Year Title Published in

B. J.Lovett 2006 Thenewhistory
ofpsychology:
A reviewand critique ofPsychology
History 9(1), 17-37
C. J.Goodwin 1997 Thevitalroleofpsychology's
historyinintroductory ofPsychology,
Teaching 24, 218-221
courses: An interviewwith Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.

K. Danziger 1994 Does thehistory have a future?

ofpsychology and Psychology
Theory 4, 67-84
D. J.Coon 1992 of senseand science:American
Testingthe limits American Psychologist, 47,143-151

experimental combatspiritualism,
psychologists
1880-1920
L. Furumoto 1989 Thenewhistory ofpsychology. In I.S. Cohen Washington, DC: American

(Ed.),TheG. StanleyHall LectureSeries(Vol.9). Association

Psychological
R.Smith 1988 Does thehistory have a subject?
ofpsychology History of Human Sciences, 1,147-177

J.M. O'Donnell 1979 The crisis of experimentalism in the 1920s: American Psychologist, 34, 289-295
E. G. Boring and his uses of history

R.I.Watson 1975 Thehistoryofpsychologyas a specialty:

A Journal
of theHistory
of the
view
personal of its 15
first years Behavioral Sciences, 11, 5-14

R.I.Watson 1966 The roleand use ofhistoryinthepsychology Journal

of theHistory
of the
curriculum Behavioral Sciences, 2, 64-69

R. I.Watson 1960 Thehistory A neglectedarea

ofpsychology: American Psychologist, 15, 251-255

BECOMING A PSYCHOLOGIST-HISTORIAN 125

 resourcesforbeginners
TABLE 5. Internet

Resource Web site

Advances intheHistory
of PsychologyBlog http://ahp.yorku.ca/
APA Referenceson TeachingtheHistory
of Psychology http://www.apa.org/archives/refthp.html
Classics intheHistoryof Psychology http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
Historyand Theoryof PsychologyStudentNetwork http://www.yorku.ca/htnet/
ofWomen HeritageSite
SocietyforthePsychology http://www.psych.yorku.ca/femhop/
podcast series
ThisWeek intheHistoryof Psychology http://www.yorku.ca/christo/podcasts/

tant librarybut are also readily available within a few
short clicks. The explosion in electronic archiving
means thatfarmore primary source material is avail
able on the Internet than ever before. Scanning of
archival documents, out-of-print books, gray litera
ture, and other resources now
provides
round-the
clock access to aworld ofdata. A variety ofdatabases
allow researchers to locate archival materials, and a
number of important archives forpsychologists have
online informationand search aids (seeTable 6). Oral
are
history interviewswith important psychologists
increasingly becoming available online
as well. For
One example of such a project is to take textbook
or historical
descriptions of classic experiments
figures that students have used in other courses,
have them locate theoriginal materials related to the
excerpts (many classic papers are available online
through theClassics in theHistory of Psychology
Web site), and compare the accuracy and validity of
the information and interpretation presented. Stu
dents should be asked to consider the cultural and
doc
generational context inwhich both theoriginal
ument and the textbookwere created and the effect
these biases might have on the interpretation.The

example, complete transcripts of interviews with firstauthor did this recently in a history and systems
course with great results. In addition, studentswere
Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark, two of themost
African American psychologists of the20th asked to research and perform as historical figures
important
century, are available at theColumbia Oral History at a mock conference where theywere to interpret
Research Office Web site on Notable New York information and respond as they thought thefigure
ers (see http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/ would. Not only did the students explore historical

eolleetions/nny/notable_ny.html). online resources and increase theirunderstanding of

Electronic resources make itpossible
duce students at all levels to historical inquiry and
research. As archivalmaterials appear online, teach
ers can design activities that encourage students to
use and learn the value of original source materials.
to intro the value of primary sources, but they also learned
how difficult itwas to negotiate thedangers of pre
sentism and linguistic misgivings in dealing with
issues across multiple timeperiods.
It is important to understand that electronic

TABLE 6. SamplingofWeb-based archivalresources

Archival resources Web site

ArchiveGrid http://www.archivegrid.org/web/index.jsp
Archivesof theHistoryofAmericanPsychology http://www3.uakron.edu/ahap/

Association
Archivesof theAmericanPsychological http://www.apa.org/archives/

ofCongress
Library http://www.loc.gov/rr/

126 VAUGHN-BLOUNT ET AL.

resources are still far from complete, and accuracy
remains a concern. A largeproportion of archivalma
terialmay never be available electronically. Overreli
ance on material that is available
electronically could
lead to incomplete research, and in reality nothing
can replace the
reliability and satisfaction ofworking
with archivalmaterial in the archive itself.University
archives or localmunicipal archivesmay contain ma
terial to support historical projects for the researcher
who would like toundertake a historical project but
has limited funds for travel.Many archives also offer
grants for travel and expenses to support relevant
projects. The Archives of theHistory ofAmerican
a
Psychology inAkron, Ohio, is treasure trove for
historians of psychology and offers grants to help
in exploring the following questions: What can we
learn fromhistory thatwould enable us to document
the rigor and validity (and perhaps the necessity) of
qualitative approaches to psychology? What can
us about how
history tell psychological knowledge
is influenced by who produces it,under what cir
cumstances, inwhich contexts, and using which
methods? How have race, gender, sexual identity,
and other constructs been handled by psycholo
gists, and what effectshas thishad on theproducts,
practices, and uses of psychology?
Finally, students need to be exposed to the his
toryof the discipline at the beginning, middle, and
end of their formal education. Offering one history
and systems course over the duration of a degree

defray travel costs for researchers conducting rel program sounds sufficient,but it is not. The com
evant
projects. plex history and myriad nuances of our discipline
cannot be adequately
conveyed in one course. The
Conclusion:Thefutureof thehistoryofpsychology trade-offfor such limited exposure is often the exclu
One of theongoing tasks forhistorians ofpsychology sion of information about traditionallymarginalized
is advocacy. The place of history of psychology re groups such as women and minorities. One way this
mains tenuouswithin thepsychology curriculum, and could be addressed, besides additional courses, is
thediscipline remains somewhat marginalized within through the inclusion of historical material in psy
the field. History tells us that forces fargreater than chology textbookswritten by experts and the greater
the individual push and pull culture, and perhaps employment of trained psychologist-historians in
there is littlewe can do to influence the fate of the psychology departments.
history ofpsychology, but thereare enough examples In addition, psychology departments must be
of thepower of the individual to shape events to give persuaded of thevalue of thehistorical method, a skill
us
hope. The power of thehistorical record to inform thatmust be learned but is rarely taught at theunder
our our actions is
thinkingand guide something that graduate level. Psychologists takegreat effortto train
everyone inpsychology needs to know more about. students in experimental techniques and technical

Knowledge of the history of psychology makes us writing; however, experiments and empirical papers
better students, teachers, citizens, and psychologists, represent only a fraction of the research and written
and we need to findways to convey this potential. work thatpsychology studentswill be asked to pro
There are many ways this can be done. We can ad duce in the course of theirprofessional careers. As
vocate in our departments forcourses and faculty in teachers, researchers, and students,
we must
acquire
the history of psychology, we can lobby accrediting and understand the critical analytic and interpretive
bodies such as theAPA to include history as a core skills that can be developed through the practice of
competency, and we can be good teachers. In the end historical research. Peter Stearns (2007) noted that
we need todo as historians must cultivate the ability to assess evi
Roger Smith (2007) and others have
done and explain why historymatters.We hope this dence, assess
conflicting interpretations, and evaluate
article has made one small step in thisdirection. past examples of change. The practice of historical
For the sake of fostering pluralism in psychol research,with theguidance of a trainedpsychologist
ogy and retaining vitality and relevance, we must historian, would enable students to develop these
produce more historical analyses ofmarginalized professionally necessary abilities. Students must be
groups and marginalized intellectual traditions in gin publishing from the outset. Analyzing, forming,
psychology. In particular, therewould be great value and communicating critical arguments, interpreting

BECOMING A PSYCHOLOGIST-HISTORIAN 127

 as many as
evidence, and evaluating current scientific claims in
Lawrence College. The
panel produced questions
it answered. Overwhelming interest and support for theAPA
the context of theirpolitics and history are some of
event were the original inspiration for this article.
themost crucial abilities we can provide the future

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