Environmental Science and Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14726-4

REVIEW ARTICLE

A critical and intensive review on assessment of water quality

parameters through geospatial techniques
Jaydip Dey 1,2 & Ritesh Vijay 1

Received: 11 January 2021 / Accepted: 1 June 2021

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Evaluation of water quality is a priority work nowadays. In order to monitor and map, the water quality for a wide range on
different scales (spatial, temporal), the geospatial technique has the potential to minimize the field and laboratory work. The
review has emphasized the advance of remote sensing for the effectiveness of spectral analysis, bio-optical estimation, empirical
method, and application of machine learning for water quality assessment. The water quality parameters (turbidity, suspended
particles, chlorophyll, etc.) and their retrieval techniques are described in a scientific manner. Available satellite, bands, resolu-
tion, and spectrum ranges for specific parameters are critically described in this review with challenges in remote sensing for
water quality analysis, considering non-optical active parameters. The application of statistical programmes like linear (multiple
regression analysis) and non-linear approaches is discussed for better assessment of water quality. Emphasis is given on
comparison between different models to increase the accuracy level of remote sensing of water quality assessment. A direction
is suggested for future development in the field of estimation of water pollution assessment through geospatial techniques.

Keywords Water quality . Optically active constituents . Inherent and apparent properties . Empirical methods . Bio-optical
methods . Remote sensing

Introduction Remote sensing and surface water quality

From prehistoric times of civilization, waterbody plays a cru-
cial role in human life and the entire ecosystem (Miao et al.
2020). Waterbodies are living entities and an important part of
the urban water system (Zhu et al. 2020). Water has a signif-
icant role in different sectors like industry, transport, and daily
life. In view of that, major urban areas were developed near
the waterbody. In the present time, rapid growth of popula-
tion, expansion of the urban area, and industrialization are
leading to water pollution across the globe (Miao et al. 2020).
Responsible Editor: Xianliang Yi
* Ritesh Vijay
r_vijay@neeri.res.in
Jaydip Dey
j.dey@neeri.res.in
1
Wastewater Technology Division, CSIR-National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur, Maharashta 440020, India
2
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR),
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India
Physical, chemical, and biological constituents of water that
fulfil the needs of the various sector (drinking, industry, irri-
gation, recreation) are known as water quality (IOCCG 2018).
Different parameters like suspended solids, turbidity, chloro-
phyll, bacterio-algal bloom, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients
are measured to assess the water quality (Sagan et al. 2020).
To assess the contamination in ocean temperature, salinity,
submerged plants, etc. play a key role (Muller-Karger 1992).
One of the major optically active constituents is solid particle,
which is mostly pronounced as total suspended solids (TSS)
or suspended sediment concentration (SSC). The amount of
total organic and inorganic matter as suspended solids in a
certain quantity of water is called TSS. In routine estimation
method of the dry weight of sediments of a definite amount,
water is necessary for the measurement of TSS and SSC,
although the total sediment of a sample is considered for
SSC and a subsample is taken for TSS (Gray 2000).
Dissolved solid is another associated parameter broadly called
total dissolved solids (TDS) which is a measure of total inor-
ganic components present in water in dissolved form.
Discharges of untreated sewage and agricultural runoff are

the major source of TDS in the waterbody. Water quality is
also affected by nutrient (nitrogen/phosphorus) pollution be-
cause it provides favorable conditions for algal growth.
Extreme algal growth creates eutrophication that leads to
degrading the aquatic ecosystem as well as water quality
(Chapman 1996). Surface waterbodies are facing a eutrophic
condition, namely gulf hypoxia which is a result of the release
of agricultural runoff, industrial effluent, urban sewage, etc.
(Visser et al. 2005; Pereira et al. 2018). Gulf hypoxia can
address as depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, that is
a serious issue for the aquatic environ and human society.
Execs use of fertilizer (consisting of nitrogen and phosphorus)
in the agricultural field is a major reason for nutrient-rich
runoff that helps growth of aquatic plants. Siltation and sedi-
mentation are also responsible for the imbalance in the hydro-
logic system like degradation of the channel, water supply,
deposition of sands, bedded river, and a decrease of depth.
An adverse effect of land use like urbanization adjacent to a
waterbody and sewage discharge climate change affect the
nutrient cycle (Jordan et al. 2014); as a result, waterbodies
are facing challenges in terms of decreasing in navigability,
less flow, volume reduction, etc. (Vijay et al. 2020).
Increasing water pollution especially biogenic pollution,
namely toxic algal bloom due to the deposition of chemical
waste, animal waste, and climatic disturbance, is a major
threat that all over the world is facing today (Davis et al.
2009; Paerl and Otten 2013; Rastogi et al. 2015; Carmichael
and Boyer 2016). Harmful algae like cyanobacteria,
Microcystis aeruginosa, dinoflagellate Alexandrium
tamarense, and diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis (https://
www.whoi.edu/science/B/redtide/species/species.html)
create massive water pollution like the foul smell and bounded
the use of water for recreation activities. These
microorganisms lead to fish kills, contaminate seafood,
imbalance in aquatic biology (http://hab.ioc-unesco.org/
index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=
5&Itemid=16), and also related to liver cancer and tumours in
the human body (Kudela et al. 2015; Rastogi et al. 2015;
Carmichael and Boyer 2016). Temporal variation in the extent
of algal bloom depends on the application time of fertilizer,
releasing time of industrial waste in rivers or oceans.
Monitoring and assessment of microorganisms in water are
difficult because of heterogeneity of cell size, the concentra-
tion of toxicity, cell morphology of bacterial community, pop-
ulations, species (Carmichael and Boyer 2016), and limitation
of instruments for regional or global scale.
In this context, development of an instrument/sensor is
necessary to assess the outbreaks of toxicity on time, disper-
sion, and temporal variation. Although the traditional method
is there for water quality modelling, it is limited in many
aspects; satellite-based techniques can overcome those limita-
tions like high cost, intensive use of labour, and point-specific
information (Sagan et al. 2020).
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Development of remote sensing in water
quality
To quantify the pollution status and types of pollutants, eval-
uation of water quality is essential (Miao et al. 2020). Remote
sensing is an advanced technique to assess water pollution
(Sagan et al. 2020). Red and near-infrared (NIR) lights of
the electromagnetic spectrum can absorb by water molecules,
and there is no reflection happened if the water is clear (Zhang
et al. 2014). When the waterbody is covered by aquatic plants/
algae, it can be detected through remote sensing due to the
presence of pigments: chlorophyll a, phycobilins,
cyanobacteria, etc. (Vincent et al. 2004). Greenlight is most
useful to detect chlorophyll concentration because it is largely
reflected by chloroplast. Research activities are developed for
the assessment of water pollution with the help of high-
resolution satellite data (Zhang et al. 2002). Many researchers
across the globe claimed that algal pollution can be detected
through remote sensing satellites, namely Landsat (Boucher
et al. 2018; Vijay et al. 2016), MODIS (Hunter et al. 2010;
Chipman et al. 2009; Menken et al. 2006), MERIS (Le et al.
2013; Hunter et al. 2010; Peña-Martínez et al. 2004), and IRS
LISS IV (Shirke et al. 2016; Vijay et al. 2015) for lentic (Lim
and Choi 2015; Olmanson et al. 2013) and lotic (lake, reser-
voirs) waterbodies (Becker et al. 2009; Gómez et al. 2011;
Matthews et al. 2012; Olmanson et al. 2008; Olmanson et al.
2011; Song et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2012; Song et al. 2012c;
Wang et al. 2013; Hansen et al. 2015) at the global level
(Pahlevan et al. 2020), although all water quality indicators
cannot measure through satellite because some parameters are
not optically active. Lack of high-resolution (spectral and spa-
tial) data is a barrier to measure the components like dissolved
oxygen, nutrients, and microorganisms. For effective assess-
ment of chlorophyll concentration, narrowband satellite data
is necessary (Harrington and Repic 1995). It is reported that
the Spectral response of narrowband “red edge” (Gitelson
et al. 1993) and chlorophyll exposed a linear relation
(Ritchie et al. 2003) between the chlorophyll scattering range
(700 to 705 nm) and the chlorophyll absorption range (675 to
680 nm); similarly 592 nm and 620 nm spectral range are
applicable to measure the absorption of nitrogen and phospho-
rus, respectively (Song et al. 2012c; Olmanson et al. 2013).
Despite the development of spectral equation (Song et al.
2012c; Olmanson et al. 2013), neural network model
(Keiner and Brown 1999), or empirical methods (Craig et al.
2012; Qi et al. 2014) to estimate nitrate, phosphate significant
challenges are there to detect remaining parameter, which is
responsible for hypoxia. The development of models is limit-
ed to apply globally because the spectral response may vary
from place to place.
After surveying of literature, it could be possible to say that
there are multiple practices to evaluate the water quality from
space-based technology: intensive statistics-based empirical
Environ Sci Pollut Res
method and semi-analytical method that depends on the phys-
ical property of light. It is reported that cyanobacterial blooms
(Kutser 2009; Ogashawara et al. 2013) are detected based on
the absorption technique at 620 nm of the spectrum that ad-
dresses the flourishing application of geospatial technique.
Advanced studies apply different algorithms like
cyanobacterial index (Wynne et al. 2008), maximum peak
height (Matthews et al. 2012), and scattering light height
(Kudela et al. 2015) in spectral shape method that is more
effective than absorption-based method. Although these algo-
rithms are very useful for water quality estimation, still several
foundations are there that can minimize when hyperspectral
sensors will launch by different space agencies.
Turbidity is one of the optically active components that
indicate water quality (Ritchie et al. 1976). Turbidity is asso-
ciated with suspended particles so decreasing of siltation and
sedimentation can produce clear water. Due to the absorption
and scattering property of sediment mixed water, turbidity can
be measured from satellite images (Zhu et al. 2020). The re-
lationship between reflectance and sediment is calculated in a
statistical domain, but these are applicable for a particular
location, and less research is available in global applications
(Pereira et al. 2018).
Machine learning in water quality
Machine learning is a computer-automated statistical application
that runs by different programmes and algorithms to minimize
the difference between the training set and predicted results
(Murphy 2012). This computer-automated or semi-automated
method provides previous knowledge as a programme to identi-
fy, classify, or recognize a feature from the satellite images. The
availability of high-resolution data and development of advanced
programmes makes this technique popular for assessing water
quality (Peterson et al. 2018). Apart from machine learning, deep
learning consisting of neural network applications is also
flourishing for water pollution study. However, it is an advanced
concept; few uncertainties are there to solve specific challenges
(Ma et al. 2019; Sidike et al. 2019).
Optical properties of water
The conventional method of water quality assessment is lim-
ited to point-specific data, high cost, laborious, time taking,
ground sampling, laboratory analysis, manual error, instru-
mental, etc., while satellite images make it possible to synop-
tic view, wide-coverage, and temporal variation for water
quality. Although the satellite cannot assess every parameter
of water, still researcher has developed a methodology to as-
sess various water quality parameters directly or indirectly.
Hydrologic optics deals with the quantitative measurement
of the relationship between surface waterbody and radiative
energy.
Interactions of light with water
A geophysical investigation like water quality, pollution dy-
namics, and estimation of underwater radiative transfer de-
pends on the properties of water (Sagan et al. 2020). Clear
and pure water absorbs the light while mixed with other com-
ponents scatter the light rays. In general, water is a mixed
solution that contained organic and inorganic matters in
suspended or dissolved form. Interaction between water mol-
ecules and solar radiation is taking place when incoming elec-
tromagnetic waves hit the waterbody, though few parts of the
light are reflected directly from surface water. The absorption,
reflection, and scattering mechanism of optically active con-
stituents allow them to interact with electromotive radiation.
This absorption, reflection, and scattering property may vary
with the component. Estimation of spectral reflectance and
spectral attenuation in an optical window is helpful to assess
the concentration of suspended solids, algal blooms, etc.
(Buiteveld et al. 1994). Several optical properties of water
are useful to examine the spectral dimension of light
(Maritorena and Guillocheau 1996). Optical properties are
categorized as inherent properties and apparent properties
(Preisendorfer 1961).
Inherent properties
The absorption coefficient, scattering coefficient, and volume
scattering coefficient are known as inherent properties of wa-
ter, which is independent of ambient light but depends on the
composition and characters of the water. It is hard to assess the
inherent properties of water (Maritorena and Guillocheau
1996). Hydrologic optics strongly connected with biotic and
abiotic components of water and due to the presence of these
particles quantitative and qualitative alteration of light takes
place by absorption and scattering (Maritorena and
Guillocheau 1996). This absorption and scattering is the key
interest in remote sensing (Sagan et al. 2020), and radiance is
affected by particles present in water in the form of dissolved
or suspended (Moore et al. 2009).
The amount of light that is passing through stuff is called
transmittance. More particularly it is the ratio of the intensity
of the light passing through the medium to the intensity of the
incident light. The light-absorbing capacity of an object based
on its physicochemical properties is known as absorption.
Scattering may address the interaction between suspended as
well as dissolved particles and light and diffusion of light in a
different direction. Scattering of light can be assessed through
turbidity. The light scattering properties of water reveal clean-
liness or haziness of the water that can refer to turbidity
(https://www.westlab.com.au/blog/2015/04/29/what-is-the-

difference-between-turbidity-and-tss), and it can be measured
through the nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU). The volume
scattering function is also applicable to measure the light
scattering of an object. The volume scattering function
(VSF) is a measure of the intensity of light scattering as a
function of the angle between the incident beam and the
scattered light.
Apparent properties of water
The apparent properties are quite easy to measure, which de-
pends on the composition of water and the geometry of the
electrical field (Maritorena and Guillocheau 1996). The appar-
ent property also describes the regular features and stability of
waterbody, and it is applicable for the measurement of upwell-
ing and downwelling irradiances. It also describes the water
optical properties in bulk. Thus, apparent properties provide
crucial information like the concentration of water constitu-
ents (https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/index.php/view/
overview-opticaloceanography/apparent-optical-properties).
Optical active constituents
Optical properties are strongly influenced by the distribution
of optically active constituents (Araujo et al. 2019). These
constituents are broadly categorized as chlorophyll, non-
algal particles, and colour dissolved organic matter
(CDOM). Optically active constituents basically absorb the
particular spectrum range like ultraviolet and visible light
and have a great contribution to the absorption budget for
those wavelengths (Murray et al. 2015; Pérez et al. 2016).
To assess the amount CDOM and the concentration of chlo-
rophyll, total suspended matter (TSM) spectral properties of
those constituents are used as a proxy (IOCCG 2006a, 2006b).
There is an “optical standard” that is referring to pure water,
and it is used to calibrate the instruments.
The concentration of chlorophyll in algae or phytoplankton
is one of the optical active properties that are commonly pres-
ent in waterbody. Chlorophyll is well known for its capability
of absorption of sunlight and is strongly involved with the
photosynthesis cycle. Blue and green wavelength is absorbed
by pigments, while the green light of the spectrum is reflected
by it. The suspended matter like organic debris, living organ-
isms, inorganic particles, and non-pigmented matters of phy-
toplankton is considered non-algal particle categories of opti-
cally active constituents. Turbidity and TSM are also a major
non-algal parameter that imparts the water quality and in-
creased the spectral reflectance against the NIR and visible
range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, these parameters
can pottery the polluted condition of the waterbody.
Coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM) is one of the
indicators of water quality that can be assessed through remote
Environ Sci Pollut Res
sensing. CDOM can be measured in the form of dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) and total organic carbon (TOC).
There are different sources of DOCs like algal bloom and
phytoplankton (Kritzberg et al. 2006). On the other hand,
carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids, and other hydrocar-
bons are considered natural organic matter (NOM), which are
also responsible for the concentration of CDOM in the water
column (Thurman 1985). The humic substances that consist of
humic acids and fulvic acids are the major relevant fraction of
NOM. These humic components make the coloured appear-
ance of clear water due to the bond (unsaturated and aromatic)
of the high molecular weight of molecules. The UV region
(440 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum is sensible for
CDOM (Dörnhöfer and Oppelt 2016).
Non-optically active water quality parameters
The water quality components which are not influenced by the
electromagnetic spectrum (absorption, scattering) are techni-
cally called non-optically active parameters of water quality.
These non-optical active characteristics are challenging to de-
tect directly (Abayazid and El-Adawy 2019), but indirect
methods are applicable to detect those pollutants (Sagan
et al. 2020). There are some major components like nitrogen
and phosphorous that increase the algal growth in the
waterbody. Although there is no direct influence on the spec-
trum (Huang et al. 2020) of these parameters, they impart on
appearance due to their significant role in algal growth. A
strong correlation between algal bloom and nutrients can jus-
tify the relation between nutrients discharge and chlorophyll
concentration in the waterbody. Although the concentration
and dispersion of chlorophyll may vary in a different
waterbody, sometimes it depends on phosphorous and some-
times on nitrogen (Sagan et al. 2020).
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a significant and most discuss-
able water quality parameter that comes under non-optical
characteristics of water quality, which can indirectly be mea-
sured by different equations and algorithms. Transfer of atmo-
spheric oxygen in water is the major source of DO, but
photosynthesizing community (algae, selected microorgan-
isms) in the waterbody also plays a key role to increase DO
in the water column (Crittenden et al. 2012). A membrane-
based electrochemical probe or a luminescent-based method is
very popular to measure the DO in a laboratory. In the remote
sensing environ, the indirect method has great potential to
assess the DO. Most importantly DO has a relationship with
photosynthesis and consumption during respiration of vegeta-
tive community and temperature (through solubility).
Conductivity is another water quality characteristic that
refers to electrical current in the waterbody. This electrical
conductivity is proportional to the ionic strength of the solu-
tions. In the laboratory, conductivity is usually measured
Environ Sci Pollut Res
through a probe. Some instruments are usually measured con-
ductivity in another form like salinity or dissolved solids.
Spectral measurement of conductivity is more difficult be-
cause of its complex nature and highly varied relation with
optical active parameters (Sagan et al. 2020).
Objectives
• Evaluation of different remote sensing based methods to
assess the water quality
• Availability of satellite data (bands, ranges) and water
quality parameters and recent trends
• Limitation of remote sensing to assess the water quality
• Suggestions for future development
Materials
Traditional data collection of few organizations and satellite
data are considered materials in this review study.
Spectral data
Spectroradiometer
It is reported that the spectral evolution PSR-3500
spectroradiometer can be used for the collection of field spec-
troscopy data. This spectroradiometer is a handy and user-
friendly device having a spectral range of 350–100 nm with
a 3.5 m spatial resolution. A spectrometer was used from 1 m
altitude of the water surface. After the collection of spectra,
noise removal is necessary through the Savitzky-Golay filter
(Savitzky and Golay 1964).
Hyperspectral imagery
Hyperspectral images are key components for the estimation
of water quality. Using a tripod-based instrument, namely
NGRRECmescosm experiments that cover the wavelength
range of 400–1000 nm with a 16 mm lens at a field of view
angle of 21°, water quality can be assessed critically and time-
ly. In order to get the specific spectra from the field, these
wavelength ranges might be managed manually so that errors
like surface waves and sun glint can be minimized. The
Savitzky-Golay filter was applied to match the spectral data.
Satellite data for water quality assessment
Assessment of water pollution through remote sensing is a
challenging task. Discharges of sewage, runoff of pesticides
and fertilizer, and industrial effluent degrade the water quality
(Gholizadeh et al. 2016). The use of different satellite data to
assess water quality parameters is discussed here as parame-
ters specific.
Chlorophyll
Eutrophication is one of the key features that confirm the
pollution in waterbodies. It is directly related to the discharge
of sewage into the waterbody (Chislock et al. 2013; Santos
et al. 2008). The appearance of chlorophyll in the waterbody
expresses that the presence of the algal bloom/vascular plants/
phytoplankton can be easily derived through remote sensing
sensors. Chlorophyll concentration denotes the presence of
trophic state because it is strongly connected with nutrient
load and algal growth (Gholizadeh et al. 2016). Many re-
searchers used remote sensing for chlorophyll estimation,
and a lot of the reports have been prepared based on it.
For effective assessment of chlorophyll concentration, nar-
rowband satellite data is necessary (Harrington and Repic
1995). It is reported that the spectral response of narrowband
“red edge” (Gitelson et al. 1993) and chlorophyll exposed a
linear relation (Ritchie et al. 2003) between the chlorophyll
scattering range (700 to 705 nm) and the chlorophyll absorp-
tion range (675 to 680 nm). The satellites and sensors, which
are mostly used for estimation of chlorophyll content present-
ed in vegetative communities, are described in Table 1.
Coloured dissolved organic matters (CDOM)
Coloured dissolved organic matters (CDOM) as biogenic,
heterogenic and water-soluble material present in fresh and
saline water appear as brown to yellow in colour due to re-
leasing of sewage (Aiken 1985). Water appears in a yellowish
shade due to the presence of these brown coloured particles,
and it reveals the contamination in the waterbody. The satel-
lites and sensors, which are mostly used for estimation of
CDOM presented in a water column, are described in Table 2.
Secchi disk depth
It is related to water clarity. Total suspended solids and Secchi
disk depth are inversely proportional to each other. This analysis
is helpful to know the status of a load of solids and relative
nutrients (Lindell et al. 1985). Secchi disk depth can measure
through different band combinations prescribed in Table 3.
Turbidity and total suspended sediments
Turbidity is one of the key indicators for quality analysis, and
the effect on the spectrum is reported as scattering, and the
absorption rate is high than the transmission. Suspended solids
(SS) is another parameter of water quality, and it has a highly
scattering effect, but absorption depends on the presence of
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 1 Sensors for chlorophyll

assessment Satellite and Band/ratio Reference
sensor

Landsat 8 OLI Red (0.60–0.70 μm) and NIR (0.70–1.2 Boucher et al. (2018), Vijay et al. (2015)
Landsat 7 ETM+ μm) Wang et al. (2006)
Landsat 5 TM Rundquist et al. (1996)
MODIS Terra, Hunter et al. (2010); Chipman et al. (2009);
Aqua Menken et al. (2006)
MERIS Le et al. (2013); Hunter et al. (2010);
Peña-Martínez et al. (2004)
IRS LISS IV Shirke et al. (2016), Vijay et al. (2015)
IRS LISS III, Green (0.50–0.60 μm) and red Somvanshi et al. (2012)
LISS IV (0.60–0.70 μm)
Landsat 7 ETM+ Allan et al. (2007)
Landsat 5 TM Dekker et al. (1996)
Landsat 5 MSS Kloiber et al. (2002)
Landsat 7 ETM+ Green (0.50–0.60 μm) and blue Turner (2010)
Landsat 5 TM (0.40–0.50 μm) Sudheer et al. (2006)
MERIS Gómez et al. (2011)
PROBA-CHRIS Osinska-Skota et al. (2007)
EO-1 Hyperion Giardino et al. (2007)

chlorophyll and CDOM (Myint and Walker 2002). Due to the
presence of suspended materials, the appearance of the water
is turbid. Turbidity measurement is correlated with the estima-
tion of suspended solids (Wass et al. 1997).
Geospatial technology is now worldwide used for mapping of
turbidity and suspended solids concentration. Available sensors
for turbidity and suspended solids are summarized in Table 4.
Total phosphorus
The study of total phosphorus (TP) is related to the determi-
nation of organic, inorganic, and dissolved forms of
phosphorus. TP is an essential nutrient for plant growth, when
it is present in a waterbody and creates algal growth and eu-
trophication. There is a strong correlation between TP concen-
tration and chlorophyll, and it is indirectly related to clarity
(Swanson and Zurawell 2006). It is a very challenging task to
estimate TP concentration by the sensor because phosphorus
distribution is heterogeneous in nature. But, some research
work revealed that if TP attention is high, then chlorophyll
is also increasing (Vollenweider 1976; McQueen et al. 1986;
Chen et al. 2003; Müller-Navarra et al. 2004). The different
spectral band has a remarkable contribution on TP estimation
described in Table 5.

Table 2 Sensors for CDOM

assessment Satellite and Band/ratio Reference
sensor

Landsat 5 TM Blue band (0.40–0.50 μm) Brezonik et al. (2005)

EO-1 Hyperion Giardino et al. (2007)
SeaWiFS Georgas et al. (2008); Fiorani et al. (2006);
D’D'Alimonte et al. 2004
HICO Braga et al. (2013)
ALOS-AVNIR-2 Blue (0.40–0.50 μm) and green Bhatti et al. (2008)
MODIS (0.50–0.60 μm) Schroeder et al. (2008)
SeaWiFS Tehrani et al. (2013); D'Sa (2008); Ahn et al. (2008);
D'Sa and Miller (2003)
EO-1 Hyperion Green (0.50–0.60 μm) and red Zhu et al. (2011)
MERIS (0.60–0.70 μm) Kutser et al. (2012)
SeaWiFS Tiwari and Shanmugam (2011)
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 3 Sensors for Secchi disk

depth Satellite and sensor Band/ratio Reference

Landsat 5 MSS Blue (0.40–0.50 μm) and green Khorram et al. (1991)
Landsat 5 TM (0.50–0.60 μm) Álvarez-Robles et al. (2006)
Landsat 5 ETM+ Allan et al. (2007)
PROBA-CHRIS Blue band (0.40–0.50 μm) and red Osinska-Skotak et al. (2007)
IKONOS (0.60–0.70 μm) Sawaya et al. (2003); Brezonik et al. (2007)

Methods algorithm. For example, the Normalized Difference Turbidity

On the platform of remote sensing, water quality indicators
can be measured by calculating and understanding the relation
between incident solar radiation and bio-physical components
of water column (Van der Meer and De Jong 2011). Using this
advantage, water quality parameters like turbidity, TSS, TDS,
CDOM, chlorophyll concentration, and temperature can be
estimated by evaluating the particular absorption and scatter-
ing of an area or object. There are numerous techniques
evolved to assess the water quality using satellite data.
Spectral methods
Spectral indices/band rationing
Spectral indices or band rationing is a semi-empirical method that
is useful for assessing the different water quality (Sagan et al.
2020). In the spectral indices method, different bands are used to
create an equation that can estimate a certain parameter regarding
water pollution. Ratio algorithms are mostly used in an object-
based image analysis domain where a particular equation is used
to retrieve an entity (water quality parameter) from an entire
image. From the whole image pixels having spectral similarity
can treat as an object and can be masked out using a band ration
Index (NDTI) is referred to as turbidity, which can be retrieved
from a satellite image using the following equation:
NDTI= Red-Green/Red+Green
Here, the red and green wavelength of given satellite data are
considered for the creation of the NDTI algorithm (Elhag et al.
2019; https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxviii/8-C23/pdf/
Tourre.pdf). Similarly, CDOM (Kutser et al. 2005), TSS
(Gitelson et al. 1993; Kallio et al. 2001), chlorophyll, etc.
can be retraced using different spectral indices.
Spectral shape
The algorithm-based spectral shape method is one of the effi-
cient geospatial approaches to assess the reflectance of the pol-
luted waterbody. It is a different method from the spectral ratio
method because it works on specific absorption properties of
the features. The resolving capacity of the spectral shape meth-
od to differentiate between the signatures (by the difference of
spectral absorption, peak, or slope of reflectance) makes it a
popular technique to identify the spectral response of different
features. It is coated by many researchers that this is a relevant
approach to estimate the water quality components like

Table 4 Sensors for turbidity and

SS Satellite and Band/ratio Reference
sensor

Landsat 5-TM Green (0.50–0.60 μm) and red Wang et al. (2006); Akbar et al. (2010)
PROBA-CHRIS (0.60–0.70 μm) Osinska-Skotak et al. (2007)
IRS LISS III, LISS Somvanshi et al. (2012), Shirke et al. (2016),
IV Vijay et al. (2015)
IKONOS Shirke et al. (2016), Vijay et al. (2015)
MODIS NIR (0.70–1.20 μm) and red Wu et al. (2016)
ALOS-AVNIR-2 (0.60–0.70 μm) Bhatti et al. (2008)
AISA Blue (0.40–0.50 μm) and red Chipman et al. (2009), Satapathy et al. (2010)
(0.60–0.70 μm)
SPOT NIR Mohd Hasmadi and Norsaliza (2010)
CASI NIR Shafique et al. (2003)
IRS LISS III Green Mahato et al. 2014

Table 5 Sensors for total
phosphate Satellite and sensor Band/ratio
Landsat 5-TM Blue and green band and integration of red and green band
MODIS
SPOT
chlorophyll (Neville and Gower 1977; Dierberg and Carriker
1994; Kallio et al. 2001; Wynne et al. 2008; Matthews and
Odermatt 2015), CDOM (Twardowski et al. 2004; Helms
et al. 2008), and SD (Kallio et al. 2001).
Empirical estimation
To establish the relationship between the value of spectral
reflectance and results of water quality data derived from the
traditional method, the empirical approach is one of the ade-
quate and effective techniques. In this approach, regression
(Chang et al. 2015) plays a crucial role to derive the equation
that is used to develop the water quality parameter values for
known locations. For validation of this regression, equations
might be derived based on some known points; then it can be
applied for some other known locations. After the establish-
ment of this relationship, the equation can be applied for any
unknown points successfully (Satapathy et al. 2010). So,
countable in situ water quality data and radiance of waterbody,
which are measured by the satellite’s sensor (Dörnhöfer and
Oppelt 2016), are necessary for empirical analysis (Sagan
et al. 2020). In this empirical relationship, the multicomponent
regression model is quite a common practice to assess and
understand the signature of the water surface. The genetic
algorithms (Chen 2003; Chen et al. 2008), multiple linear
regression (Baban 1993; Dekker and Peters 1993; Rundquist
et al. 1996; Flink et al. 2001; Alparslan et al. 2007; Hicks et al.
2013), linear mixture modelling (Tyler et al. 2006; Bonansea
et al. 2015), and partial linear regression (Song et al. 2012b)
are effective and popular linear regression approaches for wa-
ter quality modelling (Sagan et al. 2020). Apart from the linear
methods, there are few non-linear approaches like neural net-
work (Panda et al. 2004; Giardino et al. 2013; Peterson et al.
2018; Peterson et al. 2020) and support vector regression
method (Wang et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2017 Maier and
Keller 2018; Peterson et al. 2019) that are getting enormous
recognition due to their ability of trend analysis through sta-
tistical performance for remote sensing-based water quality
data. In a recent study, some researchers apply deep learning
techniques to retrieve water quality (Sagan et al. 2020).
Although this approach is very popular for water quality
estimation, there is an inadequacy like this model that is de-
veloped for a particular region, so its application area is
limited.
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Reference
Wu et al. (2010)
Wu et al. (2009)
Rundquist et al. (1996)
Bio-optical estimation
The bio-optical method is an advanced technique that can
overcome the identification of the spectral complexity of in-
land or marine water. It is an analytical approach that depends
on radiative energy of an object/area. These radiative signals
contained the spectral characteristics of the water column.
There is a requirement about a huge spectral signature of the
optical active parameters of the study area. Depending on the
relation between light rays and water, this model is proposed
as a better and regionally/globally acceptable technique in the
area of remote sensing water quality. This technique works in
a different way: the forward approach derives based on the
inherent optical properties of water and the radiative transfer
equation based on the Hydro-Light model (Mobley 1998).
The MODTRAN method (Kneizys et al. 1988) is also used
in the radiative transfer approach to estimate the reflectance of
the top of the atmosphere. This model is sensitive to specific
constituents; hence, it is weak to apply robustly.
Analysis and discussion
Comparison of models
Based on the intensive literature survey, it is observed that
there are several models available to evaluate the water quality
of remote sensing. Different models are developed and ap-
plied by the researchers to the significant evaluation of the
selective water quality components across the globe. In this
situation, comparison of different models is necessary for the
decision-making system.
The empirical method for water quality analysis has been
proposed and applied by a considerable count of scientific and
research communities of the various parts of the globe. It is
observed that this technique is used effectively to retrieve the
water quality constituents, which are optically active. Multiple
regression analysis techniques leave a significant mark on the
field of water pollution evaluation. One of the research studies
by Satapathy et al. (2010) revealed the importance of the re-
gression analysis to establish the relation between routine
method and spectral reflectance of surface water. They have
considered different spectral bands (blue, green, and red) and
water quality parameters like turbidity and phosphate. They
have also considered moderate (Landsat) and high (IKONOS)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Table 6 Relation between laboratory analysis and spectral bands
Satellite Turbidity range (NTU) Phosphate range (mg/l) DN values of spectral bands (range) Reflectance (range)
Blue
Landsat 1.2–68 0.08–0.48 87–76
IKONOS 1.2–68 0.08–0.48 586–539
resolution to better understand the signature of the waterbody
in the remote sensing domain. Table 6 represents the relation
between spectral reflectance of different bands and in situ
measurement of water quality variables.
In their research, they represent a strong correlation be-
tween the traditional method with remote sensing for estima-
tion of turbidity and phosphate. Their study also focused on
the importance of high-resolution satellite data. IKONOS sat-
ellite data has been reported as a better data set than Landsat
for retrieving the water quality. This study also reveals that if
the concentration of organic matter is high, scattered energy
should be less due to the high absorption of incident energy.
But at the same time, the empirical model is limited to a few
parameters only, and applicability in terms of regionally or
globally of this model is limited.
It is found out from different research studies that the con-
centration of chlorophyll can be better assessed through the
bio-optical method. It is also reported that the empirical meth-
od performed better than the spectral inversion method. But
the spectral inversion method is proved as a better method
than the band ratio and spectral shape method. When the cor-
relation value is less, the spectral ratio and spectral shape
methods are considered less suitable. The limited observa-
tions, fewer bands, simplicity of the model, etc. are responsi-
ble for this kind of error.
Spectral reflectance and water quality parameters
It is quoted by many researchers that the importance and util-
ities of spectral bands can be evaluated through the calculation
of a specific spectral ratio/band ratio approach. Band ratio is a
common practice in digital image processing techniques to
enhance the spectral contrast of bands (Zeinelabdeina and
Albielyb 2008; https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog883/
node/555). In another word, it is an expression of explaining
and remaining differences of every spectral parameter on the
future target data (Rajalahti et al. 2009). Band ratios like
Normalized Turbidity Index (NDTI) (Lacaux et al. 2007;
Elhag et al. 2019) and Normalized Difference Chlorophyll
Index (NDCI) (Mishra and Mishra 2012) are very popular to
assess the turbidity and concentration of chlorophyll, respec-
tively. Thus, this spectral ratio technique has a great contribu-
tion to evaluating the water quality constituents.
Green Red ESUNl 1969 ESUNl 1840 ESUNl 1551
63–51 46–42 0.1218–0.1047 0.0925–0.0728 0.0585–0.0516
357–338 150–278 0.2034–0.1872 0.1039–0.0984 0.0536–0.0996
Future sensors for water quality
At present, low temporal resolution satellite data (Landsat,
Sentinel) are available for assessment of temporal water qual-
ity (Claverie et al. 2018). But these satellites are restricted to
specific parameters and lack of spectral ranges. To overcome
these limitations, different space agencies are planning to
work to develop and lunch high-resolution satellites. For ex-
ample, HyspIRI should be an advanced satellite with 30m
spatial resolution and 214 adjoining bands, which will be
helpful for all-optical active components. NASA’s Surface
Biology and Geology mission, PRISMA of Italy, HISUI of
Japan, etc. will be a revolutionary space programme in the
water pollution domain (Sagan et al. 2020).
Limitations of remote sensing
Satellite-based estimation of water quality parameters and
their distribution is a proven technology nowadays, but still
some restrictions are there. There is a need for proper calibra-
tion of the in situ data model for the validation of satellite data.
Sometimes invalid detection of water quality parameters
(Cynibacteria bloom) occurs due to image processing error
(Kutser 2009). The limitation of resolution can be a severe
issue for a particular optical sensor. The spectral response of
the inland waterbody and coastal water is limited in some
cases. Spectral overlapping may create problems between dif-
ferent parameters.
Non-optically active parameter estimation
Every parameter of water quality cannot be assessed through
presently available satellites. Non-optical active variables like
pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, DO, BOD, COD, etc. are not well
explored because of the insufficient spectral response. Future
research work should be focused on the evaluation of spectral
signature for non-optical active parameters, synchronization
of hyperspectral, thermal, multispectral data, integrated land
use management with hydrological modelling and prediction
nutrient discharge, etc. to better understand surface water
pollution.

Atmospheric correction
This step needs to be enhanced because 70–90% of the top
atmospheric reflectance affects the water surface. Sometimes
dark pixel of water beside of bright pixel (Wang et al. 2010) of
land creates confusion to identify the proper signature of an
object. These problems produce the stray light that increases
the radiance (up to 50%) in the NIR bands (Odermatt et al.
2008). This is a critical issue for NIR bands related to water
quality variables.
Temporal resolution
Although different multispectral satellites with moderate tempo-
ral resolution are available (Landsat: 16 days revisit) to assess the
water quality, there is a need of more high temporal resolution
satellites to monitor the minute changes in waterbody. High-
resolution temporal satellite data with cloud penetration facilities
will be applicable in the rainy season also.
Scope of future research
Based on the literature survey, it is observed that surface water
is facing a serious challenge like quality deterioration across
the globe. So, monitoring and management of those huge
waterbodies need advanced, efficient, and cost-effective tech-
niques. In view of this, future research work should be:
& Development of high-resolution satellites to detect the
non-optically active parameters
& Comparison analysis between satellite data for a
waterbody
& Application of algorithms and equations into another
waterbody also
& Development of methodology for water quality assess-
ment irrespective of seasons, region, and nature
& Availability of high-resolution satellite data at minimum
cost
& Development of adequate infrastructure and facilities for
geospatial-based water quality works
Summary and conclusion
This review describes the critical and intensive discussion of
available remote sensing-based methods, models, parameters,
and the limitation for estimation of water quality parameters.
Based on the monitoring techniques, it is observed that the em-
pirical method is one of the best suitable techniques for water
quality assessment. The spectral ratio method and bio-optical
methods are also applicable to water quality assessment.
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Another critical observation is optical active constituents like
turbidity, TSS, temperature, salinity, and chlorophyll that can
be directly measured through remote sensing-based data analysis.
The non-optical parameters like DO, nitrate, and phosphate can-
not be directly measured through remote sensing with available
sensors. The machine learning technique is one of the proven
techniques that provide better accuracy in the field of remote
sensing of water quality. Application of effective algorithms of
machine learning especially deep learning techniques can mini-
mize the modelling error and provide the most acceptable results.
Moderate spatial resolution data are very effective for estuaries,
ocean, and other large waterbodies where high-resolution data
are required for small urban lakes, narrow streams, etc. Satellite-
based data can be compared with an in situ measurement that
reflects the power of satellite-based observation for water quality
assessment. The estimation of non-optical active variables is still
a challenge. Anomaly detection is also proven as a successive
technique in the field of remote sensing of water quality.
The review also suggests future research on high-resolution
satellite data for water quality assessment, hyperspectral sat-
ellite data for better estimation, emphasis on non-optically
active constituents, use of thermal bands, a gravitational
anomaly, machine learning, and artificial network model for
effective monitoring and mapping of water quality for pollu-
tion assessment.
Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to the Director of CSIR-
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur, for providing the necessary infrastructure and support to carry
out this study.
Author contribution Jaydip Dey: Intensive review, sensors and analysis
of data, limitations, and future research
Ritesh Vijay: Conceptualization, review, quality checking of data, and
final editing
Data availability All data, models, and code generated or used during the
study appear in the submitted article.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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