Seas/Oceans Under Stress

ESC351.02 SUSTAINALE DEVELOPMENT

Prof.Dr. Nilgün Kıran Cılız
Ferdi Rizkiyanto’dan (Niva report) yeniden tasarlandı (LT)
Boğaziçi University
Institute of Environmental Sciences
09.05.2023
 WHAT ARE OCEANS?

Oceans are a major body of saline water, and

principal components of the hydrosphere.
By far the largest reservoir for most of the elements
in the atmosphere biosphere-ocean system.
We see the oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s
surface.
It contains 97% of Earth’s cycling water.
All elements pass through the oceans at some
point in their cycles.
The area, volume and average depth of the ocean basins
and some marginal seas are given in below table.
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and contains more Paradoxically it is also the least salty
than one-half of the Earth's water. It also receives the
least river water per area of the major oceans
The ocean contains the bulk of the Earth's water (1.37 x 1024g) and moderates the global water cycle. Because
the distribution of the mass of water is about 80% in the ocean and about 20% as pore water in sediments and
sedimentary rocks. The reservoir of water in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere is trivial (0.003%).
The pore water is disregarded because it is not in free circulation ,97% of the world's cycling water is in the ocean
(Table)
 Physıcal Propertıes

The topography and structure of the ocean floor

reflect tectonic processes within the Earth’s interior
and show variety from one place another.
The major topographic systems, common to all
oceans, are continental margins, ocean-basin
floors, and oceanic ridge systems.
There are continental margins, shown
schematically in figure, between the continent and
the ocean basin.
 Ocean Topologıcal Structure

Ocean topological structure varies highly from place to place. In general, though, we can categorize
the topography into following segments:
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Continental rise
Deep ocean floor

On average, oceans are 3,730 meters deep. Continents are, on average, 840 meters above sea
level.
 Ocean Cırculatıon

Oceans continuously circulate the water they hold,

several factors can play into ocean circulation.
Ocean circulation is determined by a combination
of the following factors:

Density Stratification
Surface Level Current
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/currents.html
 Densıty Stratıfıcatıon

Density differences among water columns located in

different ocean levels cause oceans to circulate.
Density of different water tiers in an ocean are
determined by: salinity
Temperature – Decreases as depth increases.
Salinity is a measure of salt concentration in water.
Typically measured as grams of salt per kilogram of
water.

http://homepage.smc.edu/grippo_alessandro/oce1.html
 Other Factors Effectıng Ocean Cırculatıon:
Thermoclıne Cırculatıon

There are 2 factors that affect ocean circulation other than the ones we have covered so far:
1. Thermocline circulation
2. Abyssal circulation

Thermocline is the transition region between the surface and deep ocean.

Density of water in this region increases appreciably as depth increases (due to temperature decline).

Density differences cause circulation. Circulation in this region is often in a horizontal fashion.
 Thermoclıne

Graph showing a tropical ocean

thermocline (depth vs. temperature). Note
the rapid change between 100 and 1000
meters. The temperature is nearly
constant after 1500 meters depth.
 Other Factors Effectıng Ocean Cırculatıon:
Abyssal Cırculatıon

Circulation of the deep ocean below the thermocline is referred to as abyssal circulation.
Direction of the Abyssal circulation is determined by two factors:

Heat Balance: Input of new cold abyssal water sinking in the high latitude regions must be
balanced by input of heat by geothermal heating, downward movement of relatively warm
surface water and downward diffusion of heat across the Thermocline.
Mass Balance: Water sinking in the polar regions must be balanced by upwelling of water from
the abyssal ocean to surface water.
 Major Ocean
Major Cırculatıons:
Ocean El El
Circulations: Nıño
Nıño

During normal times, Equatorial winds gather

warm water pool toward west. Cold water
surfaces along South American coast:
 Major Ocean Cırculatıons: Gulf Stream

The Gulf Stream, together with its northern

extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic
Drift, is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic
ocean current that originates in the Gulf of
Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and
follows the eastern coastlines of the United
States and Newfoundland before crossing the
Atlantic Ocean.
At about 30°W, 40°N, it splits in two, with the
northern stream crossing to Northern Europe
and the southern stream re-circulating off West
Africa.

http://www.mountainguides.is/blog/iceland%E2%80%99s-climate-moves-with-
the-gulf-stream-flow/
 Major Ocean Cırculatıons: Gulf Stream

The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of

North America from Florida to Newfoundland, and the west
coast of Europe.
Although there has been recent debate, there is
consensus that the climate of Western Europe and
Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be;
and that this is due to the North Atlantic drift, one of the
branches from the tail of the Gulf Stream.
The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of
renewable power generation.
 The Ocean Conveyor Belt

The ocean conveyor belt is one of the major elements of today's ocean circulation system . It delivers
an enormous amount of heat to the North Atlantic and this has profound implications for past,
present, and probably future climates.
Warm and salty surface currents transport heat to the seas where it is transferred to the atmosphere.
This heat helps moderate the climate of northern Europe. The cooling increases the density resulting
in formation of the new cold and salty North Atlantic Deep Water. The NADW travels south through
the North and South Atlantic and then joins the Circumpolar Current. Deep water also forms along
the margins of Antarctica and feeds the Circumpolar Current.
The Circumpolar Current is the source of deep water conveyor belt is completed by return flow of
surface water from the Pacific to the Atlantic to the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
 global water cycle

The major physical components of the global water cycle include the evaporation from the ocean and
land surfaces, the transport of water vapour by the atmosphere, precipitation onto the ocean and land
surfaces, the net atmospheric transport of water from land areas to ocean, and the return flow of fresh
water from the land back into the ocean. The additional components of oceanic water transport are
few, including the mixing of fresh water through the oceanic boundary layer, transport by ocean
currents, and sea ice processes.
On land the situation is considerably more complex, and includes the deposition of rain and snow on
land; water flow in runoff; infiltration of water into the soil and groundwater; storage of water in soil,
lakes and streams, and groundwater; polar and glacial ice; and use of water in vegetation and human
activities. Illustration of the water cycle showing the ocean, land, mountains, and rivers returning to the
ocean.
Processes labelled include: precipitation, condensation, evaporation, evapotranspiration (from tree into
atmosphere), radiative exchange, surface runoff, ground water and stream flow, infiltration, percolation
and soil. moisture.