CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-UNIVERSITY

EE383 P2
Alternating Current Sources
A SHORT RESEARCH JOURNAL ABOUT ALTERNATING
CURRENT SOURCES (AC)

Submitted By:
Carl Christian V. Illut BSME-CS-2

Submitted To:
Paolo Josemari P. Zafra REE, MEng EE
Introduction

What is an Alternating Current (AC)?

Alternating current, commonly abbreviated as AC, represents a

fundamental concept in electrical engineering. It denotes the flow of electric
charge in a circuit that periodically changes direction, contrasting with direct
current (DC), where the flow remains constant in one direction. The defining
feature of AC lies in its sinusoidal waveform, portraying a smooth oscillation
between positive and negative values over time. This rhythmic fluctuation
results from an alternating voltage source, such as that generated by a
power station or an alternator. AC has emerged as the primary form of
electrical power distribution due to its versatility in transforming voltage
levels and efficiently transmitting power over extended distances. An intrinsic
advantage of AC is its adaptability across a spectrum of applications, from
powering residential and industrial complexes to enabling the operation of
electric motors and various appliances. The ease with which voltage levels
can be transformed using transformers facilitates the efficient transmission
and distribution of electrical energy, contributing to its widespread use.
Comprehending the principles of alternating current is paramount for
professionals such as engineers and electricians, as well as researchers
exploring electrical systems. The study of AC encompasses critical concepts
like frequency, amplitude, and phase, playing a pivotal role in designing and
implementing electrical circuits. This knowledge ensures the secure and
effective utilization of electricity in everyday life.
What is the difference between Alternating Current
(AC) and Direct Current (DC)?

Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) are two fundamental
types of electrical currents, each distinguished by its unique characteristics.
AC, characterized by its periodic change in direction, manifests as a
sinusoidal waveform oscillating between positive and negative values. In
contrast, DC maintains a constant flow of electric charge in one direction,
resulting in a steady voltage level. AC is well-suited for long-distance power
transmission and distribution due to the ease of voltage transformation
through transformers. It finds widespread use in powering households,
industrial machinery, and electric motors. On the other hand, DC is
commonly employed in electronic devices, batteries, and specialized
applications like computer chips. Safety considerations also differ, with AC
presenting a higher risk of electric shock due to its periodic voltage changes.
Advances in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) technology have enhanced
the efficiency of DC for long-distance transmission, historically a forte of AC.
The choice between AC and DC depends on factors such as intended
applications, safety requirements, and efficiency considerations, making each
current type suitable for specific roles in electrical systems.
Table 1.1

Figure 1.1
How are AC sources generated?
As defined above, alternating current, or AC, describes how electrons
flow across a conductor in different directions. Electrons travel from a
negative potential to a positive potential in electronics. The potential between
two terminals is switched in a predetermined amount of time—the
frequency—to create an alternating current.
Volts are the unit of measurement for the potential difference between
the positive and negative terminals. As a result, the potential difference
between the terminals at which alternating current flows is expressed in
terms of AC voltage.

To illustrate it properly, this is the diagram of an Alternating Current

(AC) source powering a load.

Figure 1.2
 When plotted on a chart, AC voltage takes the shape of a sine wave. In
one cycle, the AC voltage starts from 0V, rises to its peak, passes back
through 0V to its negative peak, and rises back to 0V. As the AC voltage
value varies throughout the cycle, it is expressed in its peak (Vpeak) and root-
mean-square values (Vrms).
Vpeak refers to the maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal waveform, while
Vrms is derived via the following formula:

Vrms = Vpeak x 0.7071

Vrms is also identified as Vac. It represents the equivalent voltage delivered
by DC. In the US, the mains delivers 120 Vac while the UK uses 230 Vac.

This diagram illustrates how an Alternating Current (AC) source is generated

Figure 1.3
 Faraday's Law of Induction is what enables AC voltage. The law
describes how a moving coil can create electric currents when it slices
through magnetic flux at an angle. The rate at which the magnetic flux
changes determines how much the current changes. Faraday's Law is the
foundation upon which generators and AC alternators are constructed. They
entail moving a conductor loop in a magnetic field in rotation. The current
flows in one direction when the loop passes through the magnetic field,
reaching its maximum when the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The loop rotates continually until the conductor is in parallel with the
magnetic flux, at which point no current is produced. The current starts to
flow in the opposite direction as soon as the loop starts to cut the magnetic
flux.

How to present an AC signal mathematically?

Suppose we hook up a resistor to an ac voltage source and determine

how the voltage and current vary in time across the resistor. Figure 1.4
shows a schematic of a simple circuit with an ac voltage source. The voltage
fluctuates sinusoidally with time at a fixed frequency, as shown, on either the
battery terminals or the resistor. Therefore, the ac voltage, or the “voltage at
a plug,” can be given by:

Figure 1.4

where v is the voltage at time t, V_0 is the peak voltage, and \omega is
the angular frequency in radians per second.
 For this simple resistance circuit, I = V/R so the AC current, meaning
the current that fluctuates sinusoidally with time at a fixed frequency, is:

Figure 1.5

where “I” is the current at time t and I0 is the peak current and is equal to V0 / R For
this example, the voltage and current are said to be in phase, meaning that their
sinusoidal functional forms have peaks, troughs, and nodes in the same place.

What are phasors and how are they being used in

AC analysis?

Figure 1.6
A mathematical representation of sinusoidal waveforms, such the
voltages and currents in AC circuits, is called phasor notation. It does this by
translating time-domain waveforms into a frequency-domain representation,
which makes the analysis of AC circuits easier. With this method, sinusoidal
quantities are expressed as complex numbers made up of an angle (phase)
and a magnitude.
 Using Phasor Notation in AC Circuit Analysis

AC circuit analysis using phasor notation involves a few key steps:

1. Convert time-domain functions to phasors: The initial stage
involves converting time-domain sinusoidal waveforms, such as voltage
and current, into their corresponding phasor representation. This
entails figuring out each waveform's magnitude, frequency, and phase
angle.
2. Perform circuit analysis using complex numbers: After the
sinusoidal waveforms are represented as phasors, the analysis
continues by utilizing complex arithmetic to perform circuit analysis
techniques (such as Kirchhoff's Laws, Ohm's Law, and impedance
calculations). This makes it possible to take into account phase and
magnitude information at the same time.
3. Convert phasor results back to the time domain: Once the
appropriate phasor quantities (such as voltage or current across
particular components) are obtained, these values can be represented
as a sinusoidal waveform by converting them back to the time domain.
Inverse phasor transformation techniques are used for this.

Advantages of Phasor Notation in AC Circuit Analysis

Phasor notation offers several benefits for AC circuit analysis, including:

• Simplification of calculations: Analyzing AC circuits is made simpler
by reducing difficult time-domain calculations to simpler complex
arithmetic by transforming sinusoidal waveforms to phasors.
• Efficient handling of phase information: Engineers can precisely
examine how AC circuits behave in different scenarios thanks to phasor
notation, which naturally takes phase changes between waveforms into
 consideration.
• Compatibility with other analysis techniques: When used with
other circuit analysis techniques like network analysis, Thevenin's
theorem, and Norton's theorem, phasor notation can be a flexible tool
for resolving a variety of AC circuit issues.

What is Real/Active power (P)?

Active Power is the actual power which is really transferred to the load
such as transformer, induction motors, generators etc and dissipated in the
circuit. Alternative words used for Real Power (Actual Power, True Power,
Watt-full Power, Useful Power, Real Power, and Active Power) and denoted
by (P) and measured in units of Watts (W) i.e. The unit of Real or Active
power is Watt where 1W = 1V x 1 A.

Active Power in DC Circuits:

In DC Circuits, power supply to the DC load is simply the product of
Voltage across the load and Current flowing through it i.e., P = V I because
in DC Circuits, there is no concept of phase angle between current and
voltage. In other words, there is no frequency (f) or Power factor in DC
Circuits.

Active Power in AC Circuits:

But the situation in Sinusoidal or AC Circuits is more complex because
of phase difference (θ) between Current and Voltage. Therefore average
value of power (Real Power) is P = VI Cosθ is in fact supplied to the load.
In AC circuits, when circuit is pure resistive, then the same formula
used for power as used in DC as P = V I.
Where:
P = Power in Watts
V = Voltages in Volts
I = Current in Amperes
Cosθ = Power Factor (Phase angle Difference)
VL = Line Voltage
IL = Line Current
S = Apparent Power in VA (Volt Ampere)
Q = Reactive Power in VAR (Volt Ampere Reactive)

What is Reactive Power (Q)?

Also known as (Use-less Power, Watt less Power)

The powers that continuously bounce back and forth between source and
load is known as reactive Power (Q). Power merely absorbed and returned
in load due to its reactive properties is referred to as reactive power.
Reactive Power represents that the energy is first stored and then
released in the form of magnetic field or electrostatic field in case of inductor
and capacitor respectively. Reactive power is given by Q = V I Sinθ which
can be positive (+ve) for inductive loads and negative (-ve) for capacitive
load. The unit of Reactive Power is Volt-Ampere reactive i.e. VAR
where 1 VAR = 1V x 1A.

What is Complex Power (S = P+jQ or S=VI*)?

The Complex sum of Real Power (P) and Reactive Power (Q) is
known as Complex Power which can be expressed like S = P+jQ and
measured in terms of Volt Amps Reactive (generally in kVAR).
It may also be expressed as S=VI* where “I*” is the conjugate of
the complex current I. This current “I” flows through a reactive load Z
caused by the Voltage.

A Capacitive Load provides Leading VARS (i.e. it eliminates VARS and

improves the overall power factor of the system). That’s why capacitors are
used to correct and improve the power factor.

Where:

Z = Impedance
R = Resistance
XL = Inductive Reactance
XC = Capacitive Reactance
Cosθ = Power Factor
P = Active Power
S = Apparent Power
Q = Reactive Power

An Inductive Load provides lagging VARS (i.e. it added VARS and decreased
the overall power factor.)

Complex power can also be expressed by the following formula.

Power Triangle
∴ Active, Reactive, Apparent Power and Power factor are trigonometrically
related to each other as shown in below figure (Power Triangle).

Figure 1.7
 References

AC Voltage: A Beginner’s Guide, Retrieved on: December 05, 2023,

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beginner-s-guide

Electricity and Magnetism, Retrieved on: December 06, 2023, Retrieved

from: https://www.electricity-magnetism.org/what-is-phasor-notation-and-
how-is-it-used-in-ac-circuit-
analysis/#:~:text=Phasor%20notation%20is%20a%20mathematical%20rep
resentation%20of%20sinusoidal%20waveforms%2C%20such,into%20a%20
frequency%2Ddomain%20representation.

Electronicsforu, Retrieved on: December 06, 2023, Retrieved from:

https://www.electronicsforu.com/technology-trends/learn-
electronics/difference-between-ac-and-dc

Electrical Technology, Retrieved on, December 06, 2023, Retrieved from:

https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2013/07/active-reactive-apparent-
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