Lecture on Decline of Mughal Empire

Last week rise of Mughals – Bose and Jalal – ‘pre-modern accommodations’ vast
period of Indo-Islamic culture and tradition truly began and solidifies from 14th c.
onwards but even earlier beginnings in Sindh end of 7th c. Their emphasis is on sense
of continuation but absolute disjuncture with past in South Asia.

Historiography - In north – Turks, Persians, Afghans and in South Arab traders. In 8th
c. had been long trade of Arab merchants – was mostly economic not religious.
Mughal rule epitomised by conversion and conquest but also by accommodation,
adaptation, synthesis and cultural plurality.

3 great rulers: Jahangir 1605-27

Came to thrown at 36 – quite old for kings! Symbolic of fact that unlike previous
rulers - the remaining emperors would have to wrestle for power with their fathers as
well as siblings. Quote p. 138.

Sources – Salim’s (Jahangir) memoirs – but also chronicles of Jesuit father Anthony
Monserrate – mention incident great jealousy between Akbar and son- said to have
immured alive a favoured concubine – Anarkali (Pomegranate Blossom) for having
temerity to smile at Jahangir. This set pattern for his own relationship with sons –
eldest Khusraw – when aged 18 got out of Agra and went towards Kabul to link up
with Uzbegs and Persian enemies – within 3 weeks caught and brought to Jahangir’s
court, had him imprisoned and had to witness 300 of his followers impaled; 5th Sikh
Guru – Arjun – had offered support to Khusraw – was killed . when he was caught in
plot to murder his father Jahangir said ‘paternal affection did not allow me to take his
life’. Instead he had him blinded!

Other sources of European records of those who visited – such as Sit Thomas Roe –
1st English ambassador to be attached to Mughal court in 1616 at Ajmer.

His court very magnificent and powerful not due to personal qualities of ruler but due
to continuation of policies of predecessors. As man- into sensory delights – loved
mangoes of northern India and cherries of Kashmir. But very partial to intoxicants –
took opium daily and at one stage his consumption of liquor rose to 20 cups of double
distilled spirits per day! Thomas Roe tells us not surprisingly he dozed whilst
entertaining!

Had intellectual curiosity – observed nature – fauna and flora. Connoisseur of beauty-
20 wives, 300 concubines – chosen not for political connections but for their looks.
Fascinated by European art and what could learnt from innovations there.

No significant expansion of territory but consolidation – had subdued Mewars to

south; in north they solidified rule under Rajput kingdoms of northern Himalayans;
northeast – engaged in fighting Ahom people of Burma and northwest – always
mindful of Safavids – as Shah Abbas I took Khandahar in 1622.

Attitude to religion- mixture of political and personal – political concerns led to

tolerant approach – he banned cow slaughter and had local leader claiming to be 2nd

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manifestation of Mohammed’s followers locked up. BUT also had Jain temples in
Gujarat demolished. His personal faith – respectful of Hindi and Muslim mystics –
continued Akbar’s imagery of sun and light.

His leading wife Nur Jahan- (Light of the world) she was lady-in-waiting to one of
Akbar’s widows. She was of Persian noble descent and said to be a great beauty,
highly intelligent and strong willed. Came to dominate harem and her husband. How
much Jahangir came to rely upon her p. 146.
Died October 1627 and buried in mausoleum in Lahore
Fight over succession- between siblings was as brutal as ever – resulted in Khurram,
3rd son being crowned.

Shah Jahan 1627-58

Took name Shah Jahan (emperoro of the world) Famous for building of Taj Mahal for
his wife Mumtaz Mahal – took 17 years to build. Mausoleum for her. His love of this
wife – favourite as in his father’s day. She was niece to Nur Jahan according to
chroniclers of reign they were inseparable from the day of wedding. She became his
close confidant, involving herself in civic and govt matters. She was very fertile
woman and gave birth to 14 kids – 7 survived. She insisted that the children of her
husband’s other wives be aborted – feared rival to her sons. She died in 1631 and
Shah Jahan was inconsolable. He was a man who enjoyed music, singing, hunting,
dancing girls and jewels BUT not so much alcohol. For next few years he indulged in
sexual debauchery (coming out of virtual monogamous relationship) – accumulated
concubines at ate of knots; had sexual liaisons with wives of his noble men and held
annual 8 day fair for women from where he picked his fancies for the year! Many
rumours circulated including of incest with his favourite daughter – Jahanara in
diaries of Manucci. His downfall was lust for sex – in sept 1657 took a strong/bitter
aphrodisiac – too much for 61 yr old!!

Seen as very gifted and well mannered young man- impeccable taste and demeanour.
Took great interest in arts and monuments – Peacock throne – this set the tone of his
rule – ordered 8.6 m Rs. Worth of jewels and 1.4 m Rs. Worth of gold for its
construction and took 7 yrs. He mounted it on 20 March 1635 every surface decorated
with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls. Above canopy peacock and on its breast a
ruby given by Shah Abbas to Jahangir and inscribed with names of Emperor Timur,
Shah Abbas and Akbar Jahangir and of course Shah Jahan. In same year he had
commissioned the Padshahnama an illustrated history of his reign. Not particularly
enlightening as what is in there is recorded in other sources of period. But did express
his military victories and court ceremonies. His quintessential Mughal style was white
marble structures inlaid with semi precious stones. Major renovations of forts at
Gwalior, Lahore and Agra. Moved capital from Lahore to Delhi and build
Shahjahanabad – this is what the old city of Delhi is today. Built in 1639 and
completed in 1648 and made state entry to inaugurate city.

Religion- Mughal power, wealth and magnificence reached its apogee but also
witnessed break with inclusive approach to other cultural traditions. Part reflected
revivalist tendencies amongst Indian Muslims. Shah Jahan celebrated Muslim
festivals with gusto, supported pilgrimage to Mecca. Placed restrictions on the repair
and keep of Hindu temples and Christian churches. In telling piece from the court

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librarian Inayat Khan – on fate of 400 captured Christian prisoners from Portuguese
trading settlement ‘the faith-enlightening, infidel-consuming monarch immediately
directed the learned divines to explain to them the tenets of Islam, and to put to death
whoever refused to be converted.’

Those areas not fully under his control were under strict systems of policing through
taxation of pastoral farmers. Nobility at heart of working empire- by 1640s nos of
nobles doubled compared to Akbar’s rule but power very centralised – one seventh of
all revenue went to imperial treasury.

Succession – DaroShikoh – Shah Jahan designated him heir – very much in mould of
great grandfather Akbar – read Upanishads key Hindu scripture and had them
translated into Persian, he argued that Hinduism was in essence Islam, loved talking
to Jesuits, Sufis and Hindus.

Aurangzeb – governor of Deccan – secretive, but very energetic and ambitious – good
general. More puritan in beliefs. Very pious and supported orthodoxy in Islamic
thought.

Battle between sons as father lying ill. Aurangzeb was victor – kept father prisoner in
Agra Fort on 31 July 1658 took title Alamgir – ‘World Seizer’. Commonly known as
Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb 1658-1707 - seen as monster – by Hindus and Muslims- but in youth

30yrs old infatuated with Hindu dancing girl and was very hedonistic but as ruler
given to piety, ascetic wore mediocre clothing. As ruler – disbanded practice of great
Mughal illustrated chronicles, disbanded teams of artists. Un-Islamic practices banned
from court – wine, opium and Hiindustani music. Ulama found new ally – power and
authority restored and guardians of public morals appointed. Aurangzeb ordered
codification of legal judgements. Temples destroyed, Hindi pilgrims to shrines and
festivals taxed, provincial officers ordered to replace Hindu officers with Muslims and
most controversially – re-introduced the jizya. Shivaji wrote to Aurangzeb about this
– p. 163. In this period large protests to walls of Red Fort in Delhi and some large
conversions to Islam. 1660s Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur led campaign against him but
was arrested and in 1675 executed and Sikhs became enemies of Mughal regime.

Empire continued to grow in wealth and fortune state revenue doubled – achieved by
raising new revenues and new conquered lands. New opportunities lay in Deccan-
faced Maratha insurgency- Shivaji had been high ranking noble in Mughal court.

Maratha wars

Metcalf & Metcalf – 3 faultlines:

 zamindar powers increasing
 powers of princely states – some paying tributes other not
 provincial governors acting autonomously

BUT – though religion played role in insurgent regimes this did not preclude strategic
cooperation and military alliances with other Muslim rulers.