A Study on Characteristic Flavor Compounds
in Traditional Chinese Rice Wine -
Guyue Longshan Rice Wine
Yu Cao1,2, Guangfa Xie3,4, Chun Wu2 and Jian Lu1,2,*
ABSTRACT
J. Inst. Brew. 116(2), 182–189, 2010
The objective of the study was to systematically investigate
flavor compounds in Chinese rice wine (CRW) using chroma-
tography technology. In twelve CRW samples, 93 different fla-
vor compounds were detected and identified including 16 alco-
hols in addition to ethanol, 29 esters, 9 aldehydes, 9 organic
acids, 19 amino acids and 11 fatty acids. Statistical analysis by
principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that seventeen
flavor compounds in Guyue Longshan rice wine made a large
contribution to its special flavor. These compounds were benzal-
dehyde, acetaldehyde, ethyl 2-hydroxy-4-methylvalerate, ethyl
butyrate, phenyl ethyl isobutyrate, ethyl benzoate, ethyl phenyl-
acetate, methyl dodecanoate, methyl oleate, ethyl dedecanoate,
1-butanol, 3-ethoxyl-1-propanol, 1-enanthol, dodecanol, lactic
acid, fumaric acid and lauric acid.
Key words: Chinese rice wine, flavor compounds, Guyue Long-
shan, principal component analysis (PCA).
INTRODUCTION
Chinese rice wine (CRW), a national unique and tradi-
tional food, has more than 4,000 years of history and is
very popular in China, especially in Southern China.
CRW has the characteristics of a yellow color, a sweet
aroma and abundant nutrition and is called ‘liquid cake’.
CRW is typically fermented from sticky rice, with yeast
and with wheat Qu, by spontaneous fermentation in local
factories in the summer, while CRW is made throughout
the year. As a crude enzyme preparation, wheat Qu plays
an important role in the diastatic fermentation, which is
similar to the koji of sake8. At the same time, wheat Qu is
a raw material in wine-making and brings to the wine a
1 The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Edu-
cation, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P. R. China.
2 School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P. R.
China.
3 Zhejiang Guyue Longshan Shaoxing Wine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing
312000, P. R. China.
4 Key Laboratory of Technology and Equipment for Chinese Rice
Wine, Zhejiang Province, China Shaoxing Rice Wine Group Co.
Ltd., Shaoxing 312000, P. R. China.
* Corresponding author. E-mail: jlu@jiangnan.edu.cn
Publication no. G-2010-0715-1072
© 2010 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
182 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING
unique flavor. In general, flavor compounds are mainly
produced, but are not limited to yeast fermentation, during
CRW brewing3. More than 2 × 106 microbe colonies per
gram of wheat Qu7 are typically inoculated into the CRW
fermentation broth. These microorganisms take part in the
fermentation in addition to the yeast, and together they
synthesize compounds. In long-term production practice,
it is recognized that in addition to the brewing raw materi-
als and process, the wheat Qu made in the local factories
has a great impact on the flavor of Chinese rice wine, with
CRW produced in different areas having distinct flavors.
Much attention has been paid by researchers in previ-
ous studies to the volatile and semi-volatile compounds
on the flavor of CRW. Guo et al.11 determined the esters
and alcohols in CRW with the technique of solid phase
micro-extraction (SPME). Bao and Xu2 identified 42 vola-
tile compounds through gas chromatography-mass spec-
trum (GC-MS) analysis. Luo et al.13 identified a total of
97 volatile and semi-volatile compounds from ten CRW
samples with the SPME method. However, little informa-
tion is available about the non-volatile compounds.
Guyue Longshan rice wine, produced in Shaoxing city
of Zhejiang province, is a famous and typical Chinese rice
wine that is known worldwide. It has a very special and
typical flavor. Interestingly, if Guyue Longshan rice wine
is produced in other cities, under the same brewing tech-
nologies and brewing raw materials, the flavor changes
markedly. Thus it is of importance to investigate the vola-
tile and non-volatile compounds in Chinese rice wine to
determine what are the distinct flavor compounds in Gu-
yue Longshan rice wine. This is the foundation of deter-
mining the factors that influence the distinct flavor com-
pounds of Guyue Longshan rice wine.
Since the kinds of flavor compounds in CRW vary
greatly, univariate analysis cannot accurately show the
differences among Chinese rice wines produced in differ-
ent cities. Multivariate statistical analysis could be applied
to analyze these flavor compounds. In this aspect of flavor
research statistical analysis, including cluster analysis
(CA), principal component analysis (PCA) and stepwise
linear discriminant analysis (SLDA) have already been
widely applied. Rosillo et al.16 used cluster analysis to
class the different varieties of grape. Alonso-Salces et al.1
carried out cluster analysis to class brewing apples from
polyphenol composition. Câmara et al.4 used principal
components analysis and linear discriminant analysis to
distinguish Madela white wines brewed using different
varieties of grapes.

The objective of this study was to investigate the flavor
compounds in Chinese rice wine and to identify typical
flavor compounds in Guyue Longshan rice wine. To
achieve this goal, 12 CRW samples, produced in different
areas, were collected and used to analyze the volatile,
semi-volatile, and non-volatile flavor compounds by using
headspace solid phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) and
GC-MS, GC, and HPLC techniques. Principal component
analysis, a powerful statistical tool, was further employed
to analyze and identify the characteristic flavor com-
pounds of Guyue Longshan rice wine.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Chemicals
Standards of fatty acids (including caprylic acid, non-
anoic acid, myristic acid, lauric acid, capric acid, caproic
acid, stearic acid, palmitic acid, heptanoic acid, penta-
decanoic acid, and nonadecanoic acid), standards of or-
ganic acids (including oxalic acid, pyruvic acid, tartaric
acid, lactic acid, malic acid, succinic acid, citric acid, ace-
tic acid, and fumaric acid) and the solvents such as metha-
nol and hexane were purchased from Sinopharm Chemi-
cal Reagent Co., Ltd (Shanghai, China). Others (ethyl
acetate, butyl acetate, isobutyl alcohol, isoamyl acetate, 1-
butanol, isoamyl alcohol, ethyl caproate, ethyl lactate,
furfural, 1-octanol, ethyl benzoate and phenylethyl alco-
hol) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich China Co.
(Shanghai, China). The purity of all standards was higher
than 99%.
Chinese rice wine samples
Twelve samples manufactured by six Chinese rice wine
companies were studied in this paper. The details of the
samples are listed in Table I.
Analysis of volatile and semi-volatile
compounds by HS-SPME and GC-MS
The analysis of volatile and semi-volatile compounds
was performed using HS-SPME followed by GC-MS. The
75 μm CAR-PDMS (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) was
used for compound extraction. Each CRW sample was
diluted with deionized water to a final concentration of
6% (v/v) ethanol, and total 6 mL solution was put into a
15 mL glass vial, to which 1 μL of internal standard 3-
octanol (17 μg/25 mL) and 2.5 g NaCl were added. Then
the vial was kept at 55°C in a water bath for 12 min to
Table I. The description of Chinese rice wine samples.
Brand Brewing company Producing area
Pagoda Zhejiang Pagoda Brand Shaoxing Rice Shaoxing, Zhejiang
Wine Co., Ltd. province
Nu’er Hong Shaoxing Nu’er Hong Brewery Co., Ltd. Shangyu, Zhejiang
province
Guyue Longshan Zhejiang Guyue Longshan Shaoxing Shaoxing, Zhejiang
Wine Co. Ltd. province
He Wine Guan Sheng Yuan (group) Co., Ltd. Shanghai
Xi Shan Wuxi Zhentai Winery Co., Ltd. Wuxi, Jiangsu
province
Sha Zhou Zhangjiagang Brewery Co., Ltd. Zhangjiagang,
Jiangsu province
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equilibrate and the sample was extracted for 48 min at the
same temperature. After extraction, the fibre was inserted
into the injection port of the GC (250°C) for 5 min to de-
sorption. The conditions of the GC-MS analysis were ac-
cording to the report of Luo et al.13 The analyses were
carried out on an Agilent 6890 GC equipped with an
Agilent 5975 mass selective detector (MSD). The injec-
tion was done in splitless mode for 5 min using an inlet of
0.75 mm i.d. which improved the GC resolution. The
temperature of both the injector and detector was 250°C.
The separations were performed using a DB-Wax column
(30 m length, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness, J&W
Scientific, Folsom, CA, USA) with an oven temperature
program of 40°C (4 min), 5°C/min to 120°C (0 min),
8°C/min to 220°C (2 min). The carrier gas was helium
with a flow-rate of 0.8 mL/min. An Agilent 5975 MSD
was used for the identification of unknown compounds.
The electron impact energy was 70 eV, and the ion source
and quadruple temperatures were set at 200°C and 250°C,
respectively. Electron impact (EI) mass spectra were re-
corded in the 33–450 amu range.
The experiment was carried out with a standard solu-
tion at concentrations of 4,000 μL for ethyl acetate, 3,000
μL for butyl acetate, 3,333 μL for isobutyl alcohol, 333 μL
for isoamyl acetate, 167 μL for 1-butanol, 11,000 μL for
isoamyl alcohol, 1,333 μL for ethyl caproate, 7,333 μL for
ethyl lactate, 6,500 μL for furfural, 167 μL for 1-octanol,
2,000 μL for ethyl benzoate, 14,166 μL for diethyl
succinate, and 23,333 μL for phenethyl alcohol.
Identification of unknown compounds was according to
the Xcalibur system and on the full spectra generated
from authentic standards whenever possible. The quantity
of the aroma compounds was determined by the internal
standard method6,18.
Analysis of fatty acids
Free fatty acids were analyzed by multilevel solvent
gas chromatography. A 100 μL internal standard (heptade-
cylic acid 2 mg/mL), 2 g NaCl and 2 mL HCl (concentra-
tion 36%) were added to a 10 mL sample. The sample was
then extracted three times using mixed liquor (hexane:
CH2Cl2=2:1) with a liquor volume of 4 mL, 3 mL and 3
mL respectively. The organic phase was reverse extracted
three times with 4 mL of 50 g/L Na2CO3. The aqueous
phase was adjusted to pH 2.0. Hexane was used to extract
the aqueous phase three times with a liquor volume of 4
mL, 3 mL and 3 mL respectively. The organic phase was
Storage years Ethanol (%, v/v) Type Marked
3 16.0 PA3
semi-dry
5 15.0 PA5
3 16.5 NH3
semi-dry
5 16.0 NH5
3 16.5 GYLS3
semi-dry
5 15.0 GYLS5
3 14.5 HW3
semi-sweet
5 14.5 HW5
3 12.0 XS3
semi-sweet
5 13.0 XS5
3 10.0 SZ3
5 10.0 semi-dry SZ5
VOL. 116, NO. 2, 2010 183

concentrated to approximately 1 mL under a gentle stream
of nitrogen. The conditions of derivatization and
chromatographic separation were based on Gallart et al.9
The separations were performed using a CP-Wax 52 CB
column (30 m length, 0.32 mm i.d., 0.5 μm film thickness,
J&W Scientific, Folsom, CA, USA) with an oven
temperature program of 60°C (2 min), 5°C/min to 100°C
(0.1 min), 10°C/min to 220°C (10 min). The carrier gas
was helium with a flow-rate of 3.0 mL/min.
The experiment was carried out with a standard solu-
tion composed of: caprylic acid, 0.04 g/L; nonanoic acid,
0.04 g/L; myristic acid, 0.04 g/L; lauric acid, 0.04 g/L;
capric acid, 0.04 g/L; caproic acid, 0.04 g/L; stearic acid,
0.32 g/L; palmitic acid, 0.32 g/L; heptanoic acid, 0.04
g/L; pentadecanoic acid, 0.04 g/L; and nonadecanoic acid,
0.04 g/L. Identification of fatty acids in rice wine was ac-
cording to the retention time of the standards. The
quantity of the fatty acids was determined by the internal
standard method12.
Analysis of organic acids by HPLC
Organic acid was analyzed by HPLC as follows. Each
rice wine sample was diluted 10 times with deionized
water and was filtrated through a 0.45 μm microporous
membrane. Chromatographic conditions were based on
Xiang et al.20 The separations were performed using a
150 × 4.6 mm and 5 μm Waters Atlantis dC18 column.
The column temperature was 28°C. Mixed liquor (0.02
mol/L KH2PO4: acetonitrile = 99.8: 0.2 (v/v)) was used as
the mobile phase, the pH was adjusted to 2.6 using 5%
acetic acid. The speed of flow was 0.8 mL/min and the
ultraviolet detector was set at 212 nm.
The experiment was carried out with a standard solu-
tion composed of: pyruvic acid, 0.608 mg/mL; oxalic
acid, 0.745 mg/mL; succinic acid, 1.733 mg/mL; malic
acid, 0.981 mg/mL; tartaric acid, 1.209 mg/mL; citric
acid, 1.044 mg/mL; acetic acid, 1.853 mg/mL; lactic acid,
2.041 mg/mL; and fumaric acid, 0.22 mg/mL. Identifica-
tion of organic acids in rice wine was according to the
retention time of the standards. The quantity of the or-
ganic acids was determined by the internal standard
method.
Analysis of amino acids by HPLC
Amino acids in the CRW samples were determined by
RP-HPLC with pre-column derivation. The sample was
diluted five times by trichloroacetic acid, then filtrated
through double-layer filter paper. The filtrate was centri-
fuged at 10,000 r/min for 10 min. A 400 μL aliquot of
clear liquid was injected into the sample vial. The separa-
tions were performed using a 250 × 4.6 mm and 5 μm
ODS HYPERSIL column. The column temperature was
40°C. For the mobile phase A, 8.0 g of crystallized so-
dium acetate was dissolved with 1,000 mL water; and 225
mL triethylamine added. The pH was adjusted to 7.2 using
5% acetic acid and finally 5 mL of tetrahydrofuran was
added. For mobile phase B, 8.0 g of crystallized sodium
acetate was dissolved in 400 mL water. The pH was
adjusted to 7.2 using 2% acetic acid and 800 mL
acetonitrile and 800 mL methanol were added. The speed
of flow was 1.0 mL/min and the ultraviolet detector was
set at 338 nm and 262 nm.
184 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING
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Statistical analysis
Principal component analysis, a multivariate technique
acting in an unsupervised manner, was used for analysis
of the data matrix. An alternative set of coordinates, so-
called ‘Principal Components’ (PCs) were extracted so
that the dimensionality of the original data matrix was
reduced while the maximum amount of variability re-
tained, the PCs are linear combinations of the original
variables17. The method was carried out using the SPSS
Program, version 13.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois,
USA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Volatile and semi-volatile compounds in
Chinese rice wine
The results in Table II show that 54 volatile and semi-
volatile compounds were identified by GC-MS from the
12 CRW samples. Compared with the 97 volatile and
semi-volatile compounds identified by Luo et al.13, this
study focused more attention on esters, higher alcohols,
and aldehydes.
As the largest group of volatile and semi-volatile com-
pounds, higher alcohols are mainly formed from the cata-
bolic route (Ehrlich pathway) in the presence of amino
acids and from the anabolic route, from sugars via biosyn-
thesis19. In all of the tested samples, the content of the
higher alcohols was mostly above 200 mg/L, except for
the SZ rice wine sample (Table II). The highest concentra-
tion of alcohols was in the GYLS5 rice wine. Sixteen fatty
alcohols were found in the CRW sample, all of which
were present in the GYLS samples. Active amyl alcohol,
although identified in other reports13, was not found in
this study. This could be due to the different polarity of
the micro-extraction fibre.
Isoamyl alcohol, phenethyl alcohol, 1-propanol, and
isobutyl alcohol were the main alcohols in the CRW sam-
ples, and this was in agreement with other reports13. How-
ever, the content proportion of these four alcohols in the
GYLS sample was significantly different from the other
samples. On the other hand, some of alcohols were only
present in certain samples, such as dodecanol which was
only detected in the GYLS samples.
Esters provide a fruity and flowery flavor, and are
mainly produced by yeast through alcohol fermentation,
from an activated fatty-acyl CoA molecule and alcohol,
catalyzed by alcohol acetyltransferase and other en-
zymes5. Twenty nine kinds of ester compounds were iden-
tified from the CRW samples, with concentrations ranging
from 74.82 to 157.64 mg/L. Among the ester compounds,
ethyl lactate and ethyl acetate were the main ones. The
content of ethyl lactate and ethyl acetate comprised more
than 85% of the total ester content. The flavors were in-
fluenced by the different ratios of ethyl lactate to ethyl
acetate in the CRW samples.
There were significant differences in ester compounds
among different CRW samples. There were 26 individual
ester compounds in the CRW produced in Shaoxing city,
22 ester compounds in the Shangyu city product and less
than 20 ester compounds from other production areas.
Concentrations of esters in the Guyue Longshan rice wine
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Table II. Volatile and semi-volatile compounds in Chinese rice wine samples.
Concentration (mg/L)
Compounds PA3 PA5 NH3 NH5 GYLS3 GYLS5 HW3 HW5 XS3 XS5 SZ3 SZ5
Aldehydes
benzaldehyde 3.66 5.16 4.58 3.35 4.15 9.03 3.23 4.44 1.64 6.47 1.56 2.71
furfural 2.49 3.36 3.92 2.81 2.21 4.38 2.46 3.19 1.53 5.18 2.08 2.43
acetaldehyde 0.22 0.33 0.18 0.20 0.44 0.66 0.12 0.39 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.20
2-phenyl-2-butenal 0.32 0.39 0.34 0.44 0.29 0.52 0.32 0.71 0.10 0.49 0.13 0.18
isopentyl aldehyde 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.10 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05
capraldehyde 0.08 0.09 0.31 0.12 0.10 0.12 0.26 0.17 0.12 0.22 0.17 0.18
nonaldehyde 0.07 0.07 0.24 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.17 0.20 0.14 0.20 0.18 0.18
isobutyraldehyde 0.03 0.03 n.d.a n.d. 0.04 0.04 n.d. 0.02 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
2-methyl-2-butenal 0.03 0.05 n.d. n.d. 0.06 0.13 0.04 0.08 0.01 0.11 0.02 0.07
∑ 6.70 9.56 9.63 7.08 7.46 15.08 6.70 9.28 3.64 12.80 4.27 5.99
Esters
ethyl lactate 54.43 49.53 71.57 58.99 84.85 101.90 63.74 61.14 44.96 94.78 69.98 93.83
ethyl acetate 37.58 41.08 32.61 35.07 31.87 33.53 42.94 40.24 27.06 24.78 10.48 12.34
diethyl succinate 6.94 8.02 8.76 9.84 12.93 15.34 5.03 5.02 0.79 0.93 0.90 1.01
phenylethyl acetate 0.10 0.11 0.14 0.09 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.34 0.11 0.08 0.35 0.35
ethyl 2-hydroxy-4-
methylvalerate 0.17 0.13 0.37 0.21 0.32 0.42 0.31 0.28 0.17 0.34 0.09 0.19
ethyl butyrate 0.55 0.92 0.68 0.54 0.70 1.70 0.43 0.75 0.19 0.85 0.35 0.30
ethyl octylate 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.14 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.07
isoamyl acetate 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05
γ-nonanoic lactone 0.18 0.21 0.45 0.11 0.20 0.23 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.19 0.07 0.14
ethyl isovalerate 0.06 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.0232 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.07 0.08 0.11 0.18
ethyl caproate 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.0527 0.07 0.09 0.15 0.05 0.09 0.19 0.09
tediethyl suberate 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.16 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.09
phenyl ethyl
isobutyrate 0.04 0.05 n.d. n.d. 0.04 0.07 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl benzoate 0.02 0.03 n.d. n.d. 0.03 0.04 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl phenylacetate 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.03
ethyl propionate 0.01 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl tetradecanoate 0.04 0.04 n.d. n.d. 0.05 0.05 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl 3-
hydroxylcaproate 0.02 0.03 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl linoleate 0.10 0.11 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.08 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
diisobutyl phthalate 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 n.d. 0.03
methyl dodecanoate 0.11 0.12 n.d. n.d. 0.15 0.19 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.04 0.08
ethyl palmitate 0.33 0.34 0.23 0.14 0.40 0.29 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.39 0.13
methyl oleate n.d. n.d. 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl 3-
hydroxybutyrate n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.08 0.07 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.03 0.05
ethyl oleate 0.15 0.19 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.14 0.04 0.11 0.03 0.07 0.13 0.06
ethyl dodecanoateb 1.20 1.90 4.30 3.50 6.40 10.10 4.30 5.20 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl furoateb 1.30 8.80 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
ethyl valerate n.d. n.d. 0.0013 0.001 0.0019 0.0028 n.d. n.d. 0.0265 0.0101 n.d. n.d.
ethyl decylate 0.52 0.65 0.51 0.48 1.07 0.34 0.86 1.2317 0.57 1.61 0.71 0.93
∑ 102.48 102.95 116.80 106.89 134.84 157.64 115.57 111.62 74.82 124.67 84.41 110.43
Alcohols
phenethyl alcohol 58.74 50.36 70.27 69.37 88.38 109.82 90.62 81.30 72.83 72.21 69.69 65.55
isoamyl alcohol 92.15 95.98 86.15 82.61 98.32 90.96 100.75 97.60 103.79 105.72 12.74 11.43
1-propanol 28.10 27.05 28.79 17.82 29.21 24.76 18.35 11.13 8.67 8.56 7.29 8.86
isobutyl alcohol 25.44 22.52 38.89 37.39 25.90 36.40 43.09 38.75 25.74 22.99 34.86 44.62
3-ethyl-3-pentanol n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 1.20 2.14 1.18 0.94 0.79 1.48 0.36 0.60
3-methyl-2-hexanol 1.23 1.49 2.02 1.27 2.23 2.01 1.39 1.60 0.69 0.45 0.48 0.58
1-butanol 1.23 1.22 1.56 1.26 1.89 1.82 1.38 1.38 1.28 1.26 1.34 1.38
benzyl alcohol 0.43 0.46 0.54 0.44 0.78 0.63 0.43 0.39 0.13 0.18 0.13 0.12
3-ethoxy-1-propanol 0.22 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.50 0.55 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
2,3-butanediol 0.13 0.15 0.54 0.23 0.58 0.55 0.45 0.54 0.28 0.85 0.18 0.33
2-butanol 0.08 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.15 0.11 0.10 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
1-hexanol 0.13 0.14 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.49 0.36 0.25 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.03
1-nonanolb 1.50 1.40 1.80 1.70 3.00 3.00 1.70 1.70 0.30 0.30 0.50 0.50
1-octanolb 1.10 1.60 1.40 1.50 1.00 1.70 2.70 4.70 0.90 0.30 6.10 5.50
1-enanthol 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
dodecanol n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.0015 0.0013 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
∑ 207.91 199.68 229.29 210.89 249.48 270.33 258.15 234.02 214.26 213.74 127.14 133.52
a Not detected.
b Concentration (μg/L).

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Table III. Fatty acids in Chinese rice wine samples.
Concentration (mg/L)
Fatty acids PA3 PA5 NH3 NH5 GYLS3 GYLS5 HW3 HW5 XS3 XS5 SZ3 SZ5
caproic acid 0.24 0.43 1.38 1.49 1.07 2.03 1.32 1.23 2.16 2.22 2.52 2.04
heptanoic acid n.d.a n.d. 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.12 0.13 0.11
caprylic acid 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.30 0.11 0.07 0.20 0.16
nonanoic acid 0.02 0.03 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.10 0.11
capric acid 0.13 0.23 0.57 0.78 1.03 0.80 1.20 1.95 0.63 1.30 0.77 1.04
lauric acid 0.05 0.09 n.d. n.d. 0.42 0.31 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
myristic acid 0.04 0.07 0.18 0.19 0.25 0.27 0.19 0.38 0.27 0.22 0.23 0.23
pentadecenoic acid n.d. n.d. 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.14 0.05 0.11 0.13 0.10 0.09 0.10
palmitic acid 1.44 2.89 6.37 7.05 8.52 9.16 6.38 7.24 6.14 6.13 6.78 7.28
stearic acid 0.86 2.26 4.67 5.52 6.71 7.40 4.89 6.83 5.26 4.79 5.07 5.87
nonadecanoic acid n.d. n.d. 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.30 0.04 0.06 n.d. n.d. 0.14 0.11
∑ 2.79 6.03 13.60 15.50 18.50 20.70 14.10 18.30 15.00 15.10 16.00 17.00
a Not detected.

Table IV. Organic acids in Chinese rice wine samples.

Concentration (mg/mL)
Organic acid PA3 PA5 NH3 NH5 GYLS3 GYLS5 HW3 HW5 XS3 XS5 SZ3 SZ5
pyruvic acid 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.06
oxalic acid 0.13 0.14 0.47 0.38 0.37 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.19
succinic acid 0.38 0.39 0.40 0.34 0.39 0.38 0.29 0.41 0.26 0.24 0.18 0.24
malic acid 0.43 0.46 0.30 0.35 0.30 0.39 0.36 0.42 0.26 0.27 0.36 0.38
tartaric acid 0.99 1.04 1.68 1.00 0.93 0.92 1.48 1.73 1.20 1.20 0.62 0.57
citric acid 1.23 1.35 1.46 2.04 1.94 1.32 1.74 1.84 0.72 0.61 1.05 0.92
acetic acid 2.29 2.63 2.10 1.68 2.57 2.29 1.71 2.47 1.79 1.78 1.48 1.60
lactic acid 4.49 4.79 3.55 3.74 5.68 5.91 2.97 2.57 2.39 3.39 2.48 2.74
fumaric acid 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.05 n.d.a n.d. n.d. 0.03 n.d. n.d.
∑ 10.04 10.90 10.03 9.63 12.31 11.48 8.75 9.66 6.73 7.63 6.36 6.71
a Not detected.

were higher than those in other CRW samples. Seventeen
ester compounds were identified in all the CRW samples:
ethyl lactate, ethyl acetate, diethyl succinate, ethyl for-
mate, phenylethyl acetate, ethyl 2-hydroxy-4-methylvaler-
ate, ethyl butyrate, ethyl octylate, isoamyl acetate, γ-non-
anoic lactone, ethyl isovalerate, ethyl caproate, diethyl
suberate, ethyl phenylacetate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate
and ethyl decylate.
Nine aldehydes were identified in the twelve CRW
samples, with the concentration ranging from 3.63 to
15.08 mg/L. Among these aldehydes, nonaldehyde, cap-
raldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and 2-methyl-2-butenal were
first reported in CRW. This may be due to the different
polarity of micro-extraction fibre. Benzaldehyde and fur-
fural were the predominant aldehydes in all the samples,
accounting for more than 85% of the total aldehydes. The
acetaldehyde proportion was higher in the Guyue Long-
shan rice wine samples than that in the other CRW sam-
ples. Furthermore, the content of the aldehydes increased
with aging time. This reflects the oxidizing reaction of
alcohols during aging.
Free fatty acids in Chinese rice wine
Non-volatile compounds in CRW, including free fatty
acids, organic acids, and amino acids, were analyzed by
chromatography technology. The content of the free fatty
acids in the twelve CRW samples was generally very low,
and ranged from 2.8 to 18.3 mg/L. Generally fatty acids
lend an unpleasant taste, especially short-chain fatty ac-
ids, which have a rancid flavor, or a sweat smell and a
pungency. These include compounds such as butyric acid,
caproic acid, caprylic acid, and capric acid. However,
CRW is a complex system containing a variety of sub-
stances, which cover up each other and affect the flavor
jointly. A high content of free fatty acids may result in a
mellower taste. A few of the fatty acids in rice wine origi-
nate from the raw materials10, but most are released or
produced by yeast during the fermentation process9,15.
In addition, the main free fatty acids observed in the
CRW were palmitic acid and stearic acid, followed by
caproic acid and capric acid, while the content of other
acids only accounted for about 5%. The data in Table III
show that the samples with a 5 year aging time had a
higher content of free fatty acids than the samples with a
3 year aging time. Free fatty acids may be formed by pri-
mary alcohols oxidized slowly during the aging process.
Organic acids in Chinese rice wine
Acids play important roles in the flavor of Chinese rice
wine and the amount of organic acids directly affect the
taste. These acids originate from the raw materials re-
leased or developed during the following brewing proc-
esses: alcoholic fermentation, malolactic fermentation,
and oxidation of the ethanol14.
The data in Table IV show that lactic acid, acetic acid,
citric acid and tartaric acid were the primary acids, and
this is consistent with Guo et al.11 The total content of
these acids accounted for 90% of the total organic acids.
There was a higher content of organic acids, up to over
10,000 mg/L in the rice wines (PA, NH, GYLS) produced
in the Shaoxing area, while a lower content of organic
acids was found in the rice wines (XS, SZ) produced in

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Table V. Amino acids in Chinese rice wine samples.
Concentration (mg/L)
Amino acid PA3 PA5 NH3 NH5 GYLS3 GYLS5 HW3 HW5 XS3 XS5 SZ3 SZ5
sweet glycine 211 229 277 236 236 239 393 373 373 238 334 146
alanine 361 387 589 525 504 485 422 538 318 367 387 657
serine 41 45 62 48 47 46 43 65 31 44 24 19
threonine 80 83 135 101 94 88 115 162 95 98 75 71
cystine 12 12 22 16 14 12 11 12 9 9 7 6
methionine 4 1 59 32 15 4 34 59 28 12 18 17
proline 229 488 483 313 292 445 292 446 153 217 186 105
umami aspartic acid 203 246 340 259 240 251 238 332 167 229 136 118
glutamic acid 233 232 492 370 448 306 367 461 260 257 166 154
asparagine 3 3 4 4 11 7 2 3 5 2 2 2
glutamine 78 86 118 92 91 88 84 129 60 83 46 39
bitter histidine 63 53 109 87 88 59 60 89 54 51 32 29
arginine 401 421 464 414 405 398 393 560 332 367 278 232
valine 157 175 233 184 174 174 164 214 112 157 88 71
isolecine 102 117 173 128 118 129 113 146 82 116 61 48
leucine 253 293 380 313 286 288 278 371 215 269 180 136
phenylalanine 201 252 320 271 251 248 226 286 182 205 152 104
lysine 176 187 258 215 211 199 205 306 165 188 128 103
acerbity tyrosine 199 212 243 205 191 184 189 258 143 184 123 97
∑ 3007 3522 4761 3813 3716 3650 3629 4810 2784 3093 2423 2154

Jiangsu province. In the Guyue Longshan rice wine sam- Table VI. Eigenvalue, percentage of variance and cumulative percentage
ples, the content of lactic acid accounted for more than explained by the 11 principal components in CRW samples.
45% of the total organic acid content and it was signifi- Principal Extraction sum of squared loadings
cantly higher than in other samples. This may be related component Eigenvalue Variance (%) Cumulative (%)
to the traditional processes of the Zhejiang Guyue Long- 1 31.28 34.38 34.38
shan Shaoxing Wine Co. Ltd., where a large number of 2 17.83 19.60 53.97
lactic acid bacteria are present in the water of the soaked 3 13.90 15.27 69.24
rice added to the fermented mash, thus making a large 4 7.74 8.50 77.74
contribution to the higher lactic acid content. 5 6.76 7.43 85.17
6 4.40 4.84 90.01
Amino acids in Chinese rice wine 7 2.34 2.57 92.57
8 2.07 2.27 94.84
Amino acids are not only important for yeast nutrition, 9 1.91 2.10 96.95
but are also flavor precursor substances. Furthermore, as 10 1.55 1.71 98.65
11 1.23 1.35 100.00
one of the important components of CRW, amino acids
have various tastes, such as umami, sweet, bitter and acer-
bity. Amino acids derive mainly from the enzymatic deg-
radation of the protein in the raw material by protease in by eleven principal components, which were extracted
the wheat Qu. During fermentation, some amino acids are with eigenvalues higher than 1.0, which account for 100%
used by yeast as nutrients, whereas others are transformed of the total variance from the initial data set. It can be
into higher alcohols, and the residual become part of the seen from Table VI that the first five principal components
rice wine10. accounted for 85.17% of the total variance.
The data in Table V show that amino acids in rice wine The evaluation values of the first five principal compo-
are very abundant and differ in the CRW produced in dif- nents and synthetic evaluation value of each CRW sample
ferent regions, ranging from 2,154 to 4,810 mg/L. are listed in Table VII. The CRW samples GYLS3 and
Alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, GYLS5, manufactured by Zhejiang Guyue Longshan
leucine, and proline were the major amino acids among Shaoxing Rice Wine Company, had higher synthetic
all the amino acids in the CRW samples. Bitter tasting evaluation values. In addition they had a high evaluation
amino acids and sweet tasting amino acids accounted for value in the first principal component (PC1) and the third
more than 40% and 32% of the total amino acids, respec- principal component (PC3). PC1 and PC3 accounted for
tively. 34.38% and 15.27% of the total difference respectively.
The resulting score plot obtained from principal compo-
Characteristic flavor compounds of Guyue
nent analysis according to volatile/semi-volatile and non-
Longshan rice wine volatile compounds in CRW samples is shown in Fig. 1.
There were numerous flavor compounds identified in Clear separation of Chinese rice wine was observed in the
the CRW. Fifty four volatile and semi-volatile compounds score plot, class I and class III containing only GYLS and
and 39 non-volatile compounds were detected in this re- SZ corresponded to the traditional type and light type of
search. Experimental data of 93 original variables were CRW respectively.
examined by principal component analysis to visualise the To further investigate the characteristic flavor com-
response patterns in the feature space of principal compo- pounds of Guyue Longshan rice wine, two PCs explaining
nents (PC). Table VI presents the total variance explained about 50% of the total data variance were subsequently

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Table VII. The evaluation value of each CRW sample in the first 5 principal components and the synthetic evaluation
value.
Evaluation value
CRW PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 Synthetic evaluation value
PA3 1.70 –7.04 –3.98 0.61 0.64 –1.53
PA5 3.79 –6.33 –4.01 2.12 2.62 –0.20
NH3 4.21 4.54 –3.97 –1.62 –2.90 1.62
NH5 0.96 0.57 –2.17 –1.35 –3.43 –0.30
GYLS3 7.04 –1.15 3.92 –1.46 –2.53 2.91
GYLS5 8.28 –0.44 7.47 0.12 1.43 4.72
HW3 –1.30 2.88 –1.67 0.75 –0.30 –0.11
HW5 1.66 8.24 –1.81 4.52 2.50 2.91
XS3 –6.58 –0.51 –0.96 –3.67 –0.90 –3.39
XS5 –3.68 1.96 0.75 –5.12 5.31 –0.95
SZ3 –8.19 –1.49 2.51 2.73 –1.47 –3.05
SZ5 –7.89 –1.24 3.92 2.37 –0.97 –2.62

Fig. 1. Score plot obtained from principal component analysis according to volatile/semi-volatile and non-
volatile compounds in Chinese rice wine samples. See Table I for rice wine abbreviation descriptions.

chosen for analysis. The flavor compounds which have
positive loadings in both PC1 and PC3 are listed in Table
VIII. Among 38 ingredients, the compounds with loadings
of PC1 and PC3 both more than 0.07, had a greater contri-
bution to the unique flavor of Guyue Longshan rice wine.
Seventeen ingredients including benzaldehyde, acetalde-
hyde, ethyl 2-hydroxy-4-methylvalerate, ethyl butyrate,
phenyl ethyl isobutyrate, ethyl benzoate, ethyl phenylace-
tate, methyl dodecanoate, methyl oleate, ethyl dede-
canoate, 1-butanol, 3-ethoxyl-1-propanol, 1-enanthol,
dodecanol, lactic acid, fumaric acid and lauric acid were
considered as the characteristic flavor compounds of Gu-
yue Longshan rice wine.
CONCLUSIONS
The flavor compounds of CRW were systematically
studied by chromatography technologies. Volatile and
semi-volatile compounds were extracted by HS-SPME
and then analyzed by GC-MS. In twelve CRW samples,
54 volatile and semi-volatile compounds were identified.
There were 29 ester compounds in CRW, within the con-
centration range of 74.8 to 157.6 mg/L. The amount of
various higher alcohols, except for ethanol, was the maxi-
mum of volatile and semi-volatile compounds in the
CRW, within a concentration range of 127.1 to 270.3
mg/L. Nine kinds of aldehydes were found in the CRW,
within a concentration range of 3.6 to 15.1 mg/L. Non-
volatile flavor compounds including 11 fatty acids, 19
amino acids and 9 organic acids were identified by multi-
level solvent gas chromatography or high performance
liquid chromatography. Stearic acid and palmitic acid
were the main fatty acids in the CRW. Lactic acid and
acetic acid were the primary organic acids. Statistical
analysis by principal component analysis indicated that 17
flavor compounds in the Guyue Longshan rice wine had a
greater contribution to its special flavor. These com-
pounds were benzaldehyde, acetaldehyde, ethyl 2-hy-
droxy-4-methylvalerate, ethyl butyrate, phenyl ethyl iso-
butyrate, ethyl benzoate, ethyl phenylacetate, methyl
dodecanoate, methyl oleate, ethyl dedecanoate, 1-butanol,
3-ethoxyl-1-propanol, 1-enanthol, dodecanol, lactic acid,
fumaric acid and lauric acid.
In conclusion, the present study has defined the charac-
teristic flavor compounds of Guyue Longshan rice wine
with multivariate statistical analysis. It provides value
information regarding the characteristic flavor compounds
of Guyue Longshan rice wine and could aid researchers or
brewers to carry out further studies to improve the quality
of rice wine by processing or changes of raw materials.

188 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of volatiles in grapes by dynamic headspace analysis: applica-
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Excellent Talents in the University (No. NCET-08-0790), the Chromatogr. A, 1999, 847(1-2), 155-159.
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technology, Ministry of Education, China (No. KLIB- Sikorski, M. and De Keukeleire, D., Discrimination of beer fla-
KF200709), the Qinglan Project of Jiangsu Province and the vours by analysis of volatiles using the mass spectrometer as an
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18. Wang, L., Xu, Y., Zhao, G. and Li, J., Rapid analysis of flavor
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