XVI Danube - European Conference on Geotechnical Engineering

07-09 June 2018, Skopje, R. Macedonia

Paper No. 073

The use of the grading entropy as a measure of the soil texture maturity
IMRE Emoke1, FITYUS Stephen2
1
PhD, Reader; Obuda University, Hungary; imreemok@hotmail.com
2
PhD, Professor; The University of Newcastle, Australia; stephen.fityus@newcastle.edu.au

Abstract. In this study, the concept of grading entropy is applied to evaluate the textural evolution of waste
rocks at the surface of rehabilitated mine dumps. A series of mine-spoil samples that were collected from
topsoils and subsoils at sites of mine rehabilitation that had been established for different periods of time.
According to the results, the increase in particle degradation which occurs nearer to the rehabilitated surface
could be observed in changes in the grading curve, and numerically accounted for through changes in the
grading entropy. The samples showed similar trends to the soils in many fragmentation problems: a near-fractal
distribution, outside of the unstable zone of the grading entropy diagram. The samples plotted in the transitional
stability zone, with the most stable sample being the natural sub soil. However, unlike fragmentation by
crushing, the largest fragments were not necessarily preserved through a cushioning by the smaller particles.

Keywords: Open Pit Mine, Rehabilitation, Fractal, Internal Stability, Entropy

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The grading entropy

1.1.1 Grading curve space

A full theoretical background to the grading entropy concept is given in Lőrincz (1996, et al., 2005,
2015). To begin, an abstract fraction system is defined in terms of a “smallest diameter” do which may
be practically taken as equal to the height of SiO4 tetrahedron (do=2-22 mm). The diameter range for
fraction j (j =1, 2... see Table 1, Lőrincz, 1996, Imre and Talata 2017) is given by:

2 j d 0  d  2 j-1 d 0 , (1)

The exponent j can be thought of as a fraction serial number or base-2 log diameter value. In this work
j is a dimensionless integer, abstract diameter variable. Grain sizes for each fraction are in Table 1.
The relative frequencies of the fractions xi (i = 1, 2..N) in a grading curve fulfil the following equation:
N
 xi  1, xi  0, N  1 (2)
i 1

which defines an N-1 dimensional, closed simplex, if the relative frequencies xi are identified with the
barycentre coordinates of the simplex. A range or a space of the grading curves with N fractions and
minimum fraction jmin can be identified with an N-1 dimensional, closed simplex. The vertices of the
simplex represent the fractions (Table 1).

Table 1. Definition of fractions, fraction (eigen-) entropies

j 1 .. 23 24
Limits do to 2 do .. 222 do to 223 do 223 do to 224 do
Soj [-] 1 .. 23 24

© Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · ce/papers 2 (2018), Nos. 2 & 3
https://doi.org/10.1002/cepa.742 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cepa 639
Imre, Fityus/ DECGE 2018

1.2 Grading entropy parameters

The grading entropy S is a statistical entropy of the grading curve, modified for the unequal cells
(fraction d-s are doubled). It can be expressed as the sum of two parts, given by parameters as follows:
1
S  S  So where S    xi ln xi and So   xi Soi   xi i (3)
ln 2 xi  0

In (3), S is the entropy increment, So is the base entropy, Soi is the i-th fraction entropy (Table 1).
These can be normalised to give the relative base entropy A and the normalised entropy increment B:
N N
 xi (Soi  So min )  xi (i  1)
So  So min i 1 i 1 S
A=   , and B  . (4)
So max  So min N 1 N 1 ln N

where So max and So min are the entropies of the largest and the smallest fractions, respectively.

The base entropy So is a weighed mean of the fraction serial number, which depends linearly on the
log2 diameter, d. Any decrease in the base entropy So can be explained by the decrease of the mean
grain diameter e.g. due to degradation or breakage. Any increase in the base entropy So can be
explained by the increase of the mean grain diameter e.g. due to aggregation. The relative base entropy
A indicates the relative distance of the mean diameter within the range of the log2 diameter values.

The entropy increment ΔS and its normalised version B are the logarithm of the weighted generalized
geometrical mean of the relative frequencies of the fractions xj (j = 1, 2, 3...N), having maximum
values of lnN/ln2 and 1/ln2, respectively. For those grading curves, in which all N fractions are well
represented, the entropy increment is typically close to the maximum value.

1.1.2 Grading entropy diagrams

Four diagrams can be defined as the image of a grading curve space (i.e. N-1 dimensional, open
simplex) in the two dimensional space of the entropy coordinates, as the image of the four map, called
non-normalized  [S0,S]; normalized [A,B]; two partly normalized  [A,S] or  [S0, B].
The diagrams are symmetric and compact, having a minimum and a maximum boundary lines (Fig. 1).

For a fixed N and A, there is a single grading curve with maximum entropy increment B, called
optimal or fractal grading curve. Its coordinates, depending on parameter a, are as follows:
1 1 a N
x1   , x j  x1 a j 1 ,  a j 1 [ j  1  A( N  1)]  0 (5)
N
a
j 1 1 a N
j 1
j 1

The optimal grading curves have fractal distribution, with the fractal dimension n, given by:
log a
n 3 (6)
log 2

The value of the fractal dimension n varies from 3 to -  on the A>0.5 side of the normalised diagram.
The value of n varies from 3 to  on the A<0.5 side of the normalised diagram. The value of n is 3 on
the symmetry axis of the diagram, independent of N, where A is 0.5 and a is 1.

Diagrams of the same type can be represented together (multiple diagrams) to facilitate the
comparison of the different soil materials or to represent the grading entropy path during breakage
where N (and, the grading curve space) is changing. In terms of non-normalized coordinates, disjunct
grading curve spaces map into disjunct spaces, the path is continuous. In the normalized diagram, the
the path is discontinuous if N is changing since disjunct grading curve spaces may partly overlap.
The maximum B lines coincide at the symmetry axis, nearly coincide otherwise, with equation:

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N
ai 1 (i  1)  a ( N 1) a N  Na N  1 1 
1  a i 1  1 a

a 1 ( N 1) a N  N 1
( N 1)

A= 1
,a 1, B= ln  ln a . (7)
1 aN N 1 ln N ln 2  1  a N 
 

1.1.3 Internal stability

If A > 2/3 then enough large grains are present in a mixture to form a skeleton and a stable soil matrix
(Lőrincz et al, 2015, see the unstable zone on in Figs 1, 2), indicating internal stability, whereby the
coarse particles “float” in the matrix of the fines if A < 2/3. The internal stability criterion for
elongated grading curves includes a transitional zone, its boundary connects the maximum entropy
points with fraction numbers less than N. Considering the maximum B line (ie., the optimal or fractal
grading curves only), the soil is stable if n < 2 (indepently of N, A), transitional between A=2/3 (n is
varying in the function of N), and n=2 (Imre and Talata, 2017).

1.1.4 The grading entropy to describe breakage in laboratory and fragmentation in nature
When crushing processes are considered in the laboratory, it is found that the mean diameter decreases
while the maximum diameter value is fixed due to the cushioning effect. As a result, the base entropy
So decreases and the entropy increment ΔS increases (being possibly related to the entropy principle).

Concerning the normalized entropy path, for constant N, after reaching it, the normalized entropy
paths follow the maximum entropy increment line in its increasing direction in every case. In doing so,
they pass through maximum entropy point. If the number of the fractions N is increasing since some
new fractions appear then there is a sudden increase occurs in the relative base entropy A, drifting the
path to the A > 2/3 (more stable) part of the entropy diagram (Imre and Talata, 2017).

The fragmentation phenomena in nature are described by a power law distribution (Kun, 2017, Maio,
Airey, 2013). The size distribution of fragments with fractal dimension n:

N (   d ) ~ d (  n)
(8)
where N is number of particles that have diameters  below the size d, (Miao & Airey 2013, Kun 2017).
The fractal distributions in the nature are 2.2 to 2.96, being related to the transitional stability zone.

These results are in accordance to the results of breakage tests (since the mixtures are on the maximum
entropy increment line, having fractal distribution) with the comment that although the fractal
dimension n may vary from minus to plus infinity, only stable fractal dimensions occur in nature.
Norm. entropy increment, B [-]

maximum line
Entropy increment, S [-]

app. minimum line

maximum line
app. minimum line
N=10
2.0 N=6
0.8 N=5

N=2 N=40

0.0 0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Relative base entropy, A [-] Relative base entropy, A [-]
(a) (b)
Figure 1. The maximum and the minimum lines of the entropy diagrams, depending on N. (a) Partly-normalized
coordinates: where maximum lines vary; approx. minimum lines are constant, being equal to the N=2 maximum
line. (b) Normalized coordinates: approximate minimum lines for N=5 and 40; maximum lines related to N=2
and 40 (coinciding at A=0.5, at the symmetry axis and differing for other A values).

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1.3 The aim of paper

Rehabilitation of mine sites is carried out to create stable and self-sustaining post-mining landforms.
The landforms are mostly constructed from waste rock materials, with or without reinstatement of the
original topsoils. Where topsoils are not reinstated, weathering and degradation of the waste rock
materials must be relied upon to create new surface soils. Vegetation is used to stabilize soil,
contribute to soil development, create a habitat for wildlife, allow for the productive use of the land
after mining is complete, and improve the aesthetics of the landscape.

Viable surface soils have favourable water retention properties and are preferred hosts for biological
activity. Even though microorganisms form only about 2-4% of the soil organic matter (SOM), their
activity is among the principal processes of soil formation (Follett et al, 2001). Water retention and
healthy microorganism activity is dependent on the soil particle size distribution.

The objective of the paper is to assess soil development in mine rehabilitation through degradation of
waste rock over time. This is done by studying the textural evolution of topsoil and sub-soil layers of
landforms created only from waste rock, using the grading entropy concept applied to measured
grading curve data. mIn this work it is assumed that the same behaviour can be expected during the
irreversible degradation of waste rock exposed to the near surface environment, as the general
fragmentation phenomena in nature or the breakage in lab condition: degradation may result in the
decrease in the mean diameter and an increase in the entropy increment value.

2 METHODS AND RESULTS

The samples came from sedimentary rock waste dumps of an open pit coal mine in the Hunter Valley
of Australia, which the owners had been rehabilitating progressively. The sampling sites included:

 Control Area, just rehabilitated, 0 year old, waste rock.

 Area 98 (2 samples), 8 years since rehab. with tree planting but no reinstatement of original topsoil
 Area 92(3 samples), 14 years since rehab. with tree planting but no reinstatement of original topsoil
 Area B (2 samples), 2 years since rehab. with tree planting but no reinstatement of original topsoil.
 Undisturbed area, with topsoils naturally formed from the same geological parent materials.

The samples were obtained by digging, taking care to avoid excessive particle breakage. Separate
samples were taken from both the upper 150mm (the “topsoil”), and from the soil between 150 and
300mm deep (the “subsoil”). In the laboratory, the collected samples were oven dried and gently
sieved down to 150 microns using standard procedures. The material passing 150 microns was then
analysed using a Malvern laser diffraction particle sizer, down to a fine particle size of 0.5 microns. A
detailed account of the site, sampling and testing methods is provided in Jardine (2006)

The entropy coordinates were computed, as per Table 2, and represented in the grading entropy
diagrams of Figure 2. In Figure 2, all samples are situated close to the maximum entropy increment
line, in the transitional stability zone. The only near-stable samples were the soils that had formed on
the same site naturally (the undisturbed subsoils). The fractal dimension was also computed and it was
found that all samples had basically a finite fractal distribution, with fractal dimension 2.5 to 2.8.

Seventeen size fractions were identified in the data (N=17). The grading curves for each soil layer at
each site are shown in Figure 3. Where more than one specimen was collected from a site, average
grading curves are shown. Figure 3 (left) shows that the topsoil layers are consistently finer than the
subsoil layers for the same site, indicating that greater degradation has occurred nearer to the surface,
as expected. This is the same for all sites, regardless of age, and including the control site, where time
since rehabilitation was very short. This is not unexpected, however, as Fityus et al (2015) observes

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that some coal measures rocks are so sensitive to moisture changes and unloading that they show signs
of significant degradation within days of being excavated and exposed at the surface.

Figure 3 (right) compares the gradings of topsoils at different ages. Whilst there is a steady reduction
in grainsize from 2 to 8 to 14 years, the results for the control (0 years) are inconsistent with the trend,
and exactly contrary to expectation. This is likely to reflect either a spatial variability or, due to
thixotropy followed the remolding of the soil (Mitchell, 1976) which may vanish in the
meteorologically exposed soil.

Norm. entropy increment, B [-]

N=40
transi
Entropy increment, S [-]

tion top
N=17 sub
4.0 undist
transi top
tion sub
0.8
undistsub
unstable
stable

0.0 0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Relative base entropy, A [-] Relative base entropy, A [-]
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Degradation of waste rock in open pit mine rehabilitation. Topsoil and subsoil sample pairs in the (a)
partly-normalized diagram and (b) in the N=17 related normalized diagram, with the internal stability criteria
shown (the topsoil samples are more degraded, open symbol: topsoil layer, closed symbol: subsoil layer).

Figure 3. The mean grading curves for each site (left) Mean grading curves for topsoil layers only (right)

Table 2. Examples of entropy parameter computations.

N [-] So max [-] or So min [-] or ∆S [-] So [-] or A [-] or B [-] Sample
fraction # Dmax Dmin Dmean Dmean symbol
17 18 2 2.11 16.76 0.92 0.75 Undistsub
17 18 2 2.84 15.30 0.83 1.00 Undisttop
17 18 2 3.36 14.31 0.77 1.19 Controlsub
17 18 2 3.40 12.30 0.64 1.20 Controltop
17 18 2 3.22 14.41 0.78 1.14 98sub
17 18 2 3.40 12.30 0.64 1.20 98top
15 18 4 3.04 14.82 0.77 1.12 92sub
16 17 2 3.20 12.47 0.70 1.15 92top

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3 DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

Since the entropy increment ∆S, and its normalised version B, are related to the entropy principle, they
are expected to increase during processes of irreversible degradation. Conversely, the base entropy So,
which is a kind of dimensionless mean log diameter, is expected to decrease during degradation.

According to the results, using the entropy parameters, it was found that the time evolution of the
grading curves with typically 17 fractions showed, decreasing mean diameter or base entropy and
increasing entropy increment with increasing depth, according to expectation. The distinct difference
for all sub and top samples was evident: the topsoil was more degraded.

Of note in the results is the absence of the largest fraction from some topsoils, and the smallest
fractions missing from some subsoils, indicating that the degradation in this context is meteorological,
and that the “cushion” effect (that is observed in crushing situations; Miao and Airey, 2013) is not
defending the largest particles.

In agreement with the earlier fragmentation data, the grading curves were plotted in the transitional
stability zone on the entropy diagram, close to the maximum entropy increment line, having near-
finite fractal distribution with fractal dimensions between 2.5 and 2.8. The undisturbed subsoil formed
over geological time, was the most stable, according to the expectations.

It can be concluded that (i) the grading entropy parameters may be used to describe the extent of
degradation of soils in mine rehabilitation processes, (ii) the grading entropy-based internal stability
criteria may be used to describe the internal stability of both the artificial and natural soil formations.

Further theoretical and experimental research is suggested not only on the soil science and soil physics
part (maturity concept, thixotropy effects after earth works in mines) but also on the grading entropy
related soil mechanical part, on the physical differences between the transitionally stable and stable
zones of the grading entropy criterion. Soils which lie in the transitionally zone are susceptible to
liquefaction (Goudarzy 2015, Rahemi 2017, Imre and Talata, 2017), suggesting that some additional
research may be warranted. The risks are generally low, however, as post-mining landforms are
usually topographically elevated and seldom experience fully saturated conditions.

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