Distribution Systems

Introduction
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known
as distribution system.

In the general distribution system is the electric system between the substation
fed by the transmitting system and the consumers’ meters.

It mostly consists of feeders, distributors, and the service main.

Figure shows the single-line diagram of a typical low-tension distribution system.
Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most significant
factor responsible for delivering expert service to the consumers. For this purpose,
design of feeders and distributors requires careful consideration.

•Feeders. A feeder is a conductor which

connects the substation to the area where
power is to be distributed.

•Distributor. A distributor is a conductor

from which tapings are taken for supply to
the consumers. In Figure; AB, BC, CD, and
DA are the distributors. The size and length
of the distributor should be such that
voltage at the consumer’s terminals is
within the permissible limits.

•Service mains. A service main is generally

a small cable which connects the
distributor to the consumer’s terminal.
Classification of Distribution Systems

A distribution system may be classified in various ways:

1.According to nature of current,

a. dc distribution systems
b. ac distribution systems

2.According to the type of construction,

a. Overhead systems
b. Underground systems

3.According to the scheme of connection,

a. Radial systems
b. Ring main systems
c. Interconnected systems

4.According to the number of wires,

a. Two-wire systems
b. Three-wire systems
c. Four-wire systems

5.According to the character of service,

a. General light and power

b. Industrial power
c. Railway
d. Street lighting
DC Distribution

It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively

generated, transmitted, and distributed as ac.
However, for certain applications, dc supply is absolutely necessary. For
instance, dc supply is required for the operation of variable speed
machinery (i.e., dc motors), for electrochemical work and for congested
areas where storage battery reserves are necessary.
For this purpose, ac power is converted into dc power at the substation by
using converting machinery, for example, mercury arc rectifiers, rotary
converters, and motor-generator sets.
The dc supply from the substation may be obtained in the form of

(a) two wires

(b) three wires

for distribution.
Two-Wire DC System

This system of distribution consists of two wires. One is the outgoing or

positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire.
The loads such as lamps, motors, etc., are connected in parallel
between the two wires as shown in Figure.

This system is never used for transmission purposes due to low

efficiency but may be employed for distribution of dc power.
Three-Wire DC System

It consists of two outer and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the
substation. The voltage of the outer is twice the voltage between outer and
neutral wire, as shown in Figure.

The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two voltage
at the consumer terminals, i.e., V between any outer and the neutral and 2V
at the outer.

Loads requiring high voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outer,
whereas lamps and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected
between outer and neutral.
Connection Schemes of Distribution System

All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In

practice, the following distribution circuits are generally used.
Radial System

In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the
distributors at one end only.
Figure shows a single-line diagram of a radial system for dc distribution,
where a feeder OC supplies a distributor AB at point A. Obviously, the
distributor is fed at one end only, that is, point A is this case.
Figure shows a single-line diagram of radial system for ac distribution. The
radial system is employed only when power is generated at low voltage,
and the substation is located at the center of the load.
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks:

1. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily
loaded.

2. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.

Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.

3. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected

to serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor
changes.
Ring Main System

In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop circuit
starts from the substation bus bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and
returns to the substation.
Figure shows the single-line diagram of ring main system for ac distribution, where
substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.
The distributors are tapped from different points M, O, and Q of the feeder through
distribution transformers.
Advantages:
There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the
event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is
maintained. For example, suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section
SLM of the feeder. Then section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs
and at the same time continuity of supply is maintained to all the consumers
via the feeder SRQPONM.
Interconnected System
When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called interconnected system.
Figure shows the single-line diagram of interconnected system where the closed
feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C,
respectively. Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q, and R of the feeder ring
through distribution transformers.
Advantages:

1. It increases the service reliability.

2. Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed
from the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and
increases efficiency of the system.
Types of DC Distributors

The most general method of classifying dc distributors is the way they are
fed by the feeders. On this basis, dc distributors are classified as

• Distributor fed at one end

• Distributor fed at both ends
• Distributor fed at the center
• Ring distributor
Distributor Fed at One End

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at one end,
and loads are taken at different points along the length of the distributor.
Figure shows the single-line diagram of a dc distributor AB fed at the end A
(also known as singly fed distributor) and loads I1, I2, and I3 tapped off at
points C, D, and E, respectively.
The following points are worth noting in a singly fed distributor:
1. The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding
point goes on decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the
current in section CD and current in section CD is more than the current in
section DE.
2. The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on
decreasing. Thus in Figure, the minimum voltage occurs at the load point E.
3. In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor
will have to be disconnected from the supply mains.
Distributor Fed at Both Ends
The distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and loads are
tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor.

The voltage at the feeding points may or may not be equal.

Figure shows a distributor AB fed at the ends A and B and loads of I1, I2, and
I3 tapped off at points C, D, and E, respectively. Here, the load voltage goes on
decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say A, reaches minimum
value, and then again starts rising and reaches maximum value when we
reach the other feeding point B.
Advantages:

1. If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity

of supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
2. In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of
supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
3. The area of cross-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much
less than that of a singly fed distributor.
Distributor Fed at the Center

In this type of feeding, the center of the distributor is connected to the

supply mains as shown in Figure.

It is equivalent to two singly fed distributors, each distributor having a

common feeding point and length equal to half of the total length.
Ring Mains

The distributor is in the form of a closed ring as shown in Figure.

It is equivalent to a straight distributor fed at both ends with equal voltage,
the two ends being brought together to form a closed ring.
The distributor ring may be fed at one or more than one point.
AC Distribution
One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in
preference to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be
conveniently changed in magnitude by means of a transformer.
It can be classified as follows.

• Primary Distribution System

• Secondary Distribution System

Primary Distribution System

Part of ac distribution system which operates at voltage somewhat higher

than general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy than
the average low-voltage consumer uses.

The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of
power to be conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be
fed.

The most commonly used primary distribution voltage are 11, 6.6, and
3.3 kV. Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried
out by three-phase, three-wire system.
Figure shows a typical primary distribution system. Electric power from the
generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the substation located in
or near the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with
the help of step-down transformer. Power is supplied to various substations
for distribution or to big consumers at this voltage.
Secondary Distribution System
Part of ac distribution system which includes the range of voltage at which
the ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to consumer.
The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, three-phase, four-wire
system.

The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called

distribution substations. The substations are situated near the consumers’
localities and contain step down transformers. At each distribution
substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is delivered by
three-phase, four-wire ac system. The voltage between any two phases is
400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single-phase
domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral,
whereas three-phase, 400-V motor loads are connected across three-phase
lines directly.
A (3-ph / 4 wire) secondary distribution system
AC Distribution Calculation

AC distribution calculations differ from those of dc distribution in the

following respects:
In case of dc system, the voltage drop is due to resistance alone. However, in
ac system, the voltage drops are due to the combined effects of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.
In a dc system, additions and subtractions of current or voltage are done
arithmetically but in case of ac system, these operations are done vectorially.
In an ac system, power factor has to be taken into account. Loads connected
from the distributor are generally at different power factors.

There are two ways of referring power factor.

a. It may be referred to supply or receiving end voltage which is
regarded as the reference vector.
b. It may be referred to the voltage at the load point itself.
 Methods of Solving AC Distribution Problems

1. Power Factors Referred to Receiving End Voltage

Consider an ac distributor AB with concentrated loads of I1 and I2 tapped off at

points C and B as shown in Fig.
Taking the receiving end voltage VB as the reference vector, let lagging power
factors at C and B be cos ϕ1 and cos ϕ2 wrt VB.
Let R1, X1, and R2, X2 be the resistance and reactance of sections AC and CB of
the distributor.
Impedance of section AC ZAC = R1+jX1

Impedance of section CB ZCB = R2+jX2

Load current at point C I1 = I1(cosϕ1−jsinϕ1)

Load current at point B I2 = I2(cosϕ2−jsinϕ2)

Current in section CB ICB = I2 = I2(cosϕ2−jsinϕ2)

Current in section AC IAC = I1 + I2 = I1 (cosϕ1−jsinϕ1) + I2 (cosϕ2−jsinϕ2)

Voltage drop in section CB VCB = ICB ZCB = I2 (cosϕ2−jsinϕ2) (R2+jx2)

Voltage drop in section AC

VAC = IAC ZAC = (I1+I2) ZAC =[ I1 (cosϕ1 − jsinϕ1) + I2 (cosϕ2 − jsinϕ2) ] (R1 + jx1)

Sending end voltage VA = VB + VCB + VAC

Sending end current IA = I1 + I2

The vector diagram of the ac distributor under this condition is shown in Fig.
Here, the receiving end voltage VB is taken as the reference vector. As power
factors of loads are given wrt VB, I1 and I2 lag behind VB by ϕ1 and ϕ2,
respectively.
2. Power Factors Referred to Respective Load Voltage

Suppose the power factors of loads are referred to their respective load voltage. Then
ϕ1 is the phase angle between VC and I1 and ϕ2 is the phase angle between VB and I2.
The vector diagram of the ac distributor under this condition is shown in Fig.
Solution
by definition
150 A 150 A
 Source of Presentation

Sadhu, Pradip K. Elements of Power Systems. CRC Press, 20160212. VitalBook file.