Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Anatomical position: That of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The
upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward
Anatomy is the structure of the human body. The study of anatomy entails the dissection of muscles and organs.
Exercise science requires a fundamental understanding of the human body with less emphasis on the internal organs. It is
imperative for an exercise leader to have an elementary and basic understanding of the human anatomy.
Understanding the human body and its functions will enable the exercise leader to be more knowledgeable and effective
in their professional responsibilities of program design for group and individual exercises.
Plane: A: Sagittal / Median Plane B: Coronal / Frontal Plane C: Transverse / Horizontal Plane
Definition: Longitudinal line that divides Longitudinal line that divides Imaginary line that divides the
the body / any of its parts into the body into anterior and body or any of its parts into
right and left sections posterior parts superior and inferior
Movements of flexion and Movements of abduction and Movements of medial and lateral
Movement: extension take place in the adduction (lateral flexion) take rotation take place in the
sagittal plane. place in the coronal plane. transverse plane.
Directional Terms
• Anterior (or ventral) Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are anterior
to the foot.
• Posterior (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is
posterior to the patella.
• Superior (or cranial) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper.
• Inferior (or caudal) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or
toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is inferior to the
abdomen.
• Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the
digits.
• Medial describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the medial toe.
• Proximal describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.
• Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
• Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones.
• Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull.
TERMS OF MOVEMENT
Tissue which lies immediately deep to the skin known as subcutaneous tissue. It usually consists
of a layer of connective tissue which contains fat, and of a deep and more fibrous layer which
Fascia adheres to the surface of the underlying muscle and vessels. These layers are known as superficial
and deep fascia respectively. Fascia surrounds every muscle, organ, vessel and nerve in the body.
Fasciculus A small bundle. A term that is usually applied to collections of nerve fibers.
Literally means a “thread”. This name is given to several thread‐like structures such as the
Filum filum terminal, the lower extension of the pia mater of the spinal cord.
Fold A ridge formed where a membrane doubles back on itself
Folium Mean leaf. The plural “folia” is applied to the folds of the cortex of the cerebellum.
Foramen A hole, often in a bone or between adjacent bones.
Fossa A “ditch”, usually referring to a shallow depression or cavity.
Fovea A small pit or fossa
Frenulum A small fold of the mucous coat which limits the movement of the structure to which it is attached
Fundus Used to denote the widest part of a hollow organ
Ganglion A swelling on the course of a nerve. Usually corresponds to a collection of nerve cells.
Genu Means knee. Geniculum is sometimes applied to a bent part of a structure.
Gyrus A fold or convolution of the cerebral cortex.
Hilum A depression or notch where blood vessels enter or leave an organ.
Humor Applied to fluids of the eye.
Infundibulum A funnel‐shaped passage.
An interlocking of structures by finger‐like processes, as when the fingers of the two
Interdigitate hands are interposed.
A process when part of a wall of a structure is pushed inwards to that the structure which
Invaginate invaginates the membrane becomes partly unsheathed by it.
A narrow part of a duct or other passage, or a narrow strip of tissue connecting two wider parts
Isthmus of an organ.
BONES
The human skeleton consists of 206 bones. At birth bones are made up of cartilage, but, as the baby grows into a child,
calcium forms, hardening the cartilage to become bone. Bones that are developed have a compact outer layer and a
honeycomb – like inner structure. The bones are complex and remodel themselves according to the stress they are put under.
The skeleton renews itself every two to ten years.
Bone tissue consists of about two thirds mineral components (mostly calcium and salts) which give ridges, and one third
organic components which give elasticity. Both components are essential. Without ridges bones would not keep their shape,
and without elasticity, they would break and shatter.
IRREGULAR BONES ‐ are bones that are not of regular shape characterized such as vertebrae bones and some hip and skull bones
SHORT BONES ‐ cube like bones that are comprised of mostly “spongy bone” such as wrists and ankles.
LONG BONES ‐ consists of a shaft and two extremities and are long as opposed to wide. Limb bones ‐ except the bones of the
wrist, knee (patella) and ankle ‐ are long bones. Such as the femur and humerus.
SESAMOID BONES ‐ can therefore be cartilage covered bone that develop in a tendon. They occur in areas where the tendon
is compressed against a body surface. The sesamoid bone can slide on the surface and prevent occlusion of the blood supply
during compression e.g. the patella (knee) or the ball of the big toe.
Structure of bones:
Cartilage
Cartilage covers articulating surfaces of bones (where the joint is found). It is the non‐ calcified tissue of the skeleton and
protects the underlying bone tissue. Joint cartilage (like all cartilage) does not contain blood vessels. It receives nutrients from
the synovial fluid and the bone that surrounds it.
Cartilage can get damaged by trauma or excessive wear. Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis are the two main diseases
involving damage to the joint cartilage. It causes pain and stiffness of the joint and surrounding muscles.
Bone marrow
The hollow part of the bone contains bone marrow. The marrow is red in children but becomes yellow in adults, as much is
replaced by fatty tissue.
Periosteum
It is the membrane which covers the external bone.
The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton:
Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton
− Cranium − Scapula
− Cervical vertebrae − Clavicle
− Thoracic vertebrae − Humerus
− Lumbar vertebrae − Ulna
− Sacral vertebrae − Radius
− Sternum − Carpals
− Ribs − Metacarpals
− Coccyx − Phalanges
− Ilium
− Ischium
− Pubis
− Femur
− Patella
− Tibia
− Fibula
− Tarsals
− Calcaneus
− Metatarsals
JOINTS
Joints are points of the body where two bones meet. There is often movement between them (but, sometimes not).
Joints have two main functions: to allow mobility of the skeletal system and to provide a protective enclosure for vital
organs.
JOINT CLASSIFICATIONS
IMMOVABLE JOINTS (FIBROUS)
These joints are also called “fixed” or “immovable” joints, because they do not
move. These joints have no joint cavity and are connected via fibrous connective
tissue. The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints.
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
These joints also have no joint cavity and the bones are connected
tightly to each other with cartilage. These joints only allow a small
amount of movement, so are also called “partly” or “slightly
moveable” joints. The vertebrae are examples of cartilaginous joints.
SYNOVIALJOINTS
Most of the joints in the body are synovial joints. These joints are “freely movable”
and are 16 characterized by being surrounded by an articular capsule which contains
the synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the joints, supplies nutrients to the
cartilage and it contains cells that remove microbes and debris within the joint cavity.
Because of the larger range of
movements of these joints, there is an increased risk of injury e.g. dislocations. Synovial
joints are located predominantly in limbs.
Many synovial joints also have ligaments either inside or outside the capsule.
HINGE JOINTS: Allows a singular plane of motion, i.e. flexion and extension, such as the elbow and knee.
BALL ANDSOCKET JOINTS: Allows a free range of movements i.e. flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
and circumduction, such as the shoulder and hip joints.
PIVOT JOINTS: Allows uniaxial rotation. i.e. moving from side to side such as the neck.
PLANEJOINT: Allows short gliding or slipping motions because surface of the bones is flat, such as the vertebral joints.
CONDYLOID JOINT: Allows movement in two planes of motion i.e. flexion, extension, adduction or
abduction, such as the knuckle joints.
Some examples of the knowledge application of the Ball and Socket Joint can be demonstrated by doing the
following:
Free rotation in all directions so we can swing our arms around and behind us to swim or throw a ball, raise our
arms over our heads to do exercises, or perform the fine back and forth movements to play a violin.
Knee stirs:
to perform knee stirs, bend one knee and place your hand against your shin. Then stabilize your supporting side and
make five clockwise and five counter‐clockwise circles with your bent leg. Switch sides and repeat. (Knee flexion and
extension)
CONDYLOID JOINT
Some examples of the knowledge application of the Condyloid Joint can be demonstrated by doing the following
exercise:
Wrist Flexion
Bend the fingers towards the forearm;
Extension
Straighten the wrist so that it is on the same plane as the forearm.
Hyperextension
Bend the wrist as far back as possible towards the outer part of the forearm. Extend the norm of normal range of
motion
PLANE OR GLIDINGJOINT
Intercarpal joints
Movement: Acromioclavicular joints,
These joins can move in Vertebral transverse and
many directions and they Spinous processes
can rotate and twist.
Ankle and wrist joints
Some examples of Knowledge application of the Plane and Gliding Joint can be demonstrated by doing the following
exercise:
− Ankle movement
− Flex the wrist
TYPES OF JOINTS
HINGE JOINT
Some examples of the knowledge application of the Hinge Joint can be demonstrated by doing the following exercise:
Swimming
Elbow, or arm, flexion is moving your forearm and hand toward your body by bending the elbow joint, while elbow
extension is moving in the opposite direction.
Push Up, Pull Ups These two exercises involve elbow flexion and extension.
For pushups, place your hands on the ground about shoulder‐width apart and your feet slightly apart on your toes.
Tighten your buttocks as you lower your body toward the ground until your chest and hips almost touch the
ground. Keep your elbows close to your body. Exhale and push yourself off the ground, keeping your head in
alignment with your spine and hip.
For pull‐ups, grab both hands on a pull‐up bar or similar apparatus about shoulder‐width apart. Exhale, and pull
yourself up until your chin clears over the bar. Lower yourself down until your arms are fully extended. For each
exercise, perform three sets of 10 to 12 reps
PIVOT JOINT
Pivot joints use a twisting motion as the neck turning from side to side and the elbow’s ability to supinate, or turn
the hand up, or pronate, turning the hand down. The radius and ulna in the forearm are true pivot joints in that
there is no other action they perform. Although these two joints appear to move in other planes, those actions result
from proximal joints attached to these bones located closer to the body. The neck’s ability to bend forward and
back results from vertebral movement, and the elbow’s ability to move forward and back from the hinge joint in
the elbow.
SADDLE JOINT
Some examples of knowledge application of the Saddle Joint can be demonstrated by doing the following exercise:
By moving the thumb in different directions
Thumb stretches
(fine motor movements/mobility)
ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF JOINTS
Gliding Movement:
Gliding movement is the simplest kind of motion that can take place in a joint, one surface gliding or moving over another
without any angular or rotatory movement. It is common to all movable joints; but in some, as in most of the
articulations of the carpus and tarsus, it is the only motion permitted. This movement is not confined to plane surfaces,
but may exist between any two contiguous surfaces, of whatever form.
Angular Movement:
Angular movement occurs only between the long bones, and by it the angle between the two bones is increased or
diminished. It may take place: (1) forward and backward, constituting flexion and extension; or (2) toward and from the
median plane of the body, or, in the case of the fingers or toes, from the middle line of the hand or foot, constituting
adduction and abduction. The strictly hinge‐joints exist of flexion and extension only. Abduction and adduction, combined
with flexion and extension, are met with in the more movable joints; as in the hip, the shoulder, the wrist, and the
carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
Circumduction:
Circumduction is that form of motion which takes place between the head of a bone and its articular cavity, when the
bone is made to circumscribe a conical space; the base of the cone is described by the distal end of the bone, the apex is
in the articular cavity; this kind of motion is best seen in the shoulder and hip‐joints.
Rotation:
Rotation is a form of movement in which a bone moves around a central axis without undergoing any displacement
from this axis; the axis of rotation may lie in a separate bone, as in the case of the pivot formed by the odontoid
process of the axis vertebrae around which the atlas turns; or a bone may rotate around its own longitudinal axis, as in
the rotation of the Humerus at the shoulder‐joint; or the axis of rotation may not be quite parallel to the long axis of the
bone, as in the movement of the radius on the ulna during pronation and supination of the hand, where it is
represented by a line connecting the center of the head of the radius above with the center of the head of the ulna
below.
LIGAMENTS
Ligaments are dense bundles of collagenous
fibres. Mostly they are derived from the outer
layer of the joint capsule, however they
sometimes do connect nearby a non‐
articulating bone. The primary function of
ligaments is to stabilize and strengthen the joint.
Most ligaments do not connect bone to bone or
connects to cartilages.
Ligaments have sensory nerve cells which can respond to the speeds, movement and position of a joint.
Excessive movement of the joint can lead to strengthening to a point of straining or tearing a ligament,
Ligaments however, viscoelastic, they gradually strain when under tension, and return to their original shape
when the tension is removed. If ligaments lengthen too much due to joint being dislocated for too long, this will
cause the joint to become weakened and thus one becomes more prone to dislocations in the future.
Capsular ligaments are part of the joint capsule that surrounds synovial joints. It is possible to lengthen
ligaments over a period through stretching, one must however keep in mind that this may eventually lead to
instability in extreme cases.
Ligaments are also membranes folds that can act to support an organ and keep it in place.
Ligaments are rich in nerve supply and thus serve as sensory organs, which is important for reflex mechanism
in monitoring the position and movements of the joints.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
In between each of the individual bones there are cartilage disks, known as a intervertebral disk. These intervertebral disks
give the spine it’s flexibility and movement. They also absorb some of the impact that is transmitted through the body.
There are changes in the disks that occur throughout the day and can account for a minor change in height. When the spine
is rested generally after sleeping, the disks are hydrated, and the individual may be taller. When the disks have been
carrying the body weight during the day, they are dehydrated, and the individual may appear shorter. This would have an
effect on postural analysis on the individual, so the assessment is done usually done at the same time of the day.
Annulus
fibrosus
The spine has natural curvatures giving an “s” like shape appearance. The degree of the curvatures varies from person to
person. It is due to genetics, postural problems, muscle tone or imbalances of the muscles. The upper most part of the
vertebrae is called the CERVICAL vertebrae (7 in total). The vertebrae of the trunk (thorax) is called the Thoracic vertebrae
(12 in total). The lower part of the vertebra is called the LUMBAR vertebrae (5 in total). The vertebra that join to the iliac
bone to make up the pelvis are called the SACRAL vertebrae (5 in total). The vertebrae that forms the tail bone are called
the coccyx and are called the COCCGEAL vertebrae (4 in total) and they are fused together.
The cervical vertebrae (C1 – C7) are the smallest of the vertebrae. They are not designed to carry weight and can be injured
if moved too quickly. The cervical region is the most moveable region of the spine as it does not have ribs attached.
The thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T12) are larger and stronger than the cervical vertebrae, it allows flexion, extension, lateral
flexion, and slight rotation. The thoracic vertebrae are the second most moveable part of the spine, with the lumbar spine
being least moveable.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
The lumbar vertebrae (L1 ‐ L5) are the largest and strongest of the vertebrae. Movement of the lumbar spine must be taken
and performed with much care. Flexion and extension can be done safely, but movements that attempt to rotate the spine
can cause severe damage to the facet joints. The lumbar spine copes with most of the stress that occurs during movement
activities involving running and jumping. So, correct alignment of the spine is absolutely essential.
SACRUM
The sacrum is the triangular‐shaped spine and is formed by the fusion of the 5 (five) sacral vertebrae (S1 ‐ S5). It provides
a strong
foundation for the pelvic girdle. And is joined laterally at each side.
COCCYX
The coccyx or tailbone is triangular in shape and is formed by joining the second and forth coccygeal vertebrae. The top or
superior part of the coccyx joins with the sacrum. The coccyx can be severely damaged when falling and landing directly on it.
The cervical vertebrae The thoracic vertebrae
Spinous process
Body of
vertebrae
Superior view of a cervical vertebrae.
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Spinous processes of T9‐ ‐ Spinous processes of
T12 thoracic vertebrae T1 and T2 thoracic
‐ Medial slope of the vertebrae
dorsal segment of iliac ‐ Spinous processes
crest of cervical vertebrae
MULTIFIDUS (MULTIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
‐ Positioned posterior ‐ Assists with lateral
‐ Runs down the length of flexion of spine
the spine ‐ Assists with extension
of spine
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Lumbar ‐ C2 to L5 spinous processes
mammillary
processes
‐ Thoracic
transverse
processes
‐ Articular processes of C4
to C7
‐ Sacral foramen (S1 to S4)
‐ Sacrospinalis
origin aponeurosis
QUADRATUS LUMBORUM (MULTIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
‐ Deeper than erector spinae ‐ Together they
‐ Positioned at the side of depress ribs, flex
the lumbar spine between vertebral
floating ribs and iliac column, one side
acting along
produces lateral
flexion
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Iliac crest Last and transverse processes
of lumbar vertebrae
MUSCLES SUPPORTING THE SPINE ANTERIORALLY AND LATERALLY
ORIGIN INSERTION
Lower eight ribs ‐ Linea alba and iliac crest
‐
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Iliac crest and adjacent ‐ Lower ribs, xiphoid of
connective tissue sternum and linea alba
TRANSVERSE ABDOMINIS (FLAT MUSCLE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Deepest layer of muscle in the ‐ Compresses the
abdominal wall with fibres abdomen, abdominal
running horizontally around contents, and gives a
the trunk forming a “corset” flatter appearance
‐ Forces expiration; pulls
the abdominal wall
inwards
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Cartilages of lower ribs, iliac
crest and adjacent connective
tissue
Linea alba
Pubic crest
THE SHOULDER GIRDLE AND SHOULDERJOINT
Shoulder Joint
Humerus
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Spinous processes of Medial intertubercular
vertebrae T7 to T12 groove of the humerus
‐ Iliac crest
‐ Thoracolumbar fascia
‐ Inferior angle of scapula
ORIGIN INSERTION
Nuchal ligaments and Medial border of scapula
spinous processes of C7 to superior to insertion of
T1 rhomboid major muscle
ORIGIN INSERTION
Spinous processes of T2 to Medial border of scapula
T5 inferior to insertion of
rhomboid minor
ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES (GROUP OF 4 MUSCLES THAT ATTACH FROM THE SCAPULA TO THE HEAD
OF THE HUMERUS – STABILIZES GLENOHUMERAL JOINT AND ROTATES THE HUMEROUS)
FAMOUS MNEMONIC TO USE: “SITS”
SUPRASPINATUS (“S” OF “SITS”) (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Short muscle found ‐ Abduction of arm
superior to the spine of the ‐ Stabilisation of
scapula glenohumeral
joint
ORIGIN INSERTION
Supraspinous fossa of Greater tubercle of
scapula humerus
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Anterior boarder of Lateral lip of bicipital
medial half of clavicle groove of the humerus
‐ Anterior surface of
sternum
‐ 1st to 6th costal cartilages
‐ Aponeurosis of external
oblique muscle
PECTORALIS MINOR (TRIANGULAR MUSCLE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Muscle that lies ‐ Stabilises the scapula
by
underneath the pectoralis drawing it inferiorly and
major anteriorly against the
thoracic wall
‐ Helps raise ribs with
inspiration
ORIGIN INSERTION
Ribs 3 to 5 near costal Medial border and
cartilages superior surface of
the coracoid process of
the scapula
THE NECK
The neck has a complex tubular region of muscles surrounding the cervical vertebrae. The muscles are arranged in
superficial and deep groups. Here we concentrate on the most commonly used muscles.
ORIGIN INSERTION
Manubrium and medial ‐ Mastoid process of
portion of the clavicle the temporal bone
‐ Superior nuchal line
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterior tubercles of Basilar part of occipital
the transverse bone
processes of the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth
cervical vertebrae
SPLENIUS CERVICIS (STRAP‐LIKE UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Deep muscle at the back ‐ Extension of the head
of the neck and neck
‐ Lateral flexion of
cervical spine
‐ Rotation of cervical spine
ORIGIN INSERTION
Spinous processes of T3 to Transverse processes of
T6 C1 to C3
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Nuchal ligament Mastoid process of
‐ Spinous processes of occipital and temporal
C7 to T3 bone
THE KNEE
The lower legs consist of the Tibia and the Fibula. These two bones run parallel and are connected by an Interosseous
Membrane. They also articulate with each other.
Tibia (Shin‐bone) ‐ The Tibia articulates with the Femur (upper leg) and the Talus (Ankle). This bone carries all the body’s
weight.
It is the main bone of the lower leg and can be found on the more medial side of the leg.
Fibula ‐ Although this bone runs parallel to the Tibia, it doesn’t carry much weight. Instead, it acts as a stabilizer. It
articulates with the Tibia and the Talus. It’s inferior end (Lateral Malleolus) is the bone that sticks out on the outside of the
ankle. The Fibula can be found on the lateral side (outside) of the lower leg
THE HIP (OS COXA) (THE PELVIC GIRDLE)
HIP JOINT
Movements
Flexion – iliopsoas
The pelvic girdle consists of paired hipbones. The pelvis is the section between the legs and the torso that connects the spine
(backbone) to the thigh bones. In adults, it is mainly constructed of two hip bones, one on the right and one on the left of the body.
The two hip bones are made up of 3 sections, the Ilium, Ischium and Pubis. These sections are fused together during puberty,
meaning in childhood they are separate bones. Along with the hip bones is the Sacrum, the upper‐middle part of the pelvis, which
connects the spine (backbone) to the pelvis. To make this possible, the hip bones are attached to the Sacrum. The gap enclosed by
the pelvis is the section of the body underneath the abdomen (stomach) and mainly consists of the reproductive organs (sex
organs) and the rectum. The sacrum; each is made up of three bones.
The pelvic girdle forms joints between the two pubic bones and between the ilium and sacrum. The interpubic joint is a symphysis
type of cartilaginous joint. This strong fibrocartilage structure binds the two os coxae and allows for a small range of motion. The
sacroiliac joint is a composite joint that has both a syndesmotic junction and a synovial capsule. The syndesmosis occurs where
strong anterior and posterior sacroiliac ligaments bind the os coxae to the sacrum. In addition to these sacroiliac ligaments,
iliolumbar, sacrospinous, and sacrotuberous ligaments also stabilize the os coxae on the sacrum. The synovial sacroiliac joint occurs
where the lateral alar surface of the sacrum articulates with the ear‐shaped auricular surface of the ilium. Originally synovial, with
age this joint often forms fibrous adhesions and becomes obliterated later in life, sometimes even ossifying. This joint allows for a
small degree of anterior‐posterior rotation that accompanies flexion and extension of the trunk.
ILIACUS (CONVERGENT)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Flat thick muscle on ‐ Flexion of hip joint
anterior side of iliac ‐ Lateral rotation of femur
ORIGIN INSERTION
Upper two thirds of the Base of the lesser
iliac fossa trochanter of the femur
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Transverse processes of ‐ Lesser trochanter of the
T12 to L5 femur
‐ Lateral aspects of discs ‐ Base of the lesser
between T12 to L5 trochanter of the femur
‐ Upper two‐thirds of the
iliac fossa
PECTINEUS (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
‐ Short bank of ‐ Hip flexion
muscle running from ‐ Hip adduction
the pubis bone to the ‐ Internal rotation of the hip
top of the femur.
‐ Often grouped as a
hip flexor, is also group
as an
adductor
ORIGIN INSERTION
Pectineal line of the Pectineal line of the femur
pubic bone
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterior iliac crest Lateral condyle of tibia via
iliotibial tract (ITB)
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Gluteal surface of ilium ‐ Gluteal tuberosity of
‐ Lumbar fascia femur
‐ Posterior surface of ‐ Iliotibial tract (ITB)
lower part of sacrum
‐ Sacrotuberous ligament
GLUTEUS MEDIUS (MULTIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Large thick muscle on the ‐ Internal/medial
posterior part of the rotation of femur with
pelvis forming part of the Hip flexion
“buttocks” ‐ Extension of the hip joint
ORIGIN INSERTION
Gluteal surface of ilium, Greater trochanter of the
under gluteus maximus femur
ORIGIN INSERTION
Ischiopubic ramus Medial aspect of
& obturator the greater trochanter
membrane
OBTURATOR EXTERNUS (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Short muscle to help Hip adduction
laterally rotate femur Assist with latera rotation
with hip extension and of the femur at the hip
abduct femur with hip joint
flexion, as well as to
steady the femoral head
in the acetabulum
ORIGIN INSERTION
Obturator Trochanteric
foramen and obturatory fossa of femur
membrane
ORIGIN INSERTION
Spine of the ischium Obturator internus
tendon
ORIGIN INSERTION
Ischial tuberosity Obturator internus
tendon
ADDUCTOR GROUP
ADDUCTOR LONGUS (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Helps form medial wall ‐ Adduction of the femur
of femoral triangle at the hip joint
‐ Flexion of hip joint
‐
ORIGIN INSERTION
Pubic body just below Middle third of linea
the pubic crest aspera
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Pubis ‐ Linea aspera
‐ Tuberosity of ‐ Adductor tubercle of
the ischium the femur
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterior superior spine Anteromedial surface of
of the iliac (ASIS) the upper tibia
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterior inferior iliac ‐ Quadriceps tendon
spine and the exterior on the tibial tuberosity
surface of the bony ridge via the patellar
which forms the groove ligament
on the iliac portion of
the acetabulum
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Greater trochanter Quadriceps
‐ Intertrochanteric line tendon on the
‐ Linea aspera of tibial tuberosity
the femur via the patellar
ligament
VASTUS INTERMEDIUS (BIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Long muscle found ‐ Knee extension
anterior compartment of ‐ Knee stabilisation
on the thigh
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterolateral femur Quadriceps tendon on the
tibial tuberosity via the
patellar ligament
ORIGIN INSERTION
Medial side of femur Quadriceps tendon on the
tibial tuberosity via the
patellar ligament
GRACILIS (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Superficial muscle on ‐ Flexion of hip
medial side of the thigh ‐ Adduction of hip
‐ Medial and internal
rotation of hip
ORIGIN INSERTION
Ischiopubic ramus Tibia
HAMSTRINGS GROUP
DESCRIPTION
It is often forgotten by personal trainers that the
hamstring muscle crosses two joint sections
namely hip and knee (this group can thus extend
the hip as well as flex the knee), one must
therefore take into account that full range of
this muscle must be exercised and stretched ‐
proximal as well as distal ends ‐ in order to
obtain peak performance with this specific
group
The elbow‐joint is a hinge‐joint. The trochlea of the humerus is received into the semilunar notch of the ulna, and the capitulum of the humerus
articulates with the fovea on the head of the radius. The articular surfaces are connected by a capsule, which is thickened medially
and laterally, and, to a less extent, in front and behind. These thickened portions are usually described as distinct ligaments under
the following names:
• The Anterior
• The Posterior
• The Ulnar Collateral
• The Radial Collateral
Movements
The elbow‐joint comprises of three different portions: the joint between the ulna and humerus, that between the head of the
radius and the humerus, and the proximal radioulnar articulation, described below. All these articular surfaces are enveloped by a
common synovial membrane, and the movements of the whole joint should be studied together. The combination of the
movements of flexion and extension of the forearm with those of pronation and supination of the hand, which is ensured by the
two being performed at the same joint, is essential to the accuracy of the various minute movements of the hand. The portion of
the joint between the ulna and humerus is a simple hinge‐joint and allows for movements of flexion and extension only. Owing to
the obliquity of the trochlea of the humerus, this movement does not take place in the antero‐posterior plane of the body of the
humerus. When the forearm is extended and supinated, the axes of the arm and forearm are not in the same line; the arm forms
an obtuse angle with the forearm, the hand and forearm being directed lateral‐ward. During flexion, however, the forearm and the
hand tend to approach the middle line of the body, and thus enable the hand to be easily carried to the face. The accurate
adaptation of the trochlea of the humerus, with its prominences and depressions, to the semilunar notch of the ulna, prevents any
lateral movement. Flexion is produced by the action of the Biceps brachii and Brachialis, assisted by the Brachioradialis and the
muscles arising from the medial condyle of the humerus; extension, by the Triceps brachii and Anconeus, assisted by the Extensors
of the wrist, the Extensor digitorum communis, and the Extensor digiti quinti proprius.
BICEPS GROUP (GROUP OF 3 MUSCLES)
BICEPS BRACHII (FUSIFORM MUSCLE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
‐ Long muscle that ‐ Elbow flexion
runs superiorly along ‐ Flexion of
the humerus glenohumeral joint
‐ Has a long and ‐ Abduction of
short head glenohumeral
‐ Has two origins joint
‐ Supination of
radioulnar joint in
forearm
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Short head: coracoid Radial tuberosity and
process of the scapula bicipital aponeurosis into
‐ Long head: deep fascia on medial
supraglenoid tubercle part of forearm
ORIGIN INSERTION
Distal anterior surface Coronoid process and the
of humerus tuberosity of the ulna
ORIGIN INSERTION
Lateral supracondylar Distal radius (radial
ridge of elbow styloid process)
TRICEPS GROUP
TRICEPS BRACHII (FUSIFORM MUSCLE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Large muscle of the ‐ Extends forearm,
back of the upper arm ‐ Long head extends
and adducts arm
‐ Extends shoulder
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Long Olecranon process of
head: infraglenoid ulna
tubercle of scapula
‐ Lateral head:
above the radial
sulcus
‐ Medial head:
below the radial
sulcus
ANCONEUS (TRIANGULAR MUSCLE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
‐ Small muscle on ‐ Assists in extension
the posterior aspect of the forearm
of the elbow joint ‐ Stabilises the
‐ Partially blended elbow during
in with triceps pronation and
supination
ORIGIN INSERTION
Lateral epicondyle of Lateral surface of
the humerus, the olecranon process
proximally and the superior
proximal part of the
posterior ulna
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterior medial surface Anterior lateral surface of
of the ulna the ulna
SUPINATOR MUSCLE (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Broad muscle in the Supination of forearm
posterior compartment
of the forearm
ORIGIN INSERTION
‐ Lateral Lateral proximal radial
epicondyle of humerus shaft
‐ Supinator crest ofulna
‐ Radial
collateral
ligament
‐ Annular ligament
PULMARIS LONGUS (FUSIFORM)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
A slender muscle on Wrist flexor
medial aspect of the
elbow
ORIGIN INSERTION
Medial epicondyle of Palmar aponeurosis
humerus (common
flexor tendon)
ORIGIN INSERTION
Medial epicondyle of Anterior margins on the
the humerus (common bases of the middle
flexor tendon) as well phalanges of the four
as parts of fingers
the radius and ulna
64
BONES AND JOINTS OF THE FOOT AND ANKLE
ANKLE JOINT
Talus
The talus is something of an odd bone because of its strange shape and the fact that 70% of this bone is covered with hyaline
cartilage (joint cartilage). The talus acts as a “ball joint” playing the critical roll of connecting the lower leg to the foot. The talus is
covered by so much cartilage because it connects so many different bones. The talus holds the ankle together by connecting to
the lower leg with a ball joint, connects to the calcaneus on the underside through the subtalar joint, and helps connect the back
part of the foot (hindfoot) to the midfoot via the talonavicular joint. These series of connections allow the foot to rotate smoothly
around the talus, as when you roll your ankle in a circle. Unfortunately, the talus has relatively poor blood supply, which means
that injuries to this bone take greater time to heal than might be the case with other bones.
Parts of the Talus
The talus is generally thought of as having three or four parts:
• The talar body including the “dome” of the talus
• The talar neck
• The talar head
The talar body is roughly square in shape and is topped by the dome, connects the talus to the lower leg at the ankle joint. The
talar head interacts with the navicular bone to form the talonavicular joint. The talar neck is located between the body and head
of the talus, and remarkable because it is one of the few areas of the talus not covered with cartilage and is one of the few places
that blood can flow to in the talus.
Subtalar Joint
The talus rests above the calcaneus to form the subtalar joint. However, the talus does not sit directly on top of the calcaneus.
Instead, it rests slightly offset toward the outside of the foot (the side nearest the little toe). This positioning allows the foot to
cope with uneven terrain because it allows a little more flexibility from side to side. The subtalar joint doesn’t move independently,
it moves along with the talonavicular joint and the calcaneocuboid joint, two joints located near the front of the talus.
Calcaneocuboid Joint
The calcaneal‐cuboid joint attaches the heel bone to the cuboid.
Navicular
The navicular is located in front of the talus and connects with it through the talonavicular joint. The navicular is curved on the
surface nearest ankle. The side farthest from the ankle joint connects to each of the three cuneiform bones. Like the talus, the
navicular has a poor blood supply. On the inner side (closest to the middle of the foot), there is a piece of bone that juts out, which
is called the navicular tuberosity. This is the site where the posterior tibial tendon anchors into the bone. Talonavicular Joint As the
name suggests, the talonavicular joint connects the talus to the navicular. The curve of the is designed to connect smoothly with
the front surface of the talus. This joint allows for the potential to have significant motion between the hindfoot and the midfoot
depending on the position the hindfoot is in.
Cuneiforms
There are three different cuneiform bones present side‐by‐side in the midfoot. The one located on the inside of the midfoot is
called the medial cuneiform. The middle cuneiform is located centrally in the midfoot and to the outside is the lateral cuneiform.
All three cuneiforms line up in a row and articulate with the navicular forming the naviculocuneiform joint. The structure of the
cuneiforms is similar to a roman arch. Each cuneiform connected to the others in order to form a more stable unit. These bones,
along with the strong plantar and dorsal ligaments that connect to them, provide a good deal of stability for the midfoot.
Bones of the Fore‐foot: Metatarsals (5), Phalanges (14), Sesamoid Bones (2) Metatarsals
Each foot contains five metatarsals. These are the long bones that lead to the base of each toe. The metatarsals are numbered 1‐5
starting on the inside and leading outward (from big toe to smallest). Each metatarsal is a long bone that joins with the midfoot at
its base, a joint called the tarsal‐metatarsal joint, or Lisfranc joint. In general, the first three metatarsals are more rigidly held in
place than the last two, although in some individuals there is increased motion associated with the 1st metatarsal where it joins
the midfoot (at the 1st tarsometatarsal joint) and this increased motion may predispose them to develop a bunion. The long part
of the metatarsal bone is known as the metatarsal “shaft”, and the thick end of the bone nearest the toes is known as the
metatarsal “head” (the metatarsal neck lies between the shaft and head). The head serves two very important functions: First, the
metatarsal heads are the locations were weight bearing takes place. Second, the phalanges connect to the foot at the metatarsal
heads at a joint called the metatarsal‐phalangeal joint. These joints are very flexible, allowing the metatarsal heads to continuously
support the weight of the body as the foot moves from heel to toe.
First Metatarsal – The first metatarsal bone is the bone in the foot just behind the big toe. The first metatarsal bone is the shortest
of the metatarsal bones and by far the thickest and strongest of them.
Second Metatarsal – The fore‐foot is made extremely stable not only by the ligaments connecting the bones, but also because the
second metatarsal is recessed into the medial cuneiform in comparison to the others. The second metatarsal may be overly long in
some individuals predisposing to 2nd metatarsalgia.
Fourth and Fifth Metatarsal – The fourth and fifth metatarsal may have greater range of motion than the others do.
Phalanges
The phalanges make up the bones of the toes. They are connected to the rest of the foot by the metatarsophalangeal joint. The
first toe, also known as the great toe due to its relatively large size, is the only one to be comprised of only two phalanges. These
are known as the proximal phalanx (closest to the ankle) and the distal phalanx (farthest from the ankle). The four “lesser toes”
(toes 2‐5) all have three phalanges. The phalanx closest to the ankle is known as the proximal phalanx, this articulates with the
“middle” phalanx the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP joint). The middle phalanx meets the “distal” phalanx at the distal
interphalangeal joint. An imbalance in the tendons pulling across these small joints of the toes will lead to deformity of the toe
such as a claw toe. A list of the joints of the toes can be found below.
• Interphalangeal Joint (great toe only)
• Proximal Interphalangeal Joint (PIP joint – toes 2‐5)
• Distal Interphalangeal Joint (DIP joint ‐toes 2‐5)
Sesamoid Bones
A sesamoid bone is a bone that is also part of a tendon. An easy example of such a bone is the kneecap (patella). In the foot there
are two sesamoid bones, each of which is located directly underneath the first metatarsal head. These sesamoids are part of the
flexor hallucis brevis tendon.
ORIGIN INSERTION
Anterior lateral condyle of Dorsal surface; middle
tibia, anterior shaft of fibula and distal phalanges of
and Superior 3⁄4 oflateral four digits
interosseous
membrane
ORIGIN INSERTION
Superior to articular Tendo calcaneus
surfaces of lateral (Achilles tendon) into
condyle of femur and mid‐ posterior calcaneus
medial condyle of
femur
SOLEUS (MULTIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Muscle running Plantar flexion
underneath
gastrocnemius that acts
on the ankle
ORIGIN INSERTION
Fibula, medial border Calcaneus
of tibia (soleal line)
ORIGIN INSERTION
Tibia and fibula Navicular and medial
cuneiform bone
FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS (UNIPENNATE)
DESCRIPTION ACTIONS
Leg muscle that passes Flexes digits
into the plantar aspect
ORIGIN INSERTION
Posterior surface of the Plantar surface; base of
body of the tibia the distal phalanges of
the four lesser toes
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE DENSITY
Bone mineral density loss is one of the most common problems people face as they age. This may result in medical conditions
such as osteoporosis, a disease that causes a person’s bones to become so fragile they break easily. Bone mineral density can
be affected by several factors, such as pre‐existing medical conditions, a person’s overall physical health and diet.
Medical History
A history of medical problems may influence a person’s bone mineral density. According to Marcelle Pick, an OB/GYN nurse
practitioner, it is normal for a person to lose some bone density as he or she ages. However, doctors examine patients for
progressive bone density loss, which could signal other medical issues. According to a 2007 study funded by the National
Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases and the National Institute on Aging, older men who suffered from low
bone mineral density typically had suffered from other medical issues such as diabetes.
Other medical problems that could factor into a person’s bone density include osteoarthritis, prostate cancer, kidney stones and
chronic lung disease. The study also shows that there may be a connection between reduced bone mineral density and “a history
of maternal or paternal fracture.”
Physical Fitness
A person’s overall physical health, including levels and intensity of exercise, may influence bone mineral density as well.
According to the 2007 study referenced above, an increase in body weight may affect a person’s bone density. But this may, up
to a certain point, be a positive factor. Participants in the study who had a 22‐pound increase in weight also had bone mineral
density levels increase by four percent. The study, which looked at men older than the age of 65, also cited a lack of physical
activity as a factor in low bone density. A lack of exercise can reduce bone mineral density in everyone.
It is suggested exercising 30 minutes a day, at least three times a week. Bones are most positively affected by weight lifting or
incorporating weights in the exercise routine.
Diet
Diet may play a role in bone mineral density. A well‐rounded diet with the appropriate nutrients may help reduce the rate of
density loss. Studies show calcium is often associated with strong bones. However, a calcium supplement may not be everything
a person needs. Women need at least 20 nutrients that assist in building bone mass.
A well‐rounded diet, along with additional supplements, can supply this. It is also advised people to avoid certain foods that may
create acid, reversing the positive effects of a well‐rounded diet. Foods to avoid include sugar and meat.
Body fat
Body fat percentage can be a predictor of bone density or bone health. Individuals who have a sedentary lifestyle and poor
nutrition are at risk not only for higher body fat percentage, but also lower bone density. Conversely, extremely low levels of
body fat can also contribute to bone loss because of poor nutritional habits. Healthy body fat percentage ranges for women is 14
to 31 percent of total body weight. For men, it is between 6 and 24 percent of total body weight.
Gender
Smoking
Muscle mass
MODULE 1B: PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the functional basis of understanding human movement and the different functions of the human body.
Exercise physiology deals specifically with how the body functions under physical and mental stress.
− Cell body
3. NUCLEUS
− Axon Controls chemical reactions within the
− Dendrites cytoplasm and stores information needed
for cellular division.
neurons:
− Sensory neurons: Transmits nerve
impulses from the effector sites to the
brain or spinal cord.
− Interneuron: Transmits impulses from neuron
to neuron.
− Motor neurons: Transmits nerve impulses
from the brain and spinal cord to the
effector sites.
Sensory receptors
Sensory receptors are structures that are found throughout the body. They transform environmental
information (sound, heat, taste, light) to the brain via the spinal cord to produce an appropriate response.
Sensory receptors can be divided into four main categories:
− Mechanoreceptors: Touch and pressure
− Nociceptors: Pain
− Chemoreceptors: Taste and smell
− Photoreceptors: Light and darkness
−
We as fitness professionals concentrate mainly on mechanoreceptors. They are responsible for sensing distortion
in the tissue. They are located in the muscles, tendons, joints, and ligaments. They sense stretch, compressions,
traction, or tension in the tissue, which is then transmitted to the Central Nervous System (CNS).
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
Muscle spindles are the major sensory organs of the muscles. They sit parallel to the muscle fibers. The
muscle spindle is there to control change of length in the muscle, i.e. when the muscle is stretched, so is the
spindle. When the muscle is about to be “over‐stretched” the muscle spindle will send a message to the brain
and the spindle will then contract the muscle.
So, the muscle spindles prevent the muscles from being “over stretched” and injured.
1. Sensory neurons
2. Interneurons
3. Motor neurons
Sensory neurons have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors all over the body
to the CNS. Sensory neurons are specialised to detect stimuli from the environment, such as light, sound,
taste, or pressure. Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called stimuli, which occur inside and
outside the body. They monitor such things as temperature, light, and sound from the external
environment. Inside the body, the internal environment, receptors detect variations in pressure, pH,
carbon dioxide concentration, and the levels of various electrolytes. All of this gathered information is
called sensory input. Sensory input is converted into electrical signals called nerve impulses that are
transmitted to the brain. There the signals are brought together to create sensations, to produce
thoughts, or to add to memory; decisions are made each moment based on the sensory input. This is
integration.
Interneurons (also called connector neurons or relay neurons) are usually much smaller cells, with many
interconnections. Detection of a stimulus triggers the sensory neuron to transmit a message to the
central nervous system. There, the message is relayed to interneurons that integrate the information
and generate instructions about how to respond. Instructions are sent back to the peripheral nervous
system as messages along motor neurons.
Motor neurons also have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and
glands) all over the body. The motor neurons then stimulate muscles to contract or relax to make the
appropriate responses. They also stimulate glands to release hormones. Based on the sensory input and
integration, the nervous system responds by sending signals to muscles, causing them to contract, or to
glands, causing them to produce secretions. Muscles and glands are called effectors because they cause
an effect in response to directions from the nervous system. This is the motor output or motor function.
The three types of neurons are arranged in circuits and networks, the simplest of which is the Reflex Arc.
Explanation of the three main functions of the nervous system
Our nervous system is able to pass a message from a sensory neuron, through several interneurons, to a motor
neuron within several milliseconds. Though this seems very fast, some sensory inputs (such as pain) require an
even more rapid response.
In a simple reflex arc, such as the knee jerk, a stimulus is detected by a receptor cell, which synapses with a
sensory neuron. The sensory neuron carries the impulse from site of the stimulus to the central nervous
system (the brain or spinal cord), where it synapses with an interneuron. The interneuron synapses with a
motor neuron, which carries the nerve impulse out to an effector, such as a muscle, which responds by
contracting.
If we touch a hot stove, for instance, it is beneficial for us to pull back as quickly as possible. How does the
nervous system handle this reflex response? When responding to input that requires a very fast response, our
nervous system allows sensory neurons to relay information through only one interneuron, or to connect
directly to motor neurons. By reducing the number of interneurons required for signal processing, reflex
responses are able to occur more quickly than other responses.
The human nervous system is far more complex than a simple reflex arc, although the same stages still apply.
The organisation of the human nervous system is shown in the diagram (see next page):
It is easy to forget that much of the human nervous system is concerned with routine, involuntary jobs, such
as homeostasis, digestion, posture, breathing, etc. This is the job of the autonomic nervous system, and its
motor functions are split into two divisions, with anatomically distinct neurons. Most body organs are
innervated by two separate sets of motor neurons; one from the sympathetic system and one from the
parasympathetic system.
These neurons have opposite (or antagonistic) effects. In general, the sympathetic system stimulates the “fight
or flight” responses to threatening situations, while the parasympathetic system relaxes the body. The details are
listed in this table:
MUSCLES
Most of all movement of the human body come from a result of muscle contraction. It is made up of fibres. The
direction and composition determine the appearance and strength of the muscle. All muscles are held together by fibres
and connective tissue which is important to the characteristic of the muscle.
Skeletal muscle is a collection of many individual muscle fibres that are wrapped around together by connective tissue
to form individual bundles.
The facia and epimysium help form connective tissue between the muscle and the bone.
‐ Fascicle: Secondary muscle fibre inside the muscle
‐ Perimysium: connective tissue covering the fascicle
‐ Endomysium: connective tissue covering the inner most muscle fibres
All connective tissues in muscles play an important role in movement. They allow the forces that are generated by the
muscle to be transmitted from the contractile parts of the muscle to the bonds to create movement. Muscle tissue
covers the entire length of the muscle to form tendons.
Neural activation
Neural activation is made possible by the communication between the nervous system and the muscular system. It
makes
muscle contraction and stabilization possible. Where a connection is made with the motor neuron and the muscle fibres
is called the motor unit. The point where a single neuron meets a single fibre is called the neuromuscular junction.
Impulses travel down from the central nervous system into the axon on the neuron. When the impulses reach the end
of the axon, chemicals called neurotransmitters are released. Neurotransmitters send messages between the neurons,
nerves and muscle fibres. They fall into receptor sites on the muscle fibre. The neurotransmitter that is required by the
neuromuscular system is called acetylcholine (Ach). Ach stimulates the muscle fibres to go through the necessary steps
to produce a muscle contraction.
Excitation‐contraction‐coupling
Excitation‐contraction‐coupling is the combination of the neural stimulation and the sliding filament theory.
The Sliding filament theory:
MUSCLE TYPES
CARDIAC MUSCLE – Referred to as the myocardium and is found in the wall of the heart. It has the same structural and
functional characteristics of skeletal and smooth muscle and moves completely involuntarily.
SKELETAL MUSCLE – 600 muscles in total attach to our skeleton. They are voluntary and can be controlled. Skeletal muscles
are striated because of the protein molecules in these muscles and are regularly rearranged giving them a banded
appearance.
SMOOTH MUSCLE – These are smooth, involuntary muscles which are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach,
respiratory passages and the bladder.
PLEASE NOTE!!!
White muscle fibers that contract rapidly and forcefully but fatigue quickly;
Fast‐Twitch Fibers usually recruited for actions requiring strength and power
E. Strength training improves the body’s ability to recruit motor units - muscle learning - which increases strength even
before muscle size increases.
I. Benefits of Muscular Strength and Endurance
Enhanced muscular strength and endurance can lead to improvements in the areas of performance, injury prevention,
body composition, self‐image, lifetime muscle and bone health, and chronic disease prevention.
A. Improved Performance of Physical Activities
Increased muscular strength and endurance helps with performance of everyday tasks and recreational activities and
leads to the enjoyment that accompanies higher levels of achievement.
B. Injury Prevention
Muscular strength and endurance help protect you from injury in two key ways:
• By enabling you to maintain good posture.
• By encouraging proper body mechanics during everyday activities such as walking and lifting.
C. Improved Body Composition
Muscular strength and endurance exercise increase fat‐free mass, which raises metabolism and depletes fat tissue.
D. Enhanced Self-Image and Quality of Life
Muscular exercise offers the benefit of readily recognizable results: Your body will become noticeably stronger and firmer,
and you can easily monitor your progress in terms of amount of weight lifted and number of repetitions.
E. Improved Muscle and Bone Health with Aging
Strength training can prevent muscle and nerve degeneration brought about by aging and inactivity.
1. After age 30, people begin to lose muscle mass (sarcopenia), which may reduce ability to perform simple tasks or
movements.
2. Aging and inactivity can cause motor nerves to disconnect from the portion of muscle they control and allow muscles to
become slower ‐ less able to perform quick, powerful movements.
3. Risk of bone loss, or osteoporosis, can be lessened with strength training, and increases in muscle strength can also help
prevent falls.
F. Prevention and Management of Chronic Disease
Regular strength training helps prevent and manage both CVD and diabetes by:
• Improving glucose metabolism.
• Increasing maximal oxygen consumption.
• Reducing blood pressure.
• Increasing HDL cholesterol and reducing LDL cholesterol (in some people).
o Muscles will get stronger if you make them work against a resistance.
o Weight machines are preferred by some because they are safe, convenient, and easy to use. They make it easy to
isolate and work a specific muscle, and a spotter isn’t always necessary.
o Free weights require more care, balance, and coordination, but they strengthen the body in ways that are more
adaptable to real life and sports.
C. Other Training Methods and Types of Equipment
This includes resistance bands, exercise (stability) balls, Pilates, and no‐equipment calisthenics.
IV.Applying the FITT Principle: Selecting Exercises and Putting Together a Program
Design your program to maximize the fitness benefits but minimize the risk of injury.
A. Frequency of Exercise
For general fitness the ACSM recommends 2 ‐ 3 nonconsecutive days per week for weight training
Allow muscles at least 1 day of rest between workouts.
B. The amount of weight lifted determines the way the body will adapt and how quickly it will adapt.
To build strength rapidly, lift weights as heavy as 80% of your maximum capacity. For endurance, choose 40–60% of your
maximum.
Rather than continually assessing maximum capacity, base weight on the number of repetitions you can perform with a
given resistance.
C. Time of Exercise: Repetitions and Sets
1. To improve fitness, you must perform enough repetitions to fatigue your muscles.
A light weight and a high number of repetitions (15 ‐ 20) builds endurance.
For general fitness, do 8 ‐ 12 repetitions of each exercise. For older and more frail people (50 ‐ 60 years of age and
above), 10 ‐ 15 repetitions with a lighter weight is appropriate.
2. A set is a group of repetitions of an exercise followed by a rest period.
Exercise scientists have not identified the optimal number of sets for increasing strength.
For general fitness, 1 set is sufficient. Most serious weight trainers perform 3 or more sets of each exercise.
The rest period allows the muscles to work at high enough intensity in the next set to increase fitness.
The length of your rest interval depends on the amount of resistance: If you are training to develop strength and
endurance for wellness rest 1 ‐3 minutes between sets. If you are training to develop maximum strength (and are lifting
heavier loads), rest 3 – 5 minutes between sets.
D. Type or Mode of Exercise
1. A complete weight training program works all the major muscle groups, including neck, upper back, shoulders, arms,
chest, abdomen, lower back, thighs, buttocks, and calves.
2. Usually, 8 ‐ 10 different exercises are required in order to work all major muscle groups.
3. A balanced program includes exercises for both agonist and antagonist muscle groups.
4. Exercise the large‐muscle groups first and then small‐muscle groups.
E. The Warm-Up and Cool-Down
1. You should do both a general warm‐up (such as walking) and a specific warm‐up for the exercises you will perform. For
cool‐down, relax for 5–10 minutes after exercising.
F. Making Progress
1. To begin training, choose a weight you can easily move through 8–12 repetitions for 1 set.
2. Gradually add weight and (if you want) sets until you can perform 1–3 sets of 8–12 repetitions for each exercise.
3. As you progress, add weight according to the “two‐for‐two” rule: When you can perform two additional repetitions with a
given weight on two consecutive training sessions, increase the load.
4. You can expect to improve rapidly during the first 6–10 weeks of training; after that, gains come more slowly.
5. After you have achieved the strength and muscularity you want, you can maintain your gains by training 2–3 times per
week.
G. More Advanced Strength Training Programs
1. If you desire to achieve greater increases in strength, increase the load and the number of sets and decrease the number
of reps.
2. Periodization or cycle training, in which the sets, reps, and intensity of exercise are varied, may be useful for making
greater gains in strength.
Effects of exercise on muscles:
Short Term:
• Capillary dilation
• Increased pliability
Long Term:
• Hypertrophy
• Increased metabolic activity
• Increased capillarization
• Increase in number of mitochondria
• Increase in muscular strength
• Increase in muscular endurance
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The primary functions of the heart are to:
− Regulate blood supply
− Generate blood pressure
− Rooting of the blood
− Ensure one‐way blood flow
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
Your heart has 4 chambers. The upper chambers are called the left and right atria, and the lower chambers are
called the left and right ventricles. A wall of muscle called the septum separates the left and right atria and the
left and right ventricles. The left ventricle is the largest and strongest chamber in your heart. The left ventricle's
chamber walls are only about a half‐inch thick, but they have enough force to push blood through the aortic
valve and into your body.
• Atria
• Thin‐walled
• Expandable outer auricle
• Separated internally by the interatrial septum
• Coronary sulcus (atrioventricular groove) encircles the junction of the atria and
ventricles
• Ventricles
• Separated by the interventricular septum
• Anterior and posterior interventricular grooves (sulci) mark the position of the
septum externally
• Coronary sulcus and interventricular grooves contain blood vessels
Right atrium
Superior vena cava – receives blood from head, neck, upper limbs and chest
Inferior vena cava – receives blood from trunk, viscera and lower limbs
Coronary sinus – receives blood from cardiac veins
Fossa ovalis – before birth this is an opening through interatrial septum (foramen ovale), connects the
atria and bypasses the lungs; foramen seals off at birth forming the fossa ovalis
Pectinate muscles – prominent muscular ridges on anterior wall and auricle
Right ventricle
Right atrioventricular valve – opening from right atrium to right ventricle
• Left ventricle
• Holds same volume as right ventricle
• Is larger; muscle thicker and more powerful
• Papillary muscles and chordae tendineae like right ventricle, but no moderator band
1. The Atria: smaller chambers that are superiorly located on either side of the heart. The right
atrium gathers deoxygenated blood returning from the upper and lower extremities to the heart
and the left atrium gathers reoxygenated blood coming to the heart from the lungs.
2. Ventricles: The inferior chamber of the heart that receives blood from its corresponding atrium and in turn
forces the blood into the arteries. The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and
pumps to the lungs to be saturated with incoming oxygen. The left ventricle receives reoxygenated blood
from the left atrium and pumps it to the entire body via the aorta.
The chambers of the heart are all separate from each other. Major veins and arteries via valves prevent a back
flow or spillage of blood back into the chambers. These valves include the atrioventricular valves and
semilunar valves. The tricuspid valve separates the atrium and ventricle on the right side and the bicuspid on
the left side.
3. Septa: Between the right side and the left side of the heart are septa dividing the heart into two
functional pumps (interventricular septum).
BLOOD
A cardiac system that is functioning correctly transports and delivers blood efficiently throughout the body. Blood acts as a
medium to deliver and collect essential products to and from the tissues of the body. Blood constitutes to about 8% of total body
weight and is much heavier and thicker than water. The average person holds 5 liters of blood in their body at any given time.
Blood is a vital support mechanism as it provides protection, transportation and regulation of the kinetic chain.
Through its ability to clot, blood protects us from blood loss when we are hurt or in an accident. Foreign toxins that can harm the
body are also fought against with the protection of blood. Ironically blood can also spread disease or sickness through the same
mechanism.
MECHANISM FUNCTION
TRANSPORTATION Transports oxygen and nutrients to
tissues Transports waste products
from tissues Transports hormones
to organs and tissues carries heat
throughout the body
REGULATION Regulates body temperature and acid balance of the body
PROTECTION Protects the body from excessive bleeding by clotting
Contains specialised immune cells to help fight disease and sickness
THE CARDIAC CYCLE
The period from the end of one contraction to the end of the next is called the cardiac cycle. The cycle has two phases:
Systole (period of contraction)
Diastole (relaxation)
Each cycle is initiated by the spontaneous generation of an action potential in the SA‐node (sinoatrial node). This action
potential is carried throughout the atria to the AV‐node; then spread to the purkinje fibres. These fibres move up to the AV
bundle and into the ventricles. At the apex the blood travels into the purkinje fibres.
During an average lifetime the heart beats approximately 2, 5 billion times and pumps out about 300 million
liters of blood. The heart is very sensitive to the changing needs of the body and cardiac output can vary from
as little as 5041ml (during rest) per minute to as much as 35 liters of blood per minute during peak exercise.
BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart at a very high pressure. Most carry oxygenated blood. The aorta of
the heart is the largest artery.
Capillaries: Microscopic tubes, which form a network through the arterioles and discharge blood into the smallest
tributaries of veins.
Veins: Brings blood towards the heart under low pressure. The blood flow is aided by:
Lymph vessels are fine tubes containing a clear fluid called lymph. Lymph provides the mechanism for the
exchange of substances between the tissue and the blood. Lymph nodes are firm gland‐like structures which act
as filters for lymph and phagocytes carried in it.
Blood going towards the heart is carried through veins. Blood coming from the lungs to the left atrium is
carried through the pulmonary veins while blood coming from the body to the right atrium is carried through
the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava.
You might have felt your own heart beating, this is known as the cardiac cycle. When your heart contracts it
makes the chambers smaller and pushes blood into the blood vessels. After your heart relaxes again the
chambers get bigger and are filled with blood coming back into the heart.
Impulses going through your heart makes the muscle cells contract.
You might have watched television shows or movies where a patient in a hospital is attached to an
electrocardiogram (ECG). You might recognise it as the machine with a line moving across a screen that
occasionally spikes (or remains flat when a patient is dying). This machine can measure the electricity going
through a patient’s heart. A doctor can use the information to know when a patient is having heart rhythm
problems or even a heart attack.
Heart attacks cause scar tissue to form among normal heart tissue, which can lead to further heart problems or
even heart failure.
The Heart Valves
The left and right coronary arteries can be called epicardial coronary arteries as they run on the surface of the heart. In
healthy hearts, the coronary arteries are capable of autoregulation to maintain coronary blood flow at levels
appropriate to the needs of the heart muscle. These vessels are commonly affected by atherosclerosis and can
become blocked, causing angina or a heart attack.
The left coronary artery supplies blood to the left side of the heart, the left atrium and ventricle, and the interventricular
septum. The circumflex artery arises from the left coronary artery and follows the coronary sulcus to the left. Eventually, it will
fuse with the small branches of the right coronary artery. The larger anterior, also known as the left anterior descending
artery (LAD), is the second major branch arising from the left coronary artery. It follows the anterior interventricular sulcus
around the pulmonary trunk. Along the way it gives rise to numerous smaller branches that interconnect with the branches of
the posterior interventricular artery, forming anastomoses. An anastomosis is an area where vessels unite to form
interconnections that normally allow blood to circulate to a region even if there may be partial blockage in another branch.
The anastomoses in the heart are very small. Therefore, this ability is somewhat restricted in the heart, so a coronary artery
blockage often results in myocardial infarction causing death of the cells supplied by the particular vessel.
The right coronary artery proceeds along the coronary sulcus and distributes blood to the right atrium, portions of both
ventricles, and the heart conduction system. Normally, one or more marginal arteries arise from the right coronary artery
inferior to the right atrium. The marginal arteries supply blood to the superficial portions of the right ventricle. On the posterior
surface of the heart, the right coronary artery gives rise to the posterior interventricular artery, also known as the posterior
descending artery. It runs along the posterior portion of the interventricular sulcus toward the apex of the heart, giving rise to
branches that supply the interventricular septum and portions of both ventricles.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
There respiratory system is often referred to as the pulmonary system. The fore most importance of this system
is to provide and ensure proper and correct cellular function. It collects oxygen from the external environment
and transports it to the blood stream. It works hand‐in‐hand with the cardiovascular system. The respiratory
pump and the respiratory passageway have to work harmoniously together for all of the above to be
accomplished.
The respiratory pump is located in the thoracic cavity (chest and abdomen). It is composed of skeletal
structures and soft tissue (bones, muscles and pleural membranes). These systems work together with the
nervous system for proper breathing/ respiratory mechanics to occur. The skeleton provides attachments and
protection for the muscles of the thorax. They are also flexible enough to allow for proper inspiration and
expiration to occur.
STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY PUMP
Air must have passageways to move in and out of the lungs correctly. These passageways are divided up into two
categories:
The conductive passageways:
Consist of the structures that oxygen travels through before it enters the respiratory passageway. The
structures enable the oxygen to be:
− Purified, humidified and warmed or cooled to meet the body’s temperature. They consist of a nasal
cavity; oral cavity; pharynx; larynx; trachea; right and left pulmonary bronchi; bronchioles.
Combined the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system makeup the cardiorespiratory system. Together
they forma vital support system to provide the system with oxygen and then removing waste products so that the
body can function correctly. Oxygen is inhaled through the nose and mouth where it is conducted through the
trachea and then down through the bronchi where it eventually meets the lungs and alveolar sacs.
Deoxygenated blood is then pumped from the right ventricle of the heart through to the pulmonary arteries.
Capillaries surround the alveolar sacs and as oxygen fills the sacs, it spreads across the capillary membranes into
the blood. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium of the heart through the pulmonary veins where it
is pumped into the left ventricle and then pumped through the aorta to the rest of the body. When the cells of
the body are using oxygen, they also produce an oxygen waste product called carbon dioxide. It is transported
from the tissue back to the cardiovascular system and back to the lungs in deoxygenated blood. The
pulmonary capillaries transport the carbon dioxide into the alveolar sacs and releases it out of the body
through exhalation.
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
The cardiovascular and respiratory systems work harmoniously to spread oxygen throughout the body and to
remove CO2 (Carbon Dioxide). The body’s ability to use oxygen effectively is solely dependent on the
respiratory system’s ability to collect oxygen and, the cardiovascular system to transport the oxygen. The utilization of
oxygen in the body is called oxygen consumption or oxygen uptake.
LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
Tidal volume (TV): The volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing (men: 4600ml and
women: 3600ml)
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): Additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after normal
inspiration (about 3100ml)
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): Additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal
exhalation (about 1200ml)
Residual volume (RV): Amount of air remaining in the lungs after expiratory reserve
volumes have been expired (about 1200ml)
Total lung capacity (TLC): about 6000ml
Vital Capacity (VC): Total amount of air that can be expired after fully inhaling (about 4800ml)
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): Maximum amount of air that can be inspired (about 3600ml)
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Amount of air remaining in the lungs after normal
expiration (about 2400ml)
MECHANICS OF BREATHING
The action of breathing in and out is due to changes of pressure within the thorax, in comparison
with the outside. This action is also known as external respiration. When we inhale the intercostal
muscles (between the ribs) and diaphragm contract to expand the chest cavity.
The diaphragm flattens and moves downwards, and the intercostal muscles move the rib cage
upwards and out. This increase in size decreases the internal air pressure and so air from the outside (at
a now higher pressure that inside the thorax) rushes into the lungs to equalise the pressures.
When we exhale the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax and return to their resting positions.
This reduces the size of the thoracic cavity, thereby increasing the pressure and forcing air out of
the lungs.
The primary functions of your lungs are to transport oxygen from the air you breathe into your
bloodstream while taking away carbon dioxide, which is released into the air when you breathe
out.
Your left and right lungs aren’t exactly the same. The lung on the left side of your body is divided
into two lobes while the lung on your right side is divided into three. The left lung is also slightly
smaller, allowing room for your heart.
Can you live without one lung? Yes you can, it limits your physical ability but doesn’t stop you from
living a relatively normal life. Many people around the world live with just one lung.
People who have a large lung capacity can send oxygen around their body faster. You can increase
your lung capacity with regular exercise.
As well as other parts of your body and your general health, smoking is bad for your lungs.
Smoking can cause lung cancer among other lung‐affecting diseases.
Asthma is a common disease that affects the lungs. Asthma attacks happen when your airways
narrow after being irritated. The narrow airways make it hard for you to breathe in air.
Pneumonia is a dangerous disease that makes it harder for your lungs to absorb oxygen from the air you
breathe.
Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from 50 ‐ 75 square meters; roughly the same
area as one side of a tennis court
LUNG ANATOMY
• Left Lung
• Two lobes; superior and inferior, also lingula and cardiac notch, oblique fissure
PLEURA
Cellular respiration produces energy by breaking down carbohydrates, fat, and protein to synthesise
energy phosphates. Phosphate bonds are where energy is stored and then released when the bonds are
broken. Muscle cells use it to power the myofilaments, which interact in the sliding filament mechanism.
Aerobic refers to the production of energy with the presence of oxygen. One of the main
characteristics of the aerobic energy system is the ability to use carbohydrate, fat, and protein to
produce ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). ATP is acellular structure that supplies energy for many
biomechanical processes by undergoing enzymatic hydrolysis.
ATP is the most common of these high‐energy phosphates and is the energy currency of the myofilaments.
ATP is synthesised from ADP (Adenosine di‐phosphate) which is continually recycled within the muscle cells.
Only a small amount of ATP can be stored in the muscle cells.
ATP can be produced both by the aerobic (oxygen dependent) and anaerobic (oxygen independent) systems.
Exercise intensity and duration with power/energy system is used for example, low and moderate
intensity exercise utilizes large muscle groups over an extended time use oxygen to produce ATP
such as, long distance running or cycling. To utilize the aerobic energy system, the working muscle,
heart, and lungs have to be harmoniously working together.
Anaerobic energy does not require oxygen. Anaerobic ATP production in the absence of oxygen as follows:
− The lactate system supplies immediate energy by breaking down fuel
− The phosphagen system relies on the energy reserves in the muscles for instant energy
This energy system provides power for primary high intensity, short duration bouts of exercise. E.g.
short sprinting events or power lifting. This system is activated at the onset of the activity because of
its ability to produce energy rapidly compared to other energy systems.
The Aerobic System: Utilises a process known as glycolysis to produce less ATP than is produced in the
aerobic system. Muscle glycogen is rapidly broken down into pyruvate during high intensity activities.
Without adequate oxygen in the muscles, working pyruvate is converted into lactate. Lactate is NOT a
waste product but rather a metabolite in anaerobic metabolism. Lactic acid is produced when there is an
excess of lactate in the muscles. It eventually spills into the blood and combines with proton,which is
produced under excessive conditions. Lactic acid does NOT cause DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness) but
rather temporary and localized fatigue. In summary ‐ the lactate system provides intense and rapid supply of
ATP in anaerobic activity.
The Lactate/Glycolytic system: Utilises a process known as glycolysis to produce less ATP than is produced
in the aerobic system. Muscle glycogen is rapidly broken down into pyruvate during high intensity
activities. Without adequate oxygen in the muscles, working pyruvate is converted into lactate. Lactate
is NOT a waste product but rather a metabolite in anaerobic metabolism.
The Phosphate System: The phosphagen system is an alternative to the anaerobic system, which
utilises the immediately available stores of ATP in the body for intense and dynamic bursts of energy
such as power lifting. ATP is stored as phosphate creatine (PC) and can produce enormous amounts of
energy for approximately 10 seconds. (For activity lasting longer than 10 seconds, the lactate system
takes over).
DYSFUNCTIONAL BREATHING
If there is a dysfunction in the cardiorespiratory system, it can impact negatively on the kinetic chain.
Alterations in breathing patterns could ultimately disturb this process. Dysfunctional breathing is very
much associated with stress or anxiety. The following scenarios could occur through dysfunctional
breathing:
Breathing becomes shallower, thus overuse of the secondary respiratory muscles such as the
the upper trapezius, levator scapula and scalenes more than the diaphragm. These muscles
are connected to the cervical and cranial portions of the body and increased, or overuse could
cause headaches, light‐headedness dizziness and in some cases shortness of breath.
Can lead to altered carbon dioxide and oxygen blood content that stimulates various sensors
Inadequate oxygen and carbon dioxide retention can create fatigue and sore muscles
Inadequate joint motion of the spine and ribcage
Increased blood pressure
(TYPE 1) SLOW‐TWITCH FIBRES ‐ are used during endurance activities as they tire slowly. Slow
twitch fibres generate low tension for extended periods of time such as the abdominals and
calves. They have a higher number of capillaries, mitochondria (which transform energy into food
and then into ATP) which allows for improved delivery of oxygen. Type I muscles are often
referred to as “red fibres” as they contain myoglobin which is similar to red pigment found in
blood.
(TYPE 2) FAST‐TWITCH FIBRES ‐ generate fast action for short time periods. They fatigue quickly.
Examples of sports where fast‐twitch fibres are recruited arethe100m sprint and long jump. They
generally contain fewer capillaries, mitochondria, and myoglobin. They have a lower oxidative
capacity and are often referred to as “white fibres”.
INTERMEDIATE FIBRES ‐ have potential function to be either slow twitch or fast twitch. It is
determined by the type of activity as these types of fibres are highly adaptable.
MUSCLES AS MOVERS
Muscles provide the body with a variety of functions. The muscle movements are categorised as
follows: AGONIST, ANTAGONIST, SYNERGIST, and STABILIZER.
Although we rarely think about them, the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they
release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system is
instrumental in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as
sexual function and reproductive processes. In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body
processes that happen slowly, such as cell growth. Faster processes like breathing and body
movement are controlled by the nervous system. But even though the nervous system and
endocrine system are separate systems, they often work together to help the body
function properly.
The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus, a collection of specialised cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain,
is the primary link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus
control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone
secretions from the pituitary.
Although it is no bigger than a pea, the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain just beneath the
hypothalamus, is considered the most important part of the endocrine system. It's often called the
“mastergland” because it makes hormones that control several other endocrine glands. The production
and secretion of pituitary hormones can be influenced by factors such as emotions and seasonal changes.
To accomplish this, the hypothalamus relays information sensed by the brain (such as environmental
temperature, light exposure patterns, and feelings) to the pituitary gland.
Growth hormone ‐ which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the
body’s handling of nutrients and minerals
Prolactin ‐ which activates milk production in women who are
breastfeeding Thyrotropin ‐ which stimulates the thyroid gland to
produce thyroid hormones Corticotropin ‐ which stimulates the
adrenal gland to produce certain hormones
The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system to reduce sensitivity
to pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex
hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women. The
posterior lobe of the pituitary release’s antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance
through its effect on the kidneys and urine output; and oxytocin, which triggers the contractions of
the uterus that occur during labor.
The female gonads, the ovaries, are located in the pelvis. They produce eggs and secrete the female
hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is involved in the development of female sexual
features such as breast growth, the accumulation of bodyfat around the hips and thighs, and the
growth spurt that occurs during puberty. Both estrogen and progesterone are also involved in
pregnancy and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.
The Pancreas
The pancreas produces (in addition to others) two important hormones, insulin and glucagon. They
work together to maintain a steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to keep the body
supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy.
Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each hormone has its
own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that possess
receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific
receptors and these hormone‐receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner
workings of the cell.
When hormone levels reach a certain normal or necessary amount, further secretion is controlled
by important body mechanisms to maintain that level of hormone in the blood. This regulation of
hormone secretion may involve the hormone itself or another substance in the blood related to
the hormone.
For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted adequate amounts of thyroid hormones into the blood,
the pituitary gland senses the normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream and adjusts its
release of thyrotropin, the pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones. Another example is parathyroid hormone, which increases the level of calcium in the blood.
When the blood calcium level rises, the
Parathyroid glands sense the change and decrease their secretion of parathyroid hormone. This
turnoff process is called a negative feedback system.
Adrenal Insufficiency
This condition is characterized by decreased function of the adrenal cortex and the consequent
under production of adrenal corticosteroid hormones. The symptoms of adrenal insufficiency may
include weakness, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes. Doctors treat
adrenal insufficiency by giving replacement corticosteroid hormones.
Cushing Syndrome
Excessive amounts of glucocorticoid hormones in the body can lead to Cushing syndrome. In
children, it most often results when a child takes large doses of synthetic corticosteroid drugs (such as
prednisone) to treat autoimmune diseases such as lupus. If the condition is due to a tumor in the
pituitary gland that produces excessive amounts of corticotropin and stimulates the adrenals to
overproduce corticosteroids, it's known as Cushing disease. Symptoms may take years to develop and
include obesity, growth failure, muscle weakness, easy bruising of the skin, acne, high blood pressure,
and psychological changes. Depending on the specific cause, doctors may treat this condition with
surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or drugs that block the production of hormones.
Type 1 Diabetes
When the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin, type 1 diabetes (previously known as juvenile
diabetes) occurs. Symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger, urination, and weight loss. In children and
teens, the condition is usually an autoimmune disorder in which specific immune system cells and
antibodies produced by the immune system attack and destroy the cells of the pancreas that
produce insulin. The disease can cause long‐term complications including kidney problems, nerve
damage, blindness, and early coronary heart disease and stroke. To control their blood sugar levels
and reduce the risk of developing diabetes complications, kids with this condition need regular
injections of insulin.
Type 2 Diabetes
Unlike type 1 diabetes, in which the body can't produce normal amounts of insulin, in type 2 diabetes
the body is unable to respond to insulin normally. Children and teens with the condition tend to be
overweight, and it is believed that excess body fat plays a role in the insulin resistance that
characterises the disease. In fact, the rising prevalence of this type of diabetes in kids has paralleled the
dramatically increasing rates of obesity among kids in recent years. The symptoms and possible
complications of type 2 diabetes are basically the same as those of type 1. Some kids and teens can
control their blood sugar level with dietary changes, exercise, and oral medications, but many will
need to take insulin injections like patients with type 1 diabetes.
Gestational Diabetes
‐ Due to an increase in body mass when pregnant (fast increase in body mass) or due to the baby being big.
Gestational diabetes is not type 3 diabetes. Gestational diabetes usually occurs during pregnancy.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood are excessively
high. Symptoms may include weight loss, nervousness, tremors, excessive sweating, increased heart
rate and blood pressure, protruding eyes, and a swelling in the neck from an enlarged thyroid gland
(goiter). In kids the condition is usually caused by Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder in which
specific antibodies produced by the immune system stimulate the thyroid gland to become
overactive. The disease may be controlled with medications or by removal or destruction of the
thyroid gland through surgery or radiation treatments.
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood are abnormally
low. Thyroid hormone deficiency slows body processes and may lead to fatigue, a slow heart rate,
dry skin, weight gain, constipation, and, in kids, slowing of growth and delayed puberty. Hashimoto's
thyroiditis, which results from an autoimmune process that damages the thyroid and blocks thyroid
hormone production, is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in kids. Infants can also be born
with an absent or underdeveloped thyroid gland, resulting in hypothyroidism. It can be treated with
oral thyroid hormone replacement.
Your endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that control physiological functions
in your body. Exercise boosts the number of hormones circulating in your body and strengthens
receptor sites on target organ cells. Your endocrine response to exercise can improve organ function,
physical appearance and your state of mind. Vigorous exercise, in particular, might improve endocrine
function.
Metabolic Rate
Exercise, particularly heavy weightlifting, stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone from your
anterior pituitary gland, and the luteinizing hormone triggers testosterone production. Exercise
that involves intense bursts of energy also stimulates the release of thyroxine from your thyroid
gland. Exercise can help you control or reduce your weight because testosterone and thyroxine speed
up your metabolism.
Insulin is a hormone that regulates your glucose, or blood sugar, by transporting it to muscles and
tissues that use glucose for energy. Excessive insulin in your blood reduces your sensitivity to insulin
and can lead to diabetes. More glucose stays in the blood when insulin sensitivity goes down, and
high blood glucose can cause nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, organ failure, and circulation
problems and can lead to coma if left untreated.
Exercise might increase your insulin sensitivity by reducing blood concentrations of insulin. Blood
insulin levels begin decreasing after 10 minutes of aerobic exercise, and weight training might increase
your sensitivity to insulin at rest.
Blood Flow
The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine during exercise and increases epinephrine levels at higher
exercise intensities. Epinephrine increases the amount of blood that your heart pumps.
Epinephrine also enhances your ability to use muscles during exercise by widening blood vessels,
which lets your muscles get more oxygen‐rich blood. Thyroxine secretions during exercise increase
the amount of blood in your body by about 30%, and these secretions might remain elevated for
around five hours.
Psychological Effects
The effects of exercise on your endocrine system might positively affect your mental state. Exercise‐
induced testosterone might increase confidence and libido. Conversely, low testosterone levels might
inhibit your motivation, self‐confidence, concentration and memory. Your pituitary gland might produce
a five‐fold increase in blood endorphin levels after 30 minutes of exercise.
Endorphins block your sensitivity to pain and can reduce tension or anxiety by inducing a sense of
euphoria.
MODULE 2: BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanics is the study that uses principles of physics to show how forces interact with a human body. This includes
muscle actions, anatomical locations, anatomical terminology, description of joint movement, planes of motion, force
couples, leverage forces, the force‐velocity relationship.
1. BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanics uses the principles of mechanics for solving problems related to the structure and function of
living organisms.
Biomechanics – Science involving the study of biological systems from a mechanical perspective.
- Application of mechanical principles in the study of living organisms.
Mechanics – the branch of physics involving analysis of the actions of forces, to study the anatomical and
functional aspects of living organisms.
Kinematics and Kinetics are further subdivisions of biomechanical study. Kinetics is the description of motion,
including the pattern and speed of movement sequencing by the body segments that often translates to the
degree of coordination and individual displays.
Kinematics describes the appearance of motion.
Kinetics is the study of forces associated with motion.
Linear motion – Involves uniform motion of the system of interest, with all system parts moving in the same
direction at the same speed. Linear motion is also referred to translation.
Angular motion – Angular motion is rotation around a central imaginary line known as the axis of rotation.,
which is oriented perpendicular to the plane in which the rotation occurs.
General motion – Most human movement activities are categorized as general motion. When translation and
rotation are combined, the resulting movement is general motion.
Mechanical systems – Before determining the nature of a movement, the mechanical system of interest must
be defined. In many circumstances, the entire human body is chosen as the system to be analysed.
MUSCLE ACTIONS
CONCENTRIC
Muscle exerts force, shortens and overcomes resistance (positive contraction). A concentric muscle contraction is a type
of muscle activation that increases tension on a muscle as it shortens. Concentric contractions are the most common
types of muscle activation athletes perform in a gym when lifting weights.
ECCENTRIC
Muscle exerts force, lengthens and is overcome with resistance. An eccentric muscle contraction is a type of muscle
activation that increases tension on a muscle as it lengthens. Eccentric contractions typically occur when a muscle opposes
a stronger force, which causes the muscle to lengthen as it contracts.
ISOMETRIC
Muscle exerts force, but does not lengthen, i.e. the tension developed by the muscle is equal to the load against which it is
acting.
For optimal muscle function, muscles need to develop moving and holding strength. Isometric action is mainly a function of
tonic stabilisers. Muscle action that produces movement occurs in phasic mobilises. Isometric exercise is a type of muscle
workout in which you perform isometric muscle contraction. An isometric muscle contraction occurs when your muscle
exerts force without changing its length. In other words, when you do an isometric muscle contraction, your joint doesn't
move.
Unlike concentric (when the muscle shortens as it works) and eccentric (when the muscle lengthens when it works) types of
contractions, isometric muscle contraction neither lengthens nor shortens the muscle fibers.
Perhaps most important is that for people with high blood pressure (hypertension), isometric exercise is not a good idea.
Isometric exercise tends to increase your blood pressure.
Isometric muscle contraction may be useful when you're immobilized and/or healing, and you need to reduce your level
of activity. If moving a part of your body would damage your joint in some way, your physical therapist or doctor may start
you with isometrics. Isometrics are also used to help people who have been very inactive to get their muscle groups firing
again.
Examples:
It's possible to strengthen the muscles at the back of your neck with isometric exercise: Start with your head and neck in
vertical alignment with your trunk. Interlace your fingers and place your clasped hands behind your head. They should be
placed at the bottom of your skull where it starts to curve down. With your hands, pull your head forward, but resist that
force by pulling back with your head. NOTE: If you have neck pain or an injury, be sure to talk to your health care provider
before doing this isometric exercise.
The central nervous system (CNS) constantly processes sensory information processed by movement. The information comes
from special sensors:
MUSCLE ‐ MUSCLE SPINDLE
JOINTS ‐ SENSORS IN THE CAPSULE
TENDONS ‐ GOLGI TENDON ORGANS
ANATOMICAL LOCATIONS
Movements are explained and described in relation to a standard anatomical position in which the body is standing upright,
feet parallel, arms hanging to the side and palms facing forward.
1. Mediolateral Axis – Imaginary line around which the sagittal plane rotation occurs
2. Anteroposterior Axis – Imaginary line around which frontal plane rotation occurs
3. Longitudinal Axis
Anatomical Reference Planes
Cardinal Plane – Three imaginary perpendicular reference planes that divide the body in half by mass
Sagittal – Also known as anteroposterior (AP) plane, that divide the body into medial and lateral
segments
Movements: Flexion, Extension, Hyperextension, Dorsiflexion, Plantarflexion
Frontal – Also known as Coronal plane, that divide the body in anterior and posterior segments
Movements: Abduction, Adduction, Lateral flexion (Left and Right), Elevation, Depression, Ulnar
deviation, Radial deviation, Eversion, Inversion, Medial and Lateral Rotation
Transverse – Divide the body into superior and inferior segments
Movements: Pronation, Supination, Horizontal Abduction and Adduction, Circumduction
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
Medial plane Towards the midline of the body
Sagittal plane Any plane parallel to the medial plane. (Movements can be seen from the side)
Anterior Facing forward or located at the front
Posterior Behind or towards the back
Proximal Towards the center of the body
Distal Away from the center of the body
Superior of cephalic Above or towards the head
Inferior or Caudal Below or towards the feet
Prone Lying face down on chest
Transverse plane Divides the body into superior and inferior (upper and lower) parts. Movements can be seen
from the top or bottom
VIEW ORIENTATION AND ANATOMICAL PLANES
1.
Superior
2.
Medial
3.
Posterior
4.
Lateral
5.
Anterior
6.
Dorsal
7.
Palmar
8.
Proximal
9.
Distal
10.
Dorsal
11.
Plantar
12.
Inferior
DESCRIPTION OF JOINT MOVEMENT
FLEXION Decreasing the angle between 2 bones in the sagital plane, e.g. flexion of the hip
EXTENTION Movements in a sagittal plane that take part of the body backwards from the anatomical
Position e.g. Extension of the Neck
HYPEREXTENTION Extension beyond the normal range of movements, e.g. Lumbar spine extension.
ABDUCTION Moving the body away from the medial plane, e.g. abduction of hip or side splits on the
reformer.
ADDUCTION Bringing the body part back towards or beyond the midline, e.g. hip adduction or crossover
press on electric chair.
LATERAL FLEXION Movements of the trunk or neck in the frontal plane away from the medial plane, e.g. the
mermaid.
LATERAL ROTATION A movement in a transverse plane which takes a body part outward, e.g. lateral rotation of
the hips (original PILATES stance).
MEDIAL ROTATION A movement in the transverse plane which takes a body part inward, e.g. medial rotation of
the shoulder.
SUPINATION Refers to the forearm when the palms face forward. It can also refer to the arch of the foot
turning outwards.
PRONATION Refers to the forearm when the palms of the hand face downwards/backwards. It can also
refer to the arch of the foot being flush with the ground (flat footed)
The neuromuscular system is responsible for manipulating force. The amount of leverage of the kinetic chain will depend on the
leverage of the muscle in relation to the resistance. The difference between the distance that the weight is from the centre of the
joint and the muscle attachment and the direction the muscle pulls will determine the muscle efficiency that will be able to
manipulate the movement. The muscle attachment sites or the line of pull of the muscles generates cannot be altered. The
simplest way to alter the amount of force that a joint generates is to move the resistance. I.e. the closer the weight is to the joint
the less force (torque) it creates and, the further the weight is from the joint, the more force it creates.
RANGE OF MOTION EXERCISES (ROM)
Range of motion refers to the distance and direction a joint can move to its full potential. Each specific joint has a
normal range of motion that is expressed in degrees after being measured with a goniometer (i.e., an instrument that
measures angles from axis of the joint).
Limited range of motion refers to a joint that has a reduction in its ability to move. The reduced motion may be a
mechanical problem with the specific joint or it may be caused by diseases such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, or
other types of arthritis. Pain, swelling, and stiffness associated with arthritis can limit the range of motion of a joint and
impair function and the ability to perform usual daily activities.
Range‐of‐Motion Exercises
Physical therapy can help to improve joint function by focusing on range‐of‐motion exercises. The goal of these exercises is to gently
increase range of motion while decreasing pain, swelling, and stiffness. There are three types of range‐of‐motion exercises:
• Active range‐of‐motion ‐ patient exercises without any assistance
• Active assistive range‐of‐motion ‐ patient requires some help from therapist to do the exercises
• Passive range‐of‐motion ‐ therapist or equipment moves patient through range of motion (no effort from patient)
Stationary arm:
Placed parallel with the longitudinal axis of the fixed part
Movable arm:
Along the longitudinal axis of the movable segment
Axis of rotation(pin):
At the intersection of the stationary & movable arms
Squat
group (rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis and vastus & sartorius
In the downward phase, the same muscles groups work, but this
Press up/Push up
The press up also involves control of
descent against gravity and hence
109
Example of how to conduct an anatomical analysis of movement
Muscles and joints involved in a pushup
Pushups are a body‐weight exercise that works the chest, shoulder, triceps and abdominal muscles. Pushups can enhance any
fitness program, whether your goals are to build muscular strength or endurance. There are many variations on this classic
exercise, with or without additional equipment, that are used to either change the difficulty or challenge the muscles in a
different way. The basic mechanics require a series of movement at multiple joints to raise and lower the body.
Setup
A standard pushup begins in plank position: In a prone position (face down) on a mat, supporting yourself on your toes and
with your hands out slightly wider than your shoulders. You should maintain a straight line through your shoulders, hips and
back, making sure you do not dip or arch the lower back. Steadying yourself in this position requires isometric muscle action
from the deltoid muscle group in your shoulders and abdominals throughout the exercise. Isometric muscle action occurs
when no movement is associated with a contraction. (Isometric muscle contraction – muscle length stays the same)
Descending Phase
The pushup motion begins with an inhale as you bend your elbows to lower your body toward the floor. Bending your elbow
is known as elbow flexion. In prone position, you are working with gravity as the elbow flexes in order to control yourself on
the way down. This motion requires an eccentric contraction from the triceps. Once your elbows are flexed at 90 degrees, you
begin to horizontally adduct the shoulder blades, squeezing them together, to finish the move.
Ascending Phase
From the "down" position, concentric muscle action is required to lift yourself back up against gravity. Your pectoralis major
is the main mover in this phase of a pushup as you abduct your shoulder blades. Elbow extension is caused by the triceps to
push you back to starting position. A 2005 study from the "Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research" found that the
pectoralis major and triceps brachii were responsible for lifting 40 percent of the body's total weight in a normal pushup.
Variations
According to a 1990 study in the journal "Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation," the distance between your hands, the
positioning of your hands relative to your shoulders, your relation to gravity, the positioning of your feet and your speed
all affect the load on all muscles involved in a pushup, including the main movers and the static supporters. For example,
modifying a pushup by performing it on your knees reduces the amount of weight being lowered and lifted, which reduces
the total load on the muscles.
Sports biomechanics is the science that deals with an athlete’s movement while also considering the internal and
external forces that are in effect while performing any desired movement.
Sport biomechanics studies the effects of forces on sport performance. Using laws and principles grounded in physics that
apply to human movement, athletes and coaches can make sound decisions to develop efficient sport techniques.
When coaches understand how forces work in sports and how athletes can leverage these forces, they have a clear
advantage over those who lack these tools. Coaches with a command of both mental training tools and sports training
principles can make amazing things happen on the field.
110