International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

Energy absorption of thin walled tube filled with gradient auxetic

structures-theory and simulation
Qiang Gao a, Wei-Hsin Liao a,b,∗
a
Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China
b
Institute of Intelligent Design and Manufacturing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: In recent years, auxetic structures have been applied in the energy absorption field due to the unique mechani-
Auxetic structures cal properties. Inspired by foam filled structures, this study proposes a thin walled structure filled with double
Thin walled tube arrowed auxetic structure and investigates the energy absorption characteristics. The gradient configuration is
Energy absorption
introduced to improve the energy absorption performance. The effects of the gradients on the energy absorp-
Gradient
tion are investigated. A theoretical model is also established to predict the energy absorption to quantify the
energy dissipated due to thin walled tubes, gradient auxetic structures and their interactions. The accuracy of the
theoretical model to predict the energy absorption characteristics is validated through the numerical simulations.

1. Introduction
Nowadays, thin walled structures have been widely applied in
aerospace, automobile and civil industries as energy absorbers thanks
to the crashworthiness capacity and lightweight properties. In recent
decades, substantial efforts have been dedicated to improving the crash-
worthiness performance including the lower peak crushing force and
higher specific energy absorption, etc.
Thin walled tubes with different cross-sections such as square [1,2],
hexagon [3,4], circle [5,6] and ellipse [7–9] etc. were investigated.
On the basis, more configurations have been designed to improve the
crashworthiness performance. The most popular method is filling the
aluminum foam into the thin walled tubes where extra energy can be
absorbed due to the interaction effects between the tubes and foams
[10,11]. Multi-cell configurations tried to improve the crashworthiness
performance by introducing more corners, which have been proven to
have prominent effects on the energy absorption [12,13]. To reduce
the peak crushing force during the impact procedures, the corrugated
tubes and some sophisticated triggers were designed [14,15]. Fang et al.
[16,17] designed the thin walled tubes with gradient thickness and con-
cluded that the gradient designs greatly benefit the crashworthiness per-
formance. Functionally gradient foam are also considered to be candi-
dates as fillers to obtain better crashworthiness performances [18,19].
Considering the realistic application scenarios, the energy absorption
performances of numerous tubes under axial, oblique and lateral impact
loadings and three-point bending loadings were explored. Regarding the
oblique impact loadings, numerous studies have concluded that the ta-
pered configuration is a good option [20–22]. Gao et al. [23,24] also
proved that the tubes with ellipse cross sections perform better than the
others under oblique impact loadings. Various bio-inspired structures
were proposed to improve the crashworthiness performances [4,25,26].
Corrugated configurations have also been proven to be effective to re-
duce the peak crushing force during impact process [15,27,28].
The aforementioned research mainly focused on the thin walled
tubes made of metal materials. Since the carbon fiber reinforced plastics
(CFRP) has higher specific stiffness and strength, superior energy ab-
sorption capacity and excellent design flexibility, researchers devoted
great efforts into the study of the CFRP thin walled tubes. Mamalis
et al. [29,30] presented the crashworthiness characteristics of the square
CFRP tubes subject to axial impact loading. Three typical deformation
modes were classified, and the failure and energy absorption mecha-
nisms were explored. However, there are some limitations for using the
CFRP material because of the high cost, unstable failure modes and brit-
tleness. The composite/metal hybrid structure was proposed to over-
come the shortcomings to take advantages of both materials [31,32].
The energy absorption performances of the hybrid structures under ax-
ial [33], oblique [34] and lateral [35] impact loadings were explored
extensively. The energy-absorbing mechanisms and structural crashwor-
thiness of laterally crushed thin-walled structures filled with aluminum
foam and CFRP skeleton were investigated numerically and experimen-
tally [36].
Honeycomb is also an excellent energy absorber to attract wide at-
tentions, especially the auxetic honeycomb [37–42]. Auxetic structure
with negative Poisson’s ratio was first proposed by Lakes [43]. They

∗
Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China.
E-mail address: whliao@cuhk.edu.hk (W.-H. Liao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2021.106475
Received 6 December 2020; Received in revised form 17 April 2021; Accepted 23 April 2021
Available online 1 May 2021
0020-7403/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao
can contract laterally when compressed to increase the stiffness to ab-
sorb more energy. Tan et al. [44] parametrically studied the deforma-
tion modes and energy absorption performance of the re-entrant hier-
archical hexagonal honeycombs. Wang et al. [45] combined star and
double arrowed structures to form a hybrid structure with two plateau
stress regions. To further improve the energy absorption performance,
auxetic structure with enhanced mechanical properties were designed
and explored [46,47]. Following the foam-filled structures, honeycomb-
filled structures were also proposed to utilize the interaction between
thin walled tubes and honeycombs [48–52]. However, few literatures
about the thin walled tubes filled with auxetic structures have been re-
ported. The advantages of filling the conventional/auxetic honeycombs
into square tubes were explored numerically [53]. Zhou et al. [54,55]
and Wang et al. [56] simulated and optimized the energy absorption
performance of crash box filled with auxetic structures to improve the
safety of the vehicles. However, the theoretical analyses of the structures
have not been performed. Also, the gradient auxetic structures can be
introduced to improve the crashworthiness performance. It is also de-
sired to investigate the effects of the gradients on the energy absorption
performances.
In this study, a square thin walled tube filled with gradient double
arrowed auxetic structure is proposed. The energy absorption perfor-
mances of the proposed structure under axial impact loading are inves-
tigated with finite element analysis. The effects of the gradients on the
energy absorption characteristics are discussed. A theoretical model is
also established to predict the mean crushing force and energy absorp-
tion and validated with numerical simulation.
2. Finite element modeling
2.1. Geometric description
The square tube filled with auxetic structure under axial impact load-
ing is illustrated in Fig. 1, where the bottom is clamped, and the top is
impacted by a rigid wall with constant velocity (v = 10 m/s). The geome-
try of the thin walled tube is determined by three parameters: the width
of square cross section, a = 80 mm; the thickness, t = 1 mm, and the
height of the tube, H, which is determined to be identical to the height of
auxetic structures. Double arrowed auxetic structure is employed in this
study due to its unique mechanical properties and broad applications
2
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475
Fig. 1. Thin walled tube filled with auxetic
structures under axial impact loading.
[57–62]. As shown in Fig. 2, three-dimensional double arrowed auxetic
structure is formed by intersecting two identical two-dimensional aux-
etic structures. A unit cell in the auxetic structure is composed two kinds
of beams, short-inclined beams (S-beams) and long-inclined beams (L-
beams) with beam thickness, ts and tl . Herein, ts and tl are assumed to
be identical as T for simplicity. The angles of S-beams and L-beams in
terms of z axis are represented by 𝜃 1 and 𝜃 2 . The half width of unit cell is
represented by l. There are nx, ny and nz unit cells in three-dimensional
double arrowed auxetic structures in x, y and z directions.
The gradient auxetic structure is designed to have different thick-
nesses for each layer in z-direction as shown in Fig. 3. The variable
thickness is governed by the following power-law function:
𝑖 − 1 10𝑛
𝑇𝑖 (𝑛) = 𝑇min + (𝑇max − 𝑇min ) × ( ) (1)
𝑛𝑧 − 1
where Ti is the beam thickness of the ith layer, n is defined as the
gradient index and varies from −1 to 1, and Tmin and Tmax are the
minimum and maximum beam thicknesses, respectively. In this study,
Tmin =0.4mm and Tmax = 2mmare adopted. In addition, the pattern with
largest beam thickness for the first layer is defined as a descending pat-
tern, while the pattern with smallest thickness for the first layer is de-
fined as an ascending pattern. Fig. 4 illustrates the beam thickness vari-
ations versus normalized layers in z direction.
2.2. Finite element model
The energy absorption performance of thin walled tube filled with
gradient auxetic structures is characterized by the explicit nonlinear fi-
nite element code LS-DYNA. Belytschko-Lin-Tsay shell elements with
five integration points across the thickness are utilized to model the thin
walled tube and auxetic structure. Different thicknesses are assigned to
beams in the corresponding layers according to aforementioned equa-
tion. A convergency test is performed to determine the suitable element
size of 2 mm. A rigid wall with mass of 1000 kg and initial velocity
of 10 m/s is placed on the top of the structures proposed. “Automatic
surface to surface” contact is applied between the gradient auxetic struc-
tures and thin walled tubes to avoid interpenetration during the defor-
mation process. Self-contact interaction is simulated with an “automatic
single surface” contact algorithm. The interaction between the rigid wall
and thin walled tube filled with auxetic structure is modelled by the
‘node to surface’ contact algorithm. The static and dynamic coefficients
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao
Fig. 2. Geometric descriptions of double arrowed auxetic structure (a) Two-dimensional (b) Three-dimensional.
Fig. 3. Double arrowed auxetic structures with gradient thickness.
of friction are set as 0.2 and 0.3, respectively [17]. The material prop-
erties for thin walled tube and auxetic structure are obtained by tensile
tests as shown in Fig. 5. They are modelled by the piece-wise linear
plasticity material (#24) in the LS-DYNA.
2.3. Validation
The prototypes of the thin walled tubes filled with the auxetic struc-
tures were fabricated via selective laser melting (SLM) technique to con-
duct the compression tests for validating the numerical modeling. Dur-
ing the process, an input power of 370 W, a scan speed of 1300 m/s,
and a spacing between scan tracks of 190 𝜇m AlSi10Mg powders were
supplied by Eos Gmbh Electro Optical Systems. The thickness of each
powder layer was set as 30 𝜇m in the printing direction. The prototypes
were also performed at 250°C for four hours to relief the stress. The ge-
3
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475
Fig. 4. Thickness variation versus normalized layers in z direction.
Table 1
Geometric parameters of prototypes.
Tmin /mm Tmax /mm t/mm n 𝜃 1 /○ 𝜃 2 /○ l/mm
1 1 1 – 45 20 10
ometric parameters of prototypes were listed in Table 1. The number
of cells of all prototypes in x, y and z directions are 2, 2, and 3. Quasi-
static compression tests were performed on a universal testing machine
CSS2200 to obtain the force-displacement curves. In the validation part,
the compression speed in the experiments was set as 3 mm/s. However,
in the numerical simulation, the impact speed of the rigid wall was set
as 1 m/s to reduce the effects of the velocity and calculation time. It is
found that there are reasonable agreements between the numerical and
experimental results for structures as shown in Fig. 6. Two experimental
force-displacement curves match very well indicating the experiments
are repeatable. The quasi-static compression tests cannot totally guar-
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

250

200

Stress (MPa)
150

100

50

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

(a) Strain

(b)

Fig. 5. Material properties for thin walled tube and auxetic structure (a) Tensile specimen; (b) Stress-strain curves of printing specimen.

50

Numerical results
40 Experimental results #1
Experimental results #2
Force (kN)
30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)

(b)

(a)

Fig. 6. Experimental validation (a) Prototypes and finite element model; (b) Force-displacement curves.

antee the accuracy of finite element model for impact loading; the ex- Mean crushing force is the ratio of EA to 𝛿, which can be expressed
periments validate the method to establish the finite element model is as:
correct. The only difference between the quasi-static and dynamic finite 𝐸𝐴
𝐹𝑚 = (3)
element model is the impact speed. Therefore, the finite element model 𝛿
is regarded to be accurate enough to predict the energy absorption char- To eliminate the effect of the mass, SEA is proposed and given by:
acteristics of the proposed structures. 𝐸𝐴
𝑆𝐸 𝐴= (4)
𝑀
3. Results and discussions where M is the total mass of the hybrid structure.
CFE represents the uniformity of force displacement curve. It is for-
3.1. Crashworthiness criteria mulated as:
𝐹𝑚
𝐶𝐹 𝐸 = × 100% (5)
The crashworthiness performances of energy absorber are charac- 𝑃 𝐶𝐹
terized by peak crushing force (PCF), mean crushing force (Fm ), energy 3.2. Comparison between non-gradient and gradient auxetic honeycomb
absorption (EA), specific energy absorption (SEA). and crushing force filled tubes
efficiency (CFE). The energy absorption is defined as the total energy
absorbed during crushing process, which can be represented as: The energy absorption performances of the square tubes filled with
𝛿 non-gradient and gradient auxetic structures are compared. Both the
𝐸 𝐴= 𝐹 (𝑠)𝑑 𝑠 (2) ascending and descending gradient thickness are introduced and the
∫0
gradient index n is set as zero. The masses of the structures are de-
where F(s) is the instantaneous crushing force in the impact direction, signed to be identical. In Fig. 7, it is noticeable that the thin walled
𝛿 is the stroke distance. tubes with respect to ascending and descending gradient structures

4
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao
Non-gradient
structure
Ascending
gradient
structure
Descending
gradient
structure
0 mm 55 mm
have similar impact responses. However, the thin walled tube in the
non-gradient hybrid structures deforms as an irregular pattern, which
is affected by the auxetic filler. The deformation patterns of the aux-
etic fillers are illustrated in Fig. 8. Auxetic filler in non-gradient hy-
brid structures deforms uniformly since the stiffness of each layer is
identical. After introducing the gradients, the bottom of auxetic filler
for ascending structures is softer and deforms firstly. While in the de-
scending gradient hybrid structures, auxetic structures deform from
the top of structures and collapse layer by layer during the impact
procedures.
Fig. 9 compares the impact responses of the thin walled tubes
filled with non-gradient, ascending and descending gradient structures.
The crushing force of the thin walled tube filled with non-gradient
structure increases to a peak value and drop to a steady force. There
are also peak crushing forces for thin walled tubes filled with gra-
dient auxetic structures. After the peak values, the crushing forces
drop dramatically and rise gradually because of the gradient configu-
rations, which are also corresponding to the deformation patterns. The
crushing forces of the thin walled tubes filled with ascending and de-
scending gradient structures are similar and they are less than that
of the thin walled tubes filled with non-gradient structures in the ini-
tial deformation process. However, once the thicker auxetic structures
begin to deform, the crushing force will increase gradually and be
5
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475
Fig. 7. Deformation patterns of thin walled
tubes in non-gradient hybrid structures, as-
cending gradient hybrid structures and de-
scending gradient hybrid structures.
110 mm
larger than that of thin walled tube filled with non-gradient auxetic
structures.
In Fig. 9(b), the energy absorption of the thin walled tubes filled
with gradient auxetic structures is larger than that of the thin walled
tube with non-gradient structures. However, the thin walled tube filled
with non-gradient auxetic structures has higher peak crushing force in-
dicating the gradient configuration can reduce the peak crushing force.
Considering the uniformity of force displacement curve, thin walled
tubes filled with gradient structures has higher CFE indicating they are
better energy absorber. The differences between the thin walled tubes
filled with ascending and descending gradient structures are very small.
Therefore, the descending gradient auxetic structures are selected to dis-
cuss the effects of the gradients and establish the theoretical model to
predict the energy absorption.
3.3. Effect of gradients
Based on the thin walled structures filled with descending gradient
auxetic structures, the effects of the gradients on the impact responses
are investigated numerically. A controlled model with tube thickness
of 0.5 mm, width of tube of 80 mm, thickness of L/S beams of 1 mm,
angle of L-beam of 30°, angle of S beam of 60° and gradient n of 0 is se-
lected. As shown in Fig. 10(a), crushing force of thin walled tubes with
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

Fig. 8. Deformation patterns of auxetic struc-

tures in non-gradient hybrid structures, ascend-
ing gradient hybrid structures and descending
gradient hybrid structures.

Non-gradient
structure

Ascending
gradient
structure

Descending
gradient
structure

0 mm 55 mm 110 mm

different gradients have different increasement shape on the crushing
force curves. Each structure has an initial peak crushing force and then
buckles to reduce the crushing force. After that, the proposed structures
begin to deform plastically, and the crushing force increases dramati-
cally to a steady value. The steady crushing values for structures with
small gradients are larger, even larger than the initial peak crushing
force at n = −1. It is also noted that the structures with larger gradi-
ents tend to have small densification strains. The effects of gradients on
other crashworthiness indicators are demonstrated in Fig. 10(b) and (c).
Both EA and mass of structures will drop with the increase of gradients.
SEA, the ratio of EA and mass, also reduces when n increases, indicating
the increase of gradient has more prominent effects on the EA. Larger
gradients tend to lower the PCF which is preferred in the design of en-
ergy absorbers. Considering the uniformity of the crushing force, CFE
are compared to find that the structures with large gradients perform
better. Overall, smaller gradients can improve the crashworthiness per-
formances of the thin walled structures with gradient auxetic structures
considering the above-mentioned indicators.
4. Theoretical analysis
4.1. Square tube
The analytical formula for mean crushing force 𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 of square tube
can be derived based on the Super Folding Element method and given
by:
𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 =13.06𝜎0 𝑎1∕3 𝑡5∕3 (6)

6
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

EA PCF CFE
40 30 0.8
1.8
Non-gradient structrues
1.6
Ascending gradient structures 25
Descending gradient structures 0.6
30 1.4

1.2 20
Force (kN)

EA (kJ)

PCF (kN)
1.0
15 0.4
20

CFE
0.8

0.6 10
0.2
10 0.4
5
0.2

0.0 0 0.0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 Non-gradient Ascending gradient Descending gradient

Displacement (mm) (b)

(a)

Fig. 9. Comparison of thin walled tubes filled with non-gradient, ascending gradient and descending gradient structures (a) Force-displacement curves of different
hybrid structures; (b) EA, PCF & CFE.

0.5 8
EA mass SEA
2.5

0.4
6
2.0

SEA (kJ/kg)
0.3

mass (kg)
EA (kJ)

1.5
4

0.2
60 1.0
n = -1 n = -0.75 n= -0.5
2
n = -0.25 n=0 n = 0.25 0.1
50 0.5
n = 0.5 n = 0.75 n=1

40 0.0 0.0 0
Force (kN)

n=-1 n=-0.75 n=-0.5 n=-0.25 n=0 n=0.25 n=0.5 n=075 n=1

30
(b)
20
35 PCF CFE
10 0.8
30

0
25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
PCF (kN)

0.6
Displacement (mm) 20
CFE
(a) 15

10 0.4

0 0.2
n=-1 n=-0.75 n=-0.5 n=-0.25 n=0 n=0.25 n=0.5 n=0.75 n=1

(c)

Fig. 10. Effects of gradients on the impact responses of thin wall tubes filled with different gradient auxetic structures (a) Crushing force; (b) EA, mass & SEA (c)
PCF & CFE.

where 𝜎 0 is the flow stress and for the material with power law harden- 4.2. Double arrowed auxetic structures
ing can be approximated by an energy equivalent stress [63]:
√ In this study, the impact velocity of 10 m/s is considered to evaluate
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑢
𝜎0 = (7) the energy absorption performance. The analytical formula to predict
1+𝑚 the plateau stress of two dimensional auxetic structures have been de-
where 𝜎 y and 𝜎 u represent the yield strength and ultimate strength of the veloped based on the repeatable collapse mechanism of representative
tube material; m denotes the strain hardening exponent. More details of block [64]. As shown in Fig. 11, the pattern of unit cell 𝛽 at t = t2 is
derivation are given in Appendix. identical to that of unit cell 𝛼 at t = t1 indicating they have the same
The energy Et absorbed by the thin walled tube can be calculated by: kinematic energy. Red circles denote the plastic hinges of representa-
tive block. According to energy conversation law, the plateau stress 𝜎̄ 2d
at the impact end for two dimensional auxetic structures is given by:
𝐸𝑡 =𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑 (8)
3𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 𝑇 𝜌𝑠 (sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 ) 𝑇 2
𝜎̄ 2d = 𝜎 ( )2 + 𝑣 (9)
where d is the crushing distance of the structure. 4(cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ) 𝑦𝑠 𝑙 2 sin 𝜃1 (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ) 𝑙

7
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

Fig. 11. Collapse patterns of representative block under impact loading (a) initial configuration of auxetic structure; (b–c) patterns predicted by FEA at t = t1 and
t = t2 (d) Representative block; (e–f) Simplified model of collapse patterns of representative blocks at t = t1 and t = t2 . Red circles represent the locations of plastic
hinges from state (e) to state (f).(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Since three dimensional auxetic structures is composed of two or- Considering the effects of gradient thickness, the mean crushing
thogonal two-dimensional auxetic structure, the plateau stress 𝜎̄ 3d for force of ith layer in z direction will be varied as follows:
three dimensional auxetic structure can be obtained:
3𝑏𝑇 (𝑖)2 𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 2𝜌𝑠 𝑇 (𝑖)𝑏(sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 ) 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑢𝑥 (𝑖) = ( )+ ( ) 𝑣 (12)
3𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 𝜌𝑠 (sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 ) 𝑏𝑇 2 𝑙 cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1
𝑏 𝑇 2
𝜎̄ 3d = 𝜎 ( ) + 𝑣 (10)
4(cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ) 𝑦𝑠 𝑙 𝑙 2 sin 𝜃1 (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ) 𝑙2 The energy Ea absorbed by auxetic structures is the sum of the energy
absorbed by the deformed layers during crushing process.
The mean crushing force 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑢𝑥 of the auxetic structure can be ob- 𝑘
∑
tained as: 𝐸𝑎 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑢𝑥 (𝑖)ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑥𝑛𝑦 (13)
𝑖=1

3𝑏𝑇 2 𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 2𝜌𝑠 𝑇 𝑏(sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 ) 2 where he is the effective height of unit cell and k is the number of layers
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑢𝑥 = ( )+ ( )𝑣 (11) of collapsed auxetic structures.
𝑙 cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1
4.3. Interaction effects
The analytical model assumes the base material of auxetic structure
as elastic, perfectly plastic material and 𝜎 ys adopts the value of flow Energy dissipated due to the interactions between the thin walled
stress. tubes and auxetic structures contribute the energy absorption a lot and

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Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

Table 2
Energy absorption of thin walled tubes with filled with ascending gradient auxetic structures.

t/mm Tmin /mm Tmax /mm n Total/kJ Tubes/kJ Auxetic structures/kJ Interaction/kJ

1.55 0.66 2.00 0.05 3.11 2.28 0.66 0.38

1.87 0.50 2.74 0.37 3.52 3.11 0.52 0.32
0.5 1.29 2.63 0.26 1.93 0.35 0.33 0.07
1.13 1.50 2.26 −0.37 3.47 1.35 0.96 0.62
2.39 1.08 2.79 0.47 5.41 4.69 1.45 0.68
1.03 1.18 2.68 −1 4.33 1.15 0.64 0.08
1.66 1.45 2.47 0.79 3.77 2.55 2.20 0.98
2.08 0.87 2.95 −0.68 7.20 3.72 0.85 0.37
1.45 1.34 3.00 −0.05 4.62 2.04 2.19 1.29
0.71 0.76 2.90 −0.16 2.61 0.62 1.54 1.04
2.29 1.40 2.58 −0.58 7.34 4.37 1.25 0.74
0.82 0.61 2.42 0.58 1.23 0.79 1.85 1.12
1.24 0.97 2.84 0.89 2.10 1.57 0.24 0.20
1.34 0.55 2.53 −0.79 4.26 1.79 0.41 0.11
0.61 0.92 2.21 −0.47 2.28 0.48 1.68 0.80
2.5 0.71 2.37 −0.26 6.62 5.05 1.20 0.60
2.18 1.24 2.05 0.16 4.91 4.02 1.02 0.55
1.97 0.82 2.32 1 3.73 3.40 0.83 0.06
0.92 1.13 2.11 0.68 1.82 0.95 0.29 0.04
1.76 1.03 2.16 −0.89 4.69 2.82 0.56 0.31

Fig. 12. Comparisons between numerical results and

180
theoretical predictions of crushing forces.
Numerical results for A
160 Numerical results for B
Numerical results for C
140 Theoretical predictions of MCF for A
Theoretical predictions of MCF for B
120
Theoretical predictions of MCF for C
Force (kN)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement (mm)

can be quantified through numerical simulation. Finite element simula- resented by:
tions of 20 auxetic structures with varying tube thicknesses, maximum
and minimum beam thickness and gradient index n are performed. 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑡 +𝐸 𝑎 + 𝐸 𝑖
4.72𝑏𝑇 (𝑖)2 𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 3.14𝜌𝑠 𝑇 (𝑖)𝑏(sin 𝜃1 +sin 𝜃2 ) 2
Table 2 summarized the energy absorption of individual parts and = 12.68𝜎0 𝑎1∕3 𝑡5∕3 +( 𝑙(cos 𝜃2 −cos 𝜃1 )
+ sin 𝜃1 (cos 𝜃2 −cos 𝜃1 )
𝑣 )ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑥𝑛𝑦−0.025
interaction between thin walled tubes and gradient auxetic structures at
(15)
the crushing distance of 100 mm. The geometric parameters are selected
with the optimal Latin Hypercube technique. The energy dissipated due The mean crushing force for the structure Fm can be derived accord-
to the interaction effects between the thin walled tubes and gradient ing to the definition of mean crushing force as follows:
structures (Ei ) can be obtained with the following equations which are 𝐸𝑠
determined by the linear fitting. 𝐹𝑚 = (16)
𝑑
𝐸𝑖 = −0.029𝐸𝑡 + 0.572𝐸𝑎 − 0.025 (14) Three independent thin walled structures filled with gradient struc-
tures named A, B, and C were analyzed with finite element method
to validate the theoretical predictions of impact response as shown in
4.4. Validation Fig. 12. The theoretical mean crushing forces were compared to the
force-displacement curves of numerical models. It is found that there is
According to Eqs. (8), (13), (14), the total energy absorbed by the a good agreement between them implying the theoretical model to pre-
whole thin walled structure filled with auxetic structures Es can be rep- dict the energy absorption is accurate. The energy absorption of three

9
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 201 (2021) 106475

Table 3
Validation of theoretical models.

EA/kJ
t/mm Tmin /mm Tmax /mm n
Numerical results Theoretical predictions Deviation/%

A 2.41 0.92 2.43 −0.49 6.58 6.81 3.49

B 1.47 1.29 2.18 0.31 3.22 3.30 2.44
C 0.78 1.16 2.26 −0.66 2.86 2.98 4.30

designs predicted by numerical and theoretical methods are compared Acknowledgments

in Table 3. The fact that the deviations of theoretical predictions are
less than 5% compared to numerical results validate the accuracy of the
theoretical model.
5. Conclusions
This work was supported by the Research Grants Council of
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No.
CUHK14202219) and The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Project ID:
4055117).

Appendix
In this paper, auxetic structures are filled in thin walled tubes ref-
erencing the foam filled structures to improve the energy absorption
A basic folding element consisting of three extensional triangular el-
performances. Gradient configurations are also introduced to lower the
ements and three stationary hinge lines is proposed. In the process of
peak crushing forces and increase the uniformity of force displacement
progressive folding, the external work due to the compression is dissi-
curves. The thin walled tubes filled with gradient auxetic structures
pated by the deformation in bending and membrane:
increase the EA from 1.61 to 1.72 kJ compared to thin walled tubes
filled with non-gradient auxetic structures. Regarding the CFE, it also 2𝐻𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝜅 = 𝑊𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒 (A1)
increases from 0.557 to 0.6234 after introducing the gradient configu- where H is the half folding length, 𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
is the mean crushing force,
ration. It is found that the difference of impact responses of thin walled Wbending and Wmembrane represent the energy dissipated in bending and
tubes filled with ascending and descending gradient structures are very membrane deformation, respectively. 𝜅 denotes the coefficient of effec-
small. The effects of the gradients on the crashworthiness performances tive crushing distance, and it is taken as 0.71 according to the previous
are investigated numerically. A small gradient is preferred in the de- research.
sign of the proposed structures. The SEA and CFE of the structures with Fig. A1
n = −1 are almost two times of that of the structures with n = 1. A The bending energy Wbending can be calculated by summing up the
theoretical model is also established to predict the mean crushing force energy dissipation at stationary hinge lines. It is given by:
and energy absorption of the thin walled tubes filled with gradient aux-
∑
3
etic structures. The difference between the theoretical predictions and 𝑊𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑀 0 𝜃𝑖 𝐿 𝑐 (A2)
numerical results are less than 5% implying the theoretical model is 𝑖=1
accurate. where M0 = (1/4)𝜎 0 t2 is the fully plastic bending moment of the flange,
𝜃 i represents the rotation angel at each line and Lc is the total length of a
Declaration of Competing Interest flange. For simplicity, the flanges are assumed to be completely flattened
after the axial deformation as shown in Fig. A2. There are three rotation
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial angles, which are taken as 𝜋/2, 𝜋, and 𝜋/2, respectively. Consequently,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper. 𝑊𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2𝜋𝑀0 𝐿𝑐 (A3)
The membrane energy Wmembrane can be defined as:
CRediT authorship contribution statement
𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 16𝑀0 𝐻 2 ∕𝑡 (A4)
Qiang Gao: Methodology, Software, Investigation, Visualization, Substituting Eqs. (A2)–(A4) into Eq. (A1),
Writing – review & editing. Wei-Hsin Liao: Funding acquisition, Su- 𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝐻 𝐿
pervision, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. 0.71 =8 +𝜋 𝑐 (A5)
𝑀0 𝑡 𝐻

Fig. A1. Extensional elements and bending hinge lines.

10
Q. Gao and W.-H. Liao
Fig. A2. Simplified model of rotation angles.
The wavelength H can be determined by the stationary condition of
the mean crushing force:
𝜕𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
=0 (A6)
𝜕𝐻
Then,
√ 2020;148:106615 https://doi.org/. doi:10.1016/j.tws.2020.106615.
𝜋𝐿𝑐 𝑡
𝐻= (A7)
8
Substituting Eq. (19) into Eq. (17), the mean crushing force can be
derived as:
√ 2020;165:105205 https://doi.org/. doi:10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2019.105205.
2 8𝜋𝐿𝑐 √ [29] Mamalis AG, Manolakos DE, Ioannidis MB, Papapostolou DP. Crashworthy
𝐹𝑚𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑀0 = 2𝜎0 𝑡 𝜋𝐿𝑐 𝑡 (A8)
0.71 𝑡 characteristics of axially statically compressed thin-walled square CFRP com-
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