Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503

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Thin-Walled Structures
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Full length article

Dynamic bending responses of CFRP thin-walled square beams filled with T

aluminum honeycomb
⁎
Yong Xiaoa,b, , Yefa Hua,b, Jinguang Zhanga,b, Chunsheng Songa,b, Zhaobing Liua,b, Jingui Yua
a
School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, PR China
b
Institute of Advanced Materials Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Aluminum honeycomb-filled Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) thin-walled square beams is a new out-
Dynamic impact standing energy absorption component. In this paper, dynamic impact tests for bending of aluminum honey-
Carbon fibre-reinforced plastic comb-filled CFRP beams with different configurations are carried out, and the failure mode and force responses
Energy absorption are investigated. For the failure mode, modified Chang-Chang failure criteria are used to predict tensile and
Finite element analysis
compressive fibre failure, as well as tensile and compressive matrix failure. Numerical simulation of the tests is
Aluminum honeycomb filler
also performed, and the accuracy is validated by the experimental results. The influences of some factors, in-
cluding the wall thickness, fibre direction, stacking sequence, and impact velocity, on the bending resistance, are
analyzed. The effect of aluminum honeycomb filler on the crashworthiness characteristics is also discussed. The
results show that the energy absorption and specific energy absorption of filled composite tubes can significantly
increase by 104.3% and 26.8% respectively compared with those of CFRP hollow beams. This study demon-
strates the potential of CFRP beams filled with aluminum honeycomb to be used as energy absorbers.

1. Introduction subjected to quasi-static axial crushing. By comparison, the peak load

It has been proven that Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) is an
effective energy-absorbing material [1,2]. CFRP thin-walled structures
are considered exceptionally efficient energy-absorbing components for
aerospace and automotive engineering applications [3–5]. However,
the issue as to how to decide the best possible structural configuration
still presents a challenge. Composite structures filled with lightweight
materials have also attracted considerable interest due to their potential
to enhance the energy-absorbing capability of composite structures.
Moreover, honeycomb filling has been shown to be efficient in im-
proving the energy absorption and specific energy absorption of com-
posite structures [6–12]. It should be noted that aluminum honeycomb-
filled CFRP thin-walled square beams have not been studied in depth.
As such, understanding their mechanical behavior and crashworthiness
would be of critical importance to more extensive and reliable appli-
cation of such composites [13].
Extensive studies have been made on the crashworthiness char-
acteristics of composite structures with lightweight filler. Aluminum
honeycomb has attracted much attention as a typical cellular material
due to its excellent mechanical and energy absorption property, and
specific strength-to-weight ratio. Qiang Liu et al. [1] explored the
crashworthiness of CFRP square tubes filled with aluminum honeycomb
and absorbed energy of the filled tubes increased by more than 10%
compared with those of hollow CFRP tubes, ranging from approxi-
mately 12.41–27.22% and from approximately 10.49–21.83% respec-
tively. They [14] also investigated the lateral planar crushing and
bending responses of CFRP square tubes filled with aluminum honey-
comb. The results of a lateral three-point bending test showed that the
peak load, energy absorption and specific energy absorption of hon-
eycomb-filled CFRP tubes increased by 17%, 32% and 0.9% respec-
tively compared with those of CFRP hollow tubes. Rafea Dakhil Hussein
et al. [15] studied the axial crushing behavior of aluminum honeycomb-
filled square CFRP tubes. The results showed that the energy absorption
of aluminum honeycomb-filled CFRP tubes increased by 20–36% over
that of hollow CFRP tubes at different crushing velocities. Nine kinds of
foam-filled multi-cell thin-walled structure (FMTS) with different cross-
sectional configurations under lateral crushing load conditions were
investigated by Hanfeng Yin et al. [16]. The complex proportional as-
sessment method was used to clarify which kind of FMTS has the best
crashworthiness, and FMTS with 2, 3 and 9 cells were found to be the
three best structures among the considered cases. They were optimized
using a metamodel-based multiobjective optimization method which
was developed by employing a polynomial regression metamodel and
multiobjective particle swarm optimization algorithm. A new type of

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, PR China.
E-mail address: CFRP2018@163.com (Y. Xiao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2018.09.023
Received 22 April 2018; Received in revised form 30 August 2018; Accepted 5 September 2018
Available online 14 September 2018
0263-8231/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Xiao et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503

tube filler with good cost-effectiveness and easy availability was pro- Table 2
posed by Xiong Zhang et al. [17]. Quasi-static and dynamic impact tests The material properties of aluminum honeycomb core.
for the bending of tube-filled beams with different configurations were E (GPa) v ρ (kg/m3) σs (Pa)
carried out, and the deformation mode and force responses were in-
vestigated. They also [18] tested Commercial aluminum honeycomb 70 0.33 2.70E+ 03 2.76E+ 07
with various cell configurations in order to study the influence of the
E : elastic modulus, v : Poisson's ratio; ρ : density, σs : yield strength.
cell number and central angle on the out-of-plane crush resistance of
such structures. The dynamic responses and blast resistance of in-
2. Materials and methods
novative honeycomb sandwich structures with auxetic re-entrant cell
honeycomb cores under blast loading were investigated numerically by
2.1. Materials and lay-up schemes
Xiaochao Jin et al. [19]. The results showed that both graded honey-
comb cores and cross-arranged honeycomb cores could significantly
CFRP thin-walled square beams are made of T700/FAW100 carbon
improve resistance ability. Guo Liuwei et al. [20] studied the dynamic
fibre. Table 1 lists the material properties of CFRP T700/FAW100. Nine
three-point bending behavior of double cylindrical tubes with closed-
material constants in Table 1 will be used in the finite element analysis
cell aluminum foam-filled cores. The results showed that, compared
(FEA).
with traditional foam-filled single tubes, the specific energy absorption
Consisting of 3003 aluminum alloy, the filled aluminum honeycomb
of this new structure was much higher, and those of both foam-filled
cores have isotropic material properties. The specific material proper-
structures in a dynamic situation were higher than in a static situation.
ties are listed in Table 2.
Shojaeifard et al. [21] studied the energy absorption characteristics of
For the CFRP thin-walled square beams, three groups of different
hollow and foam-filled aluminum tubes with different cross-sections
lay-up schemes are designed which consider the influence of wall
(circular, square and elliptic) numerically, and the results showed that
thickness, fibre direction ( ± 15°, ± 30°, ± 60° and ± 75°) and
the energy absorption of the elliptic foam-filled tubes was 22.5% higher
stacking sequence respectively. The single-ply thickness of the fibre is
than that of the hollow aluminum tubes, while the energy absorption of
0.2 mm. The final lay-up scheme is shown in Table 3.
the circular and square foam-filled tubes were 38.2% and 17.1% higher
than that of the hollow aluminum tubes respectively. Zarei and Kroger
[22] performed bending crash tests on hollow and foam-filled square 2.2. Specimen preparation
aluminum beams, and the results showed that the energy absorption of
the foam-filled square aluminum beams could be 31.5% higher than The CFRP thin-walled square beam specimens studied in this paper
that of the hollow beams. Qiang Liu et al. [23] studied the impact re- have cross-sectional dimensions of 40 × 40 mm and lengths of 300 mm,
sponses and residual properties of thin-walled CFRP tubes and alu- and their wall thickness is determined by the number of layers. The
minum tubes subjected to multiple axial impacts, and the results CFRP tubes are bonded to the aluminum honeycomb cores with DG-4
showed that the CFRP tubes had much better performance in energy epoxy adhesive which can be set at room temperature and withstand
absorption capacity in comparison with the aluminum counterparts, temperatures of − 60 °C to + 120 °C. Moreover, the bonding process is
weighting approximately 134.86~184.38% in the repeated impact tests simple, convenient and fast. The specimens are respectively numbered
and 185.83~204.32% in the residual crushing tests under the same a-1, a-2, a-3, a-4, b-1, b-2, b-3, b-4, b-5, c-1, c-2, c-3, c-4, c-5, d-1, d-2, d-
condition. Zhonggang Wang et al. [24] studied the matching effect of 3, d-4, d-5, d-6 and a3-H, with two specimens for the same lay-up
honeycomb-filled thin-walled square by means of both experiments and scheme (for example a-1-N1 and a-1-N2). The CFRP thin-walled beam
numerical simulations. The results showed that, the geometric config- test specimens are shown in Fig. 1.
uration, the material properties as well as the loading impact velocity
have significant influence on the matching effect. Different HFST
2.3. Testing procedure
structures with different geometric configurations or different matrix
material properties, or undergoing different impact velocities show
Dynamic drop hammer impact tests are carried out for the speci-
different mechanical behaviors.
mens on a 5000 J drop-hammer test machine at Structural Impact
Although composite structures filled with lightweight materials
Laboratory at Huazhong University of Science and Technology. The
have been extensively studied, there have been limited studies on CFRP
geometry of the test is given in Fig. 2. In the impact loading, the head of
thin-walled square beams filled with aluminum honeycomb.
the punch and supports are cylindrical with a diameter of D= 24 mm,
Furthermore, most of the experiments have been conducted under
and the span of the CFRP square beams is set at 240 mm. The dynamic
quasi-static conditions and few studies have paid attention to the dy-
experiment setup for the three-point bending test is shown in Fig. 3. It is
namic crashing response. In this work, a investigation of their me-
mainly composed of a drop hammer testing machine, a data acquisition
chanical behavior is attempted, including failure modes and key factors
system and an experimental operating device. The impact hammer has
affecting energy absorption, whose knowledge is believed to be neces-
a mass of 78.1 kg and is released at a height of 1.35 m. The fall of the
sary for designing a highly effective energy absorption devices.
impact hammer is controlled by the experimental operating device. The
velocity of the hammer before impact on the specimen is measured as
5.1 m/s due to the influence of friction. Since the kinetic energy of the
drop hammer is much larger than the energy that the specimens can
absorb, the average velocity is about 5 m/s in the whole process [15].
As shown in Fig. 4, in order to prevent a second impact, a buffer device

Table 1
The material properties of CFRP T700/FAW100.
E1(GPa) E2(GPa) E3(GPa) ν21 ν32 ν31 G12(GPa) G23(GPa) G13(GPa)

150 9 9 0.24 0.24 0.28 5.12 5.12 3.34

E1: longitudinal modulus, E2, E3: transverse modulus; v21: 21-direction Poisson's ratio, v31: 31-direction Poisson's ratio, v32: 32-direction Poisson's ratio; G12, G13: 12-direction,
13-direction shear modulus, G23: 23-direction shear modulus.

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Y. Xiao et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503

Table 3
Lay-up scheme of filled CFRP thin-walled square beams.
Group A Group B Group C

Case Stacking Case Stacking Case Stacking

a−1 [(45°/−45°)2] b−1 [(15°/−15°)4] c−1 [90°/−75°/45°/−45°/15°/−15°/75°/90°]

a−2 [(45°/−45°)3] b−2 [(30°/−30°)4] c−2 [75°/90°/45°/−45°/15°/−15°/90°/−75°]
a−3 [(45°/−45°)4] b−3 [(60°/−60°)4] c−3 [45°/−75°/90°/−15°/15°/90°/75°/− 45°]
a−4 [(45°/−45°)5] b−4 [(75°/−75°)4] c−4 [−75°/45°/90°/−15°/15°/90°/−45°/75°]
b−5 [(90°)8] c−5 [15°/−45°/75°/90°/90°/−75°/45°/−15°]
c−6 [75°/−45°/15°/90°/90°/−15°/45°−75°]

is used to set the collapse distance. The impact loading and its corre-
sponding displacement are recorded by the data acquisition system,
which is able to plot the load-displacement curves.

2.4. Modified Chang-Chang failure criteria

Chang-Chang [25] is the most widely applied strain failure criteria

based on strain estimation for ascertaining the damage and failure
characteristics of composite materials. However, the original Chang-
Chang failure criteria are only applicable to the two-dimensional plane
stress state. CFRP thin-walled square beams subjected to impact loading
are under the three-dimensional stress state. As such, it is necessary to
Fig. 2. Geometry of the three-point bending test.
use a progressive failure mode for FEA elements using modified Chang-
Chang failure criteria which can predict tensile and compressive fibre
failure, as well as tensile and compressive matrix failure. In 2001, Hou
[26,27] revised the Chang-Chang failure criteria to make them suitable (4) Matrix compression failure (ε2 + ε3 < 0 ):
for the three-dimensional stress state. The modified Chang-Chang
1 ⎛ ε22 ⎞ ε2 1 ε2 ε c ε
failure criteria are as follows: ⎜
2 ⎟
+ 212 + ⎛⎜ 2 0.2 ⎞⎟ − c2 = 1
4 ⎝ ε0.12 ⎠ ε0.12 4 ⎝ ε0.12 ⎠ ε0.12 (4)
(1) Tensile failure of fibre (ε1 ≥ 0 ):
(5) Stretch layer failure (ε3 ≥ 0 ):
ε12 ε2 ε2
+ 212 2 + 213 2 = 1
t 2
(ε0.1) (ε0.12) (ε0.13) (1) ε32 2
ε13 ε2
t 2
+ 2
+ 223 = 1
(ε0.3 ) ε0.13 ε0.23 (5)

(2) Fibre compression failure (ε1 < 0 ):

(6) Compression layer failure (ε3 < 0 ):
ε12
c 2
=1 2
ε13 ε2
(ε0.1) (2) 2
+ 223 = 1
ε0.13 ε0.23 (6)
Where 1 indicates the direction of the fibre; 2 indicates the direction
(3) Tensile failure of matrix (ε2 + ε3 ≥ 0 ):
perpendicular to the fibre; 3 indicates the direction perpendicular to the
ε22 + ε32 ε2 + ε2 1–2 plane; εi indicates the line strain in each main direction; εij indicates
t 2
+ ⎜⎛ 12 2 13 ⎞⎟ = 1 the shear strain of the i-j plane; ε0.t /ic indicates the limit strain in the main
(ε0.2 ) ⎝ ε0.12 ⎠ (3)

Fig. 1. Specimens for CFRP thin-walled square beam test.

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Y. Xiao et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503

Fig. 3. Specimens tested in the drop hammer testing machine (a).

model for CFRP beams under bending impact loading.

2.5. Finite element model

In this study, finite element analysis (FEA) is performed using

ABAQUS software, including: model, mesh, load, boundary conditions,
solving and post-processing. Fig. 5 shows the finite element model of
filled CFRP thin-walled square beams supported by a rigid support seat
at the bottom. The drop hammer rises to a certain height (calculated
according to its impact velocity) to impact the CFRP thin-walled square
beams. By defining its density, elasticity modulus and Poisson's ratio,
the aluminum honeycomb is modeled using SOLID C3D8R elements
with 38,124 elements and an approximate global size of 2 mm. After
imbuing it with the sections properties of solid and homogeneous,
sweep method is used to divide the hexahedral mesh. For the filled
CFRP thin-walled square beams, it is necessary to introduce a pro-
gressive failure mode for solid elements using modified Chang-Chang
failure criteria which are capable of predicting tensile and compressive
fibre failure, as well as tensile and compressive matrix failure. By de-
fining the engineering constant properties and failure parameters of the
CFRP square beams, they are modeled using continuum shell SC8R
elements with 8-ply settings, 96,000 elements and an approximate

Fig. 4. Specimens tested in the drop hammer testing machine (b).

direction; t indicates the ultimate tensile strain; c indicates the ultimate

compression strain; and ε0. ij indicates the shear limit strain of the i-j
plane.
Based on the modified Chang-Chang failure criteria, the user ma-
terial subroutine VUMAT of the ABAQUS/Explicit analysis solver
module was programmed to establish a progressive damage simulation
Fig. 5. Schematic of finite element model.

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Y. Xiao et al.
Fig. 6. Typical load-displacement curves in drop hammer impact test.
global size of 2 mm; the structural method is also used to divide the
hexahedral mesh. The layers are established in the composite lay-up
manager through the discrete coordinate system method, and the se-
lected stack direction is from the inner to the outer wall along the
thickness direction. The thickness of a single layer is 0.2 mm. Two types
of contact are defined among the drop hammer, CFRP thin-walled
square beams and support seat: ‘automatic single surface’ and ‘auto-
matic nodes to surface’ (as illustrated in Fig. 5). The impact velocity and
boundary conditions consistent with the experimental setup are pre-
scribed.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Typical load-displacement curves
The typical load-displacement curves of hollow and filled CFRP
thin-walled square beams under dynamic impact are shown in Fig. 6.
The curves can be divided into two stages: initial elastic bending stage
and bending collapse stage [11]. It can be seen that the duration of the
elastic deformation stage is very short and the collapse stage is the main
energy absorption stage during impact. Taking a filled a-3-N1 specimen
for example, in the initial elastic bending stage, the bending load keeps
increasing until it reaches the first peak (9.82 kN); then it drops quickly
within the bending collapse region and, starts to rise and drop re-
peatedly. At this stage, compared with the bare CFRP beam, the filled
CFRP beam walls experience more serious damage due to the high
stress concentration in the deformed part.
It is evident from Fig. 6 that the entire load-displacement curve of
Fig. 7. Failure modes of hollow and filled CFRP beams in FE simulation.
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Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503
the a-3-N1 (filled) specimen is located above that of the a-3-hollowN1
(hollow) specimen, and the a-3-N1 has a higher average peak load
(9.82 kN) than that of the a-3-hollowN1 (5.64 kN). This indicates that
honeycomb-filled CFRP square beams can provide better load bearing
and EA efficiency than hollow beams.
To quantify the crashworthiness, several different criteria are used
including initial peak force (Fmax), mean crashing force (MCF), crash
force efficiency (CFE), energy absorption (EA) and specific energy ab-
sorption (SEA) [6]. Among them, the key criteria are Fmax, EA and SEA.
The Fmax value can be obtained directly from the load-displacement
curve which divides the loading process into the initial elastic bending
stage and bending collapse stage.
EA is obtained by integrating the load-displacement curve during
the loading process, as follows:
d
EA = ∫0 F (δ ) dδ (7)
Where d is the collapse distance as identified in Fig. 6, and F (δ ) is the
instantaneous crash force.
EA is the area enclosed by the load-displacement curve and dis-
placement axis. It is calculated using Origin software.
To account for the effect of the mass (weight), SEA is defined as
follows:
Ea
SEA =
m (8)
It is frequently used as one of most critical criteria of crashworthi-
ness.
3.2. Failure modes
The failure modes of hollow and filled CFRP beams under FE si-
mulation and the drop hammer impact test are presented in Fig. 7 and
Fig. 8. They show a complex failure mode including plastic hinges,
buckling, indentation, core failure, and shear interaction. It is evident
that the microfracture is initiated in the corner of the top wall in contact
with the drop hammer due to the concentration of stress. The cracks
spread from the top wall toward the bottom wall of the CFRP tube along
the hinge line. In the first stage, the microfracture is initiated in the
corner of the top wall in contact with the drop hammer due to the
concentration of stress; fractures spread in a direction perpendicular to
the beam axis, and cracks on the sidewalls propagate from the top wall
to the bottom wall. This causes several intersections on the side walls of
the CFRP beam. The compressive strength of composite materials is
generally significantly lower than their tensile strength; as such, the
first failure occurs at the top surface of the CFRP tube and spreads to the
bottom surface. Meanwhile, under the impact of the drop hammer, the
Y. Xiao et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503

Fig. 8. Failure modes of hollow and filled CFRP beams in drop hammer impact test.

Table 4
FEA and Experimental Results for Different Fibre Directions.
Case m(g) Fmax(N) CFE EA(J) SEA(J/g)

FEA Exp. FEA Exp. FEA Exp. FEA Exp.

b−1-N1 146 15898 15139 0.2 0.18 215 213 1.46 1.46
b−1-N2 148 15067 0.19 221 1.49
Average 147 15898 15103 0.2 0.19 215 217 1.46 1.48
b−2-N1 149 11134 11039 0.22 0.2 210 174 1.42 1.17
b−2-N2 146 10145 0.21 185 1.27
Average 147.5 11134 10592 0.22 0.21 210 179.5 1.42 1.22
b−3-N1 146 7800 7501 0.31 0.3 172 154 1.18 1.05
b−3-N2 146 7489 0.3 159 1.09
Average 146 7800 7495 0.31 0.3 172 156.5 1.18 1.07
b−4-N1 153 7765 7650 0.25 0.25 168 155 1.11 1.01
b−4-N2 149 7359 0.26 148 0.99
Fig. 9. Comparison of Fmax and CFE of beams with different wall thicknesses. Average 151 7765 7504 0.25 0.25 168 151.5 1.11 1
b−5-N1 143 7700 7728 0.23 0.22 152 136.4 1.04 0.95
b−5-N2 148 7200 0.23 135 0.91
Average 145.5 7700 7464 0.23 0.23 152 135.7 1.04 0.93

Table 5
Deviation Values between Finite Element Models and Experiments for Different
Fibre Directions.
Case Fmax-error(%) CFE-error(%) EA-error(%) SEA-error(%)

b−1-N1 5 11.1 0.9 0

b−1-N2 5.5 5.3 2.8 2
Average 5.25 8.2 1.85 1
b−2-N1 0.9 10 20.7 21.4
b−2-N2 9.7 4.8 13.5 11.8
Average 5.3 7.4 17.1 16.6
b−3-N1 4 3.3 11.7 12.4
b−3-N2 4.2 3.3 8.2 8.3
Average 4.1 3.3 9.95 10.35
b−4-N1 1.5 0 8.4 9.9
Fig. 10. Comparison of EA and SEA of beams with different wall thicknesses.
b−4-N2 5.5 4 13.5 2
Average 3.5 2 10.95 5.95
hexagonal cell layers of the aluminum honeycomb squeeze into each b−5-N1 0.4 4.5 11.4 9.5
b−5-N2 2.7 0 12.6 14.3
other on the upper surface (compression surface) and the cell layers
Average 1.55 2.25 12 11.9
stretch on the bottom surface (tensile surface), leading to a fan shape.
However, the bending deformation is not sufficient to induce the cells
of the aluminum honeycomb to debond from adjacent adhesive layers. 3.3. Effects of wall thickness on crashworthiness
As such, debonding damage between aluminum honeycomb cell layers
is not seen in this drop hammer impact test [11]. It should be noted that To analyze the effect of wall thickness on crashworthiness, four
completely failed finite element units are deleted according to the kinds of cases with different wall thicknesses are used (Case a-1, Case a-
VUMAT material subroutine of the ABAQUS/Explicit analysis solver 2, Case a-3 and Case a-4). The wall thicknesses are 0.8 mm, 1.2 mm,
module. This is to ensure the continuous convergence of the calculation 1.6 mm and 2 mm respectively. As shown in Fig. 9, the Fmax increases
results and guarantee that the calculation continues. with the increase in wall thickness. When the wall thickness is 2 mm
(Case a-4), the value of Fmax reaches its maximum value of 14.453 kN.
Interestingly, CFE does not increase. As shown in Fig. 10, it can also be

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Y. Xiao et al.
Fig. 11. Comparison of Fmax and CFE of beams with different stacking sequences.
Fig. 12. Comparison of EA and SEA of beams with different stacking sequences.
Fig. 13. Load-displacement curves of specimens with different velocities.
observed that EA and SEA also increase with the increase in the wall
thickness. However, when the wall thickness increases to 2 mm, the
values of EA and SEA begin to decrease. Therefore, in general, as wall
thickness increases, filled CFRP beams have higher energy absorption
capacity. However, when the wall thickness increases beyond a certain
limit, the energy absorption capacity ceases to improve.
3.4. Effects of fibre direction on crashworthiness
The FEA and experimental results of five cases (Case b-1, Case b-2,
Case b-3, Case b-4 and Case b-5) with different fibre directions are listed
in Table 4. The data shows that Case b-5 with a ± 90° fibre direction
has the lowest Fmax (the average value of the experiment is 7.464 kN).
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Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503
Conversely, Case c-1 with a ± 15° fibre direction has the highest Fmax.
A comparison between the CFE of these five cases is shown in Table 4. It
can be seen that the CFE of Case b-3 is the highest, indicating that this
case has the smoothest load-displacement process. The CFE of these
cases range from 0.14 to 0.3 as listed in Table 4. It can also be observed
that both the EA and SEA of Case b-1 and Case b-2 are much higher than
those of the other cases, indicating better crashworthiness.
According to the results of the above study, the crashworthiness of
filled CFRP beams can be affected by fibre direction. The FEA and ex-
perimental results reveal that Case b-5 with a ± 90° fibre direction has
the lowest Fmax but also the lowest EA and SEA.
In addition, Case b-1 with a ± 15° fibre direction and Case b-3 with
a ± 30° fibre direction have the highest EA and SEA, but not the lowest
Fmax. Higher EA and SEA and lower Fmax indicate better crashworthi-
ness performance. To summarize the respective advantages of ± 15°,
± 30° and 90° fibre directions, all of these fibre directions should be
considered in ply design. The standard deviation values between finite
element models and experiments for different fibre directions are
shown in Table 5. It can be seen that the deviation values are lower than
10%. As such, the results between the finite element models and ex-
periments across different fibre directions are reliable. It should be
noted that a very small CFE value will lead to large deviations in the
calculations.
3.5. Effects of stacking sequence on crashworthiness
Case c-1, Case c-2, Case c-3, Case c-4, Case c-5 and Case c-6 analyze
the effects of the stacking sequence on crashworthiness. A comparison
between the Fmax and CFE of these cases is shown in Fig. 11. It can be
seen that the Fmax of Case c-6 is lower than that of other cases. In ad-
dition, the CFE of Case c-2 is higher than that of other cases, indicating
Y. Xiao et al.
Fig. 14. Comparison of Fmax and CFE of beams with different loading velocities.
Fig. 15. Specimen a3-N1 tested in the quasi-static three point bending tests.
Fig. 16. Load-displacement curve of specimen under quasi-static three-point
bending test.
that Case c-2 has the smoothest load-displacement process. The EA and
SEA of these cases are also shown in Fig. 12. It can also be observed that
the EA and SEA of Case c-4 are the highest among these cases, in-
dicating better crashworthiness. The EA and SEA of Case c-3 are close to
those of Case c-4.
It can be concluded that the crashworthiness of filled CFRP beams
can be affected by stacking sequence. By comparing the crashworthi-
ness criteria of these cases, the results reveal that Case c-4 has the best
crashworthiness. In other words, a fibre direction with a wide angle is
designed in the outer layer, and a fibre direction with a small angle is
designed in the inner layer, indicating better crashworthiness
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Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503
performance.
3.6. Effects of loading velocity on crashworthiness
The velocity of the drop hammer has significant influence on the
bending response of the filled CFRP beams. To investigate this effect,
the load-displacement curves of specimens with different velocities
(Case a3N1-v3, Case a3N1-v4, a3N1-v5, Case a3N2-v3, Case a3N2-v4
and Case a3N2-v5) are plotted in Fig. 13. Interestingly, as V increases,
the force level in the first half of the stage generally increases, and then
gradually decreases in the latter half. A greater loading velocity leads to
a larger initial load peak, which is not conducive to generating a
smoother curve. The EA indices of the beams under different impact
velocities V are plotted in Fig. 14. It should be noted that Fmax increases
as the impact velocity increases, which is not beneficial for safety.
When V increases from 3 m/s to 5 m/s, the Fmax of a3 increases by about
89%. However, the CFE of a3 does not increase with the increase of the
impact velocity; instead, it first increases slightly to 0.44, and then
decreases to 0.37.
As shown in Fig. 15, in order to ascertain how much energy is
needed to destroy a specimen completely, a quasi-static transverse
bending test is carried out on specimen a-3-N1.
As shown in Fig. 16, according to the load-displacement curve, the
energy required to destroy a specimen completely under quasi-static
loading conditions is 204.5 J. It can be seen in Fig. 14 that the EA of the
specimens are 97.58 J and 199.64 J when the impact velocities are 3 m/
s and 4 m/s respectively. Therefore, when the velocity is 4 m/s, the
filled beams are completely destroyed, and when the impact velocity is
3 m/s, the filled beams are not completely destroyed.
The EA and SEA are shown in Fig. 17. It can be observed that when
Y. Xiao et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503

Fig. 17. Comparison of EA and SEA of beams with different loading velocities.

Fig. 18. Comparison of filled and hollow specimens: Fmax and CFE.

Fig. 19. Comparison of filled and hollow specimens: EA and SEA.

V increases from 3 m/s to 4 m/s, the EA and SEA increase by about
43.5% and 50.5% respectively. When V increases from 4 m/s to 5 m/s,
the EA and SEA only increase by 3.4% and 2.9% respectively. Ac-
cording to the previous analysis, the reason for this phenomenon is that
the filled beams are not completely destroyed when the impact velocity
is 3 m/s, but they are completely destroyed when the velocity is 4 m/s.
As the impact velocity continues to increase, it becomes less beneficial
for improving energy absorption characteristics.
3.7. Effects of aluminum honeycomb filler
The load-displacement curves of hollow and filled CFRP beams
under dynamic impact loading are shown in Fig. 6 above. Figs. 18 and
19 show the comparison of Fmax and EA between hollow CFRP beams

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Y. Xiao et al.
and filled CFRP beams. It is very clear that the Fmax and EA of hollow
CFRP beams are only 5409 N and 100.8 J respectively, but the peak
load and EA reach 9729 N and 205.9 J when the CFRP tube is filled with
honeycomb, which increase by 80% and 104.3% over those of hollow
CFRP tubes. In addition, the SEA of filled CFRP beams (1.42 J/g) in-
creases by 26.8% over that of hollow CFRP beams (1.12 J/g). The above
values are all average values of the experimental results.
The experimental results indicate that the aluminum honeycomb
used as a light filler material is effective in improving EA under drop
hammer impact loading.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents a numerical and experimental study on the
bending response of CFRP thin-walled square beams filled with alu-
minum honeycomb. The typical load-displacement curves, failure
modes and energy absorption are explored. Within the limitations of the
study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The FEA predictions and experiments are used to understand the
initiation and propagation of cracks within aluminum honeycomb-
filled CFRP beams. The microfracture is initiated at the corner of
the top wall in contact with the punch head. The cracks spread from
the top wall of the filled CFRP beams to the aluminum honeycomb.
In the bending process, the hexagonal cell layers of the aluminum
honeycomb squeeze into each other, leading to a fan shape.
However, the bending deformation is not sufficient to induce the
cells of the aluminum honeycomb to debond from adjacent ad-
hesive layers.
(2) In general, as the wall thickness increases, the filled CFRP beams
have higher energy absorption capacity. However, when the wall
thickness increases beyond a certain limit, the energy absorption
capacity ceases to improve.
(3) The FEA and experimental results reveal that Case b-5 with a ± 90°
fibre direction has the lowest Fmax but also the lowest EA and SEA.
In addition, Case b-1 with a ± 15° fibre direction and Case b-3 with
a ± 30° fibre direction have the highest EA and SEA, but not the
lowest Fmax. To summarize the respective advantages of ± 15°, ±
30° and 90° fibre directions, all of these fibre directions should be
considered in ply design.
(4) The crashworthiness of aluminum honeycomb-filled CFRP panels
can be affected by the stacking sequence. The results reveal that a
fibre direction with a wide angle is designed in the outer layer, and
a fibre direction with a small angle is designed in the inner layer,
indicating better crashworthiness.
(5) The crashworthiness of aluminum honeycomb-filled CFRP beams
can be affected by the impact velocity. Fmax increases as the impact
velocity increases, which is not beneficial for safety. In general, as
the wall thickness increases, filled CFRP beams absorb more energy.
However, an excessively high impact velocity is not conducive to
the EA of CFRP beams.
(6) The results of the drop hammer impact tests show that the Fmax, EA
and SEA of honeycomb-filled CFRP beams increase by 80%, 104.3%
and 26.8% respectively compared with those of CFRP hollow
beams.
In summary, this study demonstrates the potential of CFRP beams
filled with aluminum honeycomb to be used as energy absorbers; the
experimental results can be also used to validate numerical simulations
for the design optimization of CFRP beams filled with aluminum hon-
eycomb in the future.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
503
Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 494–503
Foundation of China-China Aerospace Science and Technology
Corporation joint fund of aerospace advanced manufacturing tech-
nology research (No. U1537103), the Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities (WUT:2017III047) and the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities (WUT:2018IVA023).
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