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6.1 Introduction
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Figure 6.1
Assume voltage v (t ) across the capacitor.
Since the capacitor is initially charged, at time t = 0 ,
the initial voltage is
v(0) = V0
with the corresponding of the energy stored as
1
w(0) = CV02
2
applying KCL at the top node of the circuit,
iC + iR = 0
dv v
By definition, iC = C and iR = .
dt R
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Thus,
dv v
C + =0
dt R
or
dv v
+ =0
dt CR
This is the first-order differential equation.
Rearrange the equation,
dv 1
=− dt
v RC
Intergrating both sides,
t
ln v = − + ln A
RC
where ln A is the integration constant.
Thus,
v t
ln = −
A RC
Taking powers of e produces,
v(t ) = Ae −t RC
But from the initial condition, v (0) = A = V0
Thus,
v(t ) = V0 e −t RC (6.1)
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Figure 6.2
As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero.
The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is
expressed in terms of the time constant, τ.
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or
τ = RC (6.2)
The voltage is less than 1% after 5 time constant –
the circuit reaches its final state or staedy state.
• The current iR (t ) is given by
v(t ) V0 −t τ
iR (t ) = = e (6.3)
R R
• The power dissipated in the resistor is
V02 −2t τ
p (t ) = viR = e (6.4)
R
• The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is
t V02 − 2t τ
t
wR (t ) = ∫0 pdt = ∫0 e
R
t
τV − 2t τ
2
=− 0
e
2R 0
1
∴ wR (t ) = CV02 (1 − e − 2t τ ) (6.5)
2
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1
Note: as t → ∞, wR (t ) → CV02 , which is the
2
same as wC (0) , the energy initially stored in the
capacitor.
• The key to working with a source-free RC circuit:
(i) Find the intial voltage v (0) = V0 across the
capacitor.
(ii) Find the time constant τ.
(iii) Obtain the capacitor voltage
vC (t ) = v(t ) = v(0)e −t /τ
Note: In finding the time constant τ = RC , R is
often the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the
terminals of the capacitor (take out the capacitor and
find R = RTH at its terminal).
• Example 1:
In Figure 6.3, let vC (0) = 15 V. Find vc , v x and ix
for t > 0.
Figure 6.3
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Figure 6.4
Req = (8 + 12) 5 = 4Ω
τ = Req C = (4)(0.1) = 0.4 s
Thus,
v = v(0)e −t /τ = 15e −t / 0.4 V
vC = v = 15e − 2.5t V
Using voltage division,
12
vx = v = 0.6(15e − 2.5t ) = 9e − 2.5t V
12 + 8
Finally,
vx
ix = = 0.75e − 2.5t A
12
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• Example 2:
The switch in the circuit in Figure 6.5 has been
closed for a long time and it is opened at t = 0. Find
v (t ) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in
the capacitor.
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Using voltage division,
9
vC (t ) = (20) = 15 V, t < 0.
9+3
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For t > 0,
Figure 6.7
Req = 1 + 9 = 10Ω
τ = Req C = (10)(20 ×10 −3 ) = 0.2 s
Thus,
v(t ) = vC (0)e −t /τ = 15e −t / 0.2 V
The initial energy stored in the capacitor is
1 2 1
wC (0) = CvC (0) = (20)(10 −3 )(152 ) = 2.25 J
2 2
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Figure 6.8
• Goal – to determine the current i (t ) through the
inductor.
• Why we select the inductor current as the response?
The inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
• At t = 0 , we assume that the inductor has an initial
current I 0 or i (0) = I 0 .
Energy stored in the inductor,
1 2
w(0) = LI 0
2
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Applying KVL,
vL + vR = 0
But,
di
vL = L and v R = iR
dt
Thus,
di
L + Ri = 0
dt
di R
+ i=0
dt L
Rearranging terms and intergrating gives,
t
i ( t ) di t R i (t ) Rt
∫I 0 i = − ∫0 L dt = ln i I 0 = − L
0
Rt
∴ ln i (t ) − ln I 0 = − + 0
L
i (t ) Rt
ln =−
I0 L
Taking the powers of e,
i (t ) = I 0 e − Rt / L (6.6)
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Figure 6.9
• From Equation 6.6, the time constant is
L
τ= (6.7)
R
• The voltage across the resistor,
vR (t ) = iR = I 0 R e −t /τ (6.8)
p = vR i = I 02 R e − 2t /τ (6.9)
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1 2
∴ wR (t ) = LI 0 (1 − e − 2t τ ) (6.10)
2
1 2
Note: as t → ∞, wR (t ) → LI 0 , which is the
2
same as wL (0) , the energy initially stored in the
inductor.
• The key to working with a source-free RC circuit:
(iv) Find the intial current i (0) = I 0 across the
capacitor.
(v) Find the time constant τ.
(vi) Obtain the capacitor voltage
iL (t ) = i (t ) = i (0)e −t /τ
Note: R is often the Thevenin equivalent resistance at
the terminals of the inductor (take out the inductor
and find R = RTH at its terminal).
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• Example 1:
Assuming that i (0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in
the circuit in Figure 6.10.
Figure 6.10
Two Methods to find the i(t),
Method 1
The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin
resistance at the inductor terminals.
Existance of dependent source – insert a voltage
source with v0 = 1V at the inductor terminals.
Figure 6.11
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Applying KVL,
Loop 1:
2(i1 − i2 ) + 1 = 0
1
i1 − i2 = −
2
Loop 2:
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0
5
i2 = i1
6
Thus,
i1 = −3A and i0 = −i1 = 3A
Hence,
v0 1
Req = RTH = = Ω
i0 3
L 3
τ= = s
Req 2
Thus,
i (t ) = i (0)e −t /τ = 10e −t /τ A
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Method 2:
Consider the foloowing circuit:
Figure 6.12
Applying KVL,
Loop 1:
1 di1
+ 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0
2 dt
di1
+ 4(i1 − i2 ) = 0
dt
Loop 2:
6i2 − 2i1 − 3i1 = 0
5
i2 = i1
6
Thus,
di1 2
+ i1 = 0
dt 3
di1 2
= − dt
i1 3
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Since i1 = 1,
di 2
= − dt
i 3
Integrating gives,
t
i (t ) 2
ln i i ( 0 ) = − t
3 0
i (t ) 2
ln =− t
i ( 0) 3
Taking the power of e,
i (t ) = i (0)e −(2 3 )t = 10e −(2 3 )t A
which is the same as Method 1
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• Example 2:
In the circuit shown in Figure 6.13, find i0 , v0 and i
for all time, assuming that the switch was open for a
long time.
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
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10
i (t ) = = 2 A for t < 0
2+3
v0 (t ) = 3i (t ) = 6 V for t < 0
Thus, i (0) = 2 A
For t > 0 , the switch is closed – the voltage source is
short-circuited.
Figure 6.15
At the inductor terminal,
RTH = 3 6 = 2Ω
L
τ= = 1s
Req
Hence,
i (t ) = i (0)e −t /τ = 2e −t A for t > 0
di
v0 (t ) = −vL = − L
dt for t > 0
= −2(−2e −t ) = 4e −tV
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vL 2
i0 (t ) = = − e −t A for t > 0
6 3
Thus, for all time:
0 A t<0
i0 (t ) = 2 −t
− 3 e A t > 0
6V t<0
v0 (t ) = −t
4e V t > 0
2A t < 0
i (t ) = −t
2e A t ≥ 0
Figure 6.16
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• Definition:
Singularity functions are functions that either are
dicontinuous or have discontinuous derivatives.
Figure 6.17
0 t < 0
u (t ) = (6.11)
1 t > 0
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If u (t ) is delayed by t 0 seconds:
Figure 6.18
0 t < t0
u (t − t0 ) =
1 t > t0
If u (t ) is advanced by t 0 seconds:
Figure 6.19
0 t < −t0
u (t + t0 ) =
1 t > −t0
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Figure 6.20
The current source of I 0u (t ) and its equivalent
circuit:
Figure 6.21
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0 t<0
d
δ (t ) = u (t ) = Undefined t =0 (6.12)
dt
0 t >0
Figure 6.22
Also known as delta function.
The unit impulse function δ (t ) is zero everywhere
except at t = 0, where it is undefined.
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In mathematical form:
0+
∫0 δ (t )dt = 1
−
−
where t = 0 denotes the time just before t = 0 ,
t = 0 + denotes the time just after t = 0 and 1 (refer
to unity) denotes the unit area.
The unit area is the strength of the impulse function.
The effect of the impulse function to other functions:
Let us evaluate the integral
b
∫a f ( t ) δ ( t − t 0 ) dt
where a < t0 < b .
Since δ (t − t0 ) = 0 except t = t0 , the integrand is
zero except at t 0 .
Thus,
b b
∫a f (t )δ (t − t0 )dt = ∫a f (t0 )δ (t − t0 )dt
b
= f (t0 ) ∫a δ (t − t0 )dt = f (t0 )
*when a function is integrated with the impulse
function, we obtain the value of the function at the
point where the impulse occur.
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0, t ≤ 0
r (t ) = (6.13)
t, t ≥ 0
Figure 6.23
If r (t ) is delayed by t 0 seconds:
0 t < t0
r (t − t0 ) =
t − t0 t > t0
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Figure 6.24
If r (t ) is advanced by t 0 seconds:
Figure 6.25
0 t < t0
r (t + t0 ) =
t + t0 t > t0
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• Example:
Express the voltage pulse in Figure 6.26 in terms of
the unit step. Calculate its derivative and sketch it.
Figure 6.26
Figure 6.27
Thus,
v(t ) = 10u (t − 2) − 10u (t − 5)
= 10[u (t − 2) − u (t − 5)]
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Its derivative:
dv
= 10[δ (t − 2) − δ (t − 5)]
dt
The pulse:
Figure 6.28
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Figure 6.29
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t
ln (v(t ) − VS )− ln (V0 − VS ) = − +0
RC
v − VS t
ln =−
V0 − VS RC
v(t ) = VS + (V0 − VS )e −t /τ , t >0
Thus,
V0 , t<0
v(t ) = −t / τ
(6.14)
VS + (V0 − VS )e , t > 0
• Equation 6.14 is known as the complete response (or
total response) of the RC circuit to a sudden
application of a dc voltage source, assuming the
capacitor is initially charged.
• Assuming that VS > V0 , a plot of v (t ) is,
Figure 6.30
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or
v = vn + v f
where
vn = V0 e −t /τ
and
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v f = VS (1 − e −t /τ )
vn is as discussed in Section 6.2.
v f is known as the forced response because it is
produced by the circuit when an external ‘force’ (a
voltage or current source) is applied.
• Second way –transient response and steady-state
response.
Complete Response = Transient Response
(temporary part) + Steady-state Response
(permanent part)
or
v = vt + vss
where
vt = (V0 − VS )e −t /τ
and
vss = VS
The transient response vt is temporary – the portion
of the complete response that decays to zero as time
approaches infinity.
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• Example 1:
The switch in Figure 6.31 has been in position A for
a long time. At t = 0 , the switch moves to B.
determine v (t ) for t > 0 .
Figure 6.31
For t < 0 ,
The capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc, but v is
the same as the voltage across the 5kΩ resistor.
Hence, the voltage across the capacitor just before
t = 0 is obtained by volatge division as
− 5
v (0 ) = (24) = 15 V
5+3
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change
instantaneously,
v(0) = v(0 − ) = v(0 + ) = 15 V
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For t > 0 ,
RTH = 4kΩ
τ = RTH C = 4 × 103 × 0.5 ×10 −3 = 2 s
Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at
steady state, v (∞) = 30 V.
Thus,
v(t ) = v(∞) + [v(0) − v(∞)]e −t /τ
= 30 + (15 − 30)e −t /τ
v(t ) = 30 − 15e −0.5t V
• Example 2:
The switch in Figure 6.32 is closed at t = 0 . Find
i (t ) and v (t ) for all time.
Figure 6.32
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1, t < 0
u ( −t ) =
0, t > 0
0, t<0
i (t ) = −1.5 t
− 2(1 + e ) A, t > 0
20V , t<0
v= −1.5 t
10 (1 + e )V , t > 0
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Figure 6.33
• Goal – find the inductor current i as the circuit
response.
• Decompose the response into natural and forced
current:
i = in + i f
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where
−t / τ L
in = Ae , τ=
R
A is the constant to be determined
• The natural response dies out after five time
constants – the inductor becomes a short circuit and
the voltage across it is zero.
• The entire source voltage VS appears across R.
• Thus, the forced response is
VS
if =
R
−t / τ VS
∴ i = Ae +
R
• To find A, let I 0 be the initial current through the
inductor.
• Since the current through cannot change
instantaneously,
i (0 + ) = i (0 − ) = I 0
• Thus, at t = 0,
VS
I0 = A +
R
VS
A = I0 −
R
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Thus,
VS V
i (t ) = + I 0 − S e − t / τ
R R
Figure 6.34
• Or, the response can be written as,
i (t ) = i (∞) + [i (0) − i (∞)]e −t /τ (6.16)
• To find the step response of an RL circuit
(iv) Find the initial inductor current, i (0) .
- obtain from the given circuit for t < 0 .
(v) Find the final inductor current, i (∞) .
- obtain from the given circuit for t > 0 .
(vi) The time constant, τ .
- obtain from the given circuit for t > 0 .
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• Example 1:
Find i (t ) in the circuit in Figure 6.35 for t > 0 .
Assume the circuit has been closed for a long time.
Figure 6.35
When t < 0 ,
The 3Ω is short-circuited.
The inductor acts like a short circuit.
10
i (0 − ) = = 5A
2
Since the inductor current cannot change
instantaneously,
i ( 0) = i ( 0 + ) = i ( 0 − ) = 5 A
When t > 0 ,
The switch is open.
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10
i (∞ ) = = 2A
2+3
RTH = 2 + 3 = 5Ω
L 1
1
τ= =3= s
RTH 5 15
Thus,
i (t ) = i (∞) + [i (0) − i (∞)]e −t /τ
= 2 + (5 − 2)e −15t = 2 + 3e −15t A
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