Electromagnetic Induction Heating

How does the temperature of a steel cylindrical billet, subject to

electromagnetic induction heating change with time?

IB Physics Extended Essay

Word Count: 3998

Citation Style: IEEE

October 7, 2021
Contents

1 Essay Overview 3
1.1 Research Aim and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Background Information 4
2.1 Heating Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 The Skin Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Experimental Method 6
3.1 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Evaluating Induced Power into the Workpiece 10

4.1 Model Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Workpiece, ”Sleeve” Induced Emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Sleeve Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Resistivity of the Workpiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5 Induced Power as a Function of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Induced Power Model Empirical Data Comparison 15

5.1 Processing Experiment Power Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Processing Experiment Temperature Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3 Empirical and Model Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6 Evaluating Energy Losses 23

6.1 Radiation Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.2 Convection Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2.1 The Prandtl Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2.2 The Grashof Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2.3 The Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1
 6.2.4 Total Power Loss as a Function of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 27

7 Power Loss Model Empirical Comparison 27

8 Combined Heating Model 30

9 Combined Model vs Experiment Results 34

10 Conclusions and Evaluation 35

References 37

A Setup Dimensions and Schematics 38

B Raw Data 40

C Solenoid Magnetic Field Derivation 54

D Processed Data 57

E Numerical Approximation Spreadsheet 71

2
1 Essay Overview

Electromagnetism and electricity are complex topics in physics, relating to many

real-world applications. However, the IB Physics curriculum only covers the foundation
of electromagnetism. My passion lies in this topic. Therefore, I thought it would be
interesting to investigate induction heating, which I discovered upon watching an episode
of “How it’s Made.”

1.1 Research Aim and Scope

This essay is aimed at answering “How does the temperature of a steel cylindrical
billet, subject to electromagnetic induction heating change with time?”. The objective is
to generate a model that follows the temperature of a solid steel cylindrical billet heating
through induction heating. Figure 1 displays the models that will be explored in this
essay.

Figure 1: Model Relationships [1]

Understanding the relationship between temperature and time is done in two steps.
First, a model that determines the power induced into the workpiece will be explored.
Secondly, radiation and convective power losses will be modeled. The power loss model
will be combined with the induced power model to create a combined model, which

3
estimates the temperature of the workpiece over time. Empirical data is used to verify
all models.
To reduce external factor influence, the research scope has been limited. A single
material is used, with a limit on induction heater power. Furthermore, a single-coil
and workpiece geometry is used. Limiting the scope allows the research question to be
investigated, specifically looking at time and temperature.

2 Background Information

Induction heating relies on two energy dissipation mechanisms. The first being in-
duced eddy currents, which occurs in all metals. The second is hysteresis loss, only
occurring in ferromagnetic materials below the Curie temperature. The Curie tempera-
ture is a transition temperature in which certain materials lose their permanent magnetic
properties [2, p. 9].

2.1 Heating Mechanisms

Hysteresis loss is the heat generated due to magnetising a magnetic material in one
direction and then reversing the polarity of magnetisation. When an external magnetic
force magnetises a ferromagnetic material, the atomic domains align with the field, mag-
netising the material [2, p. 9]. To reverse the direction of magnetization, an external
field is required to do work in the opposite direction. The energy required to reverse the
direction of magnetisation is dissipated as heat [2, p. 9]. Hysteresis loss is proportional
to the magnetic field frequency [2, p. 9].
Eddy current loss occurs in all metals [2, p. 9]. Eddy currents are induced following
Faraday’s Law of Induction. Induction heating setups contain a coil, with the workpiece
placed where the magnetic flux density is greatest. An alternating current (AC) through
the coil generates a time-varying magnetic field which induces an electromotive force
(emf) in the workpiece; inducing eddy currents that dissipate heat due to resistive losses.

4
According to Lenz Law, the induced eddy currents will oppose the change that created
them, opposing the magnetic field, and therefore the eddy current direction is known. In
the setup used, eddy currents flow around the circumference of the workpiece (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Induced eddy currents direction (circumference of the workpiece) [1]

Unlike hysteresis loss, eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the frequency.
This can be derived from Faraday’s Law:

dΦ
ε = −N
dt

Where ε is the induced emf, which can be substituted into the power equation:

ε2
P =
R

Where R is the equivalent resistance of the workpiece. Power is proportional to in-

duced emf squared; therefore, eddy current power dissipation is proportional to frequency
squared.

2.2 The Skin Effect

When direct current flows through a conductor, the current is generally uniformly
distributed throughout the cross-sectional area of the conductor. However, alternating
current tends to be distributed such that the current density is greatest near the conduc-

5
tor’s surface. This is called the skin effect and plays a critical role in induction heating.
In the case of a circular conductor, the current density decreases exponentially from the
surface of the conductor [2, p. 15]. The skin depth is defined as the depth where the
1
current density is e
of the value at the surface, where e is Eulers number [2, p. 15]. This
is visualised in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Skin Depth Representation [1]

The skin depth δ, in meters is given by [2, p. 15]:

r
ρr
δ = 50 (1)
µf

Where, f is the frequency in Hz, ρr is the resistivity of the workpiece in ohm-meter,

and µ is the relative magnetic permeability.

3 Experimental Method

The experiment is designed to show the relationship between temperature and time.

3.1 Equipment

Figure 4 represents the experiment setup.

6
 Figure 4: Experiment Setup [1]

The induction heater uses a DC power input to a resonant circuit, generating AC

in the induction coil, allowing induction heating to occur. The workpiece is grade 12.9
carbon steel as based on preliminary trials, it requires a low power input for a significant
temperature change. A thermocouple is attached to the surface of the workpiece using a
bare thin piece of wire, twisted as a tie. This ensures that the connection is heat-resistant.
The workpiece is held in an upright apparatus, ensuring a constant position throughout
every trial.
Orthographic views, dimensions, and schematics are in Appendix A.

7
3.2 Procedure

The independent variable, time (t), is collected using a video camera. A timer mounted
to the induction heater is used to sync trials. The dependent variable, workpiece tem-
perature, is recorded using a thermocouple every two seconds. In addition, input voltage
(Vin ), and input current (Iin ) is recorded to calculate input power.
Before each trial, ambient temperature (T∞ ), and idle current (Iidle ) are recorded.
Idle current is the input current to the induction heater when no workpiece is inserted.
The input voltage, (Vin ), remains a constant 16.4V throughout all trials.
A current-limited voltage-regulated power supply is critical to ensure consistency in
the experiment. The current limit is set to 9.0 ± 0.1A to ensure the maximum input
power can be regulated.
For consistency, the procedure for each trial is repeatable and straightforward:

1. Set the voltage to 16.4 V

2. Set the current limit to 9.0A
3. Turn on thermocouple
4. Record the ambient temperature
5. Begin camera recording
6. Insert the workpiece into the induction coil. Ensure that the workpiece is aligned
horizontally in the coil, and the workpiece holder timber touches the coil. (Figure
5)
7. Wait 342 seconds.
8. Turn off the camera and apparatus. Wait for the workpiece to cool to room tem-
perature.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 for 9 trials.
10. Rewatch videos, recording the temperature, input voltage, input current, and time.

Step 6 is critical to reliable data; this ensures that the amount of the workpiece inside
the coil is constant throughout all trials. This is displayed below, in figure 5.

8
 Figure 5: Procedure Visual [1]

The data is recorded into a spreadsheet to compare each trial. A sample of trial 1 is
shown in Table 1. Full raw data is in appendix B.

9
 Ambient Temp (±1 ‰) 30

Idle Current Iidle (±0.1A) 4.57

Trial 1 Video Name: IMG4712

Time t (±0.1s) Temperature (±1 ‰) Voltage (±0.1V) Current (±0.1A)

0.0 30 16.4 9.3

2.0 43 16.2 9.0

4.0 67 16 9.0

6.0 90 14.5 9.0

8.0 102 14.5 9.0

10.0 103 14.3 9.0

12.0 108 14.2 9.0

14.0 112 14.2 9.0

16.0 117 14.1 9.0

18.0 125 14.1 9.0

20.0 133 14.0 9.0

22.0 140 14.0 9.0

24.0 149 13.9 9.0

26.0 158 13.9 9.0

28.0 165 13.9 9.0

30.0 173 13.8 9.0

Table 1: Data Collection Sample [1]

4 Evaluating Induced Power into the Workpiece

4.1 Model Assumptions

The induction heater operates at 62 kHz. Therefore, hysteresis losses will be con-
sidered negligible as eddy currents are proportional to frequency squared, meaning eddy
current losses will be much greater than hysteresis loss.

10
 Furthermore, the workpiece is assumed to be a hollow sleeve. This is because the
high frequency of 62 kHz makes the skin depth, δ, small. In addition, as the workpiece
is cylindrical, the skin effect is uniform, concentrating the current density to the surface
layers.
The sleeve is visualised in Figure 6, with variables that are introduced in further
calculations.

Figure 6: Cylindrical Workpiece, ”Sleeve” Visualisation [1]

4.2 Workpiece, ”Sleeve” Induced Emf

Faraday’s law can be applied to evaluate the induced emf in the sleeve. This is given
by:

dΦB
Esleeve = −N (2)
dt
dΦB
Where N is the number of turns in the coil, and dt
is the rate of change of magnetic
flux through the workpiece. To evaluate Esleeve , an expression for ΦB must be determined.

11
Using the magnetic flux formula:

ΦB = BAx cos(θ) (3)

Where Ax is the cross-sectional area of the workpiece, and B is the magnetic field
strength inside of the solenoid. To find B, the following formula is used, derived from
ampere’s law [3]: (A derivation can be found in Appendix C).

B = µ0 nIcoil (4)

Where B is the magnetic field strength inside the coil, n is the turns per unit length,
and Icoil is the current in the coil.
Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) finds an expression for ΦB in terms of coil
current.

ΦB = Ax µ0 cos(θ)nIcoil (5)

Equation (5) assumes there is no workpiece inside the coil. Therefore it is an upper
limit for magnetic flux within the solenoid.
dΦB
To apply Faraday’s law of induction to calculate Esleeve , dt
must be calculated. The
current flowing in the induction coil is alternating; therefore Esleeve will be an alternat-
ing voltage at the same frequency. The current in the coil, Icoil can be expressed as a
trigonometric function:

Icoil = I0 sin(ωt + φ) (6)

Where I0 is the peak coil current, ω is the angular frequency, and φ is the phase
shift. An expression for ΦB in terms of the alternating current can be found through
substituting (6) into (5):

12
 ΦB = Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 sin(ωt + φ)

The derivative of ΦB with respect to time is taken in order to apply Faraday’s law:

dΦB
= Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 ω cos(ωt + φ)
dt
dΦB
Using dt
, Faraday’s law finds an expression for Esleeve in terms of time:

dΦB
Esleeve = −N
dt
Esleeve = −N Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 ω cos(ωt + φ) (7)

The expression found for Esleeve in (7) is in terms of time, as it is derived from a
time-varying magnetic field. To simplify further calculations, Root Mean Square (RMS)-
induced emf is used to remove time dependence:

V0
VRM S = √
2
−N Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 ω
ERM S = √ (8)
2

Where ERM S is the RMS induced voltage in the sleeve.

4.3 Sleeve Resistance

Next, the equivalent resistance of the sleeve is evaluated. The resistivity formula can
be applied. Rearranging to:

ρr l
Rsleeve = (9)
Ac

Eddy currents flow around the circumference of the workpiece, as explained in section

13
2.1. Therefore, l is the circumference of the sleeve, Ac is δLs , and ρr is the resistivity.

4.4 Resistivity of the Workpiece

Typically, conductor resistivity increases with temperature. Therefore, resistivity

plays a role in the magnitude of eddy currents. The workpiece material is grade 12.9
carbon steel, which contains 0.28-0.5% carbon [4]. A relationship for resistivity based on
empirical data for carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.42% was determined by Yafei
et al. [5]:

ρr = (0.1638 + .4672 × 10−3 T + 0.8956 × 10−6 T 2 ) × 10−6 (10)

Where ρr is resistivity in Ωm, and T is the temperature in ‰. From (10), the resistivity
of the workpiece increases by roughly 3 times over the experimental temperature range
of 30 to 450 ‰, impacting induced power.
Intuitively, since resistance and power are inversely proportional, a 3 fold increase in
resistivity would cause a 3 fold decrease in induced power. However, this is not the case
as when resistivity increases, the skin depth increases, increasing the cross-sectional area
eddy currents flow through. As shown in figure 6, the cross-sectional area eddy currents
flow through can be given by:

Ac = Ls δ

Where Ls is the length of the sleeve, and δ is the skin depth. An expression for Ac
in terms of temperature can be found through substituting the skin depth formula and
equation (10):

s
(0.1638 + .4672 × 10−3 T + 0.8956 × 10−6 T 2 ) × 10−6
Ac (T ) = 50Ls
µf

14
4.5 Induced Power as a Function of Temperature
(ERM S )2
The power dissipated by eddy currents is equal to Rsleeve
. Substituting both expres-
(ERM S )2
sions for Rsleeve and ERM S into Rsleeve
:

 2
−N Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 ω
√
2
Peddy = ρr l
Ac
Ac (−N Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 ω)2
Peddy = (11)
2ρr l

As resistivity is a function of temperature, Ac (T ) and (10) can be substituted into

(11) to express induced power as a function ot temperature, in degrees celsius:

Ac (T )(−N Ax µ0 n cos(θ)I0 ω)2

Pinduced (T ) = (12)
2l(0.1638 + .4672 × 10−3 T + 0.8956 × 10−6 T 2 ) × 10−6

Ac (T ) is not substituted to keep the equation readable, however in section 4.4, Ac (T )

can be found. The expression above approximates induced power based on the tempera-
ture of the workpiece, given a constant frequency and peak coil current.

5 Induced Power Model Empirical Data Comparison

Utilizing the parameters displayed in Table 2, the induced power model can be plotted
with the experimental power values measured. Experiment data processing is below.

15
 Variable Value Units
θ 0 rad
N 7 turns
Ax 2.83 × 10−5 m2
µ0 1.26 × 10−6 N
A2
N
n Ls
= 100 -
I0 70 A
rad
ω 3.90 × 105 s
l 1.88 × 10−2 m
Ls 0.07 m
µ 100 -
f 62000 Hz

Table 2: Induced Power Model Parameters

16
5.1 Processing Experiment Power Data

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9

Idle Power (Pidle ) 75 75 76 76 76 76 75 75 76

Time (t ± 0.1s) Input Power (Pin )

0.0 152 144 131 135 134 131 136 136 158

2.0 146 130 130 132 129 131 134 127 128

4.0 144 129 129 131 128 130 133 134 128

6.0 131 129 128 131 127 129 132 134 127

8.0 131 128 127 130 126 128 132 133 126

10.0 129 127 126 130 125 127 132 130 126

12.0 128 127 125 129 125 127 131 129 126

14.0 128 126 125 129 124 126 130 129 126

16.0 127 125 124 128 124 126 130 129 125

18.0 127 125 124 128 119 125 129 125 125

20.0 126 125 119 127 119 125 129 125 124

22.0 126 124 119 126 119 124 128 126 124

24.0 125 124 119 126 118 124 128 127 124

26.0 125 124 118 126 118 119 127 127 123

28.0 125 119 118 122 118 119 127 126 123

30.0 124 119 118 122 118 119 127 125 123

Table 3: Power Raw Data (first 30 seconds) [1]

Calculating Averages:
Trial 1+Trial 2+. . . +Trial 9
Pin , Pidle averaged: Pavg , PIdleAvg = 9
152+144+131+135+134+131+136+136+158
Pavg calculation for t = 0: Pavg = 9
= 140

Calculating Uncertainty:
Max−Min
Pin , Pidle uncertainty calculation: ∆P = 2
158−131
Sample ∆Pin calculation for t = 0: ∆Pavg = 2
= 14

17
 Removing Pidle Offset:
Corrected power: Pcorrected = Pavg − PIdleAvg
Sample Pcorrected calculation for t = 0: Pcorrected = 140 − 76 = 64

Uncertainty Propagation:
Pcorrected uncertainty propagation: ∆Pcorrected = ∆Pavg + ∆PIdleAvg
Sample ∆Pcorrected calculation for t = 0: ∆Pcorrected = 14 + 1 = 15

Processed Power Data:

Avgerage Idle Power PIdleAvg : 76

∆PIdleAvg : 1

Time (t ± 0.1s) Average Power Pavg ∆Pavg Corrected PWR Pcorrected ∆Pcorrected

0.0 140 14 64 14

2.0 132 10 56 10

4.0 132 8 56 9

6.0 130 4 54 4

8.0 129 4 53 4

10.0 128 4 52 4

12.0 127 3 51 4

14.0 127 3 51 4

16.0 126 3 50 4

18.0 125 5 49 6

20.0 124 5 48 6

22.0 124 5 48 5

24.0 124 5 48 6

26.0 123 5 47 5

28.0 122 5 46 5

30.0 122 5 46 5

Table 4: Power Processed Data (first 30 seconds) [1].

18
5.2 Processing Experiment Temperature Data

Time (t ± 0.1s) Temperature T (±1 ‰)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9

0.0 30 31 31 32 32 29 31 31 30

2.0 43 38 40 40 40 37 38 40 37

4.0 67 47 50 50 50 49 48 49 47

6.0 90 58 68 60 60 58 60 59 55

8.0 102 67 71 71 69 70 72 65 64

10.0 103 75 82 82 80 82 83 78 73

12.0 108 89 91 92 91 93 94 87 81

14.0 112 97 101 102 100 104 106 98 90

16.0 117 107 110 113 110 115 116 106 100

18.0 125 118 119 122 120 123 127 116 108

20.0 133 124 128 131 124 133 137 126 117

22.0 140 135 137 141 137 143 146 134 126

24.0 149 144 144 149 145 152 156 142 133

26.0 158 153 152 158 152 161 166 150 141

28.0 165 162 160 166 160 171 173 157 149

30.0 173 170 163 172 167 178 182 166 155

Table 5: Temperature raw data (first 30 seconds) [1]

Calculating Averages:
Trial 1+Trial 2+. . . +Trial 9
Average Temperature: Tavg = 9
30+31+31+32+32+29+31+31+30
Sample Tavg calculation for t = 0: Tavg = 9
= 31

Calculating Uncertainty:
Max−Min
Tavg uncertainty calculation: ∆Tavg = 2
32−29
Sample ∆Tavg calculation for t = 0: ∆Tavg = 2
= 2 (0 d.p)

19
 Processed Temperature Data:

Time (t ± 0.1s) Average Temp Tavg Absolute Uncertainty ∆Tavg

0.0 31 2

2.0 39 3

4.0 51 10

6.0 63 18

8.0 72 19

10.0 82 15

12.0 92 14

14.0 101 11

16.0 110 9

18.0 120 10

20.0 128 10

22.0 138 10

24.0 146 12

26.0 155 13

28.0 163 12

30.0 170 14

Table 6: Temperature processed data (first 30 seconds) [1]

Full processed data is available in Appendix D.

5.3 Empirical and Model Comparison

Plotting Pcorrected vs Tavg :

20
 Induction Heater Power (Pavg − PIdleAvg ) vs Workpiece Temperature
80
Measured Data
75 Measured Input Power
*Best Fit: −0.03752x + 53.76
70 *Max Slope: −0.08422 + 69.32
*Min Slope: −0.01231 + 46.73
65
Model
60 Induced Power Model
Model Fit: −0.04156x + 40.57
55
Power (W)

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
‰
Workpiece Temperature ( )

*First experimental point not considered in line calculations due to large uncertainties,
and not following the trend.
The relationship between the workpiece temperature and power is not linear in both
the model and experimental values. However, in the given temperature range, a linear
approximation is suitable for analysis. This is supported by a correlation coefficient of
-0.9766 for the experimental best fit (black), and -0.9941 for the model best fit (blue).
As expected, the downward trend in both the model and the experiment data is
present, with both presenting a slight curvature. The experimental data best fit line

‰. ‰.
W W
slope is -0.0375 Whereas for the model, the slope is -0.0416 Both slopes are
similar, with a difference of 10%. Furthermore, observing the maximum and minimum
slope lines, the model slope falls within the range of uncertainty for the experimental

21
slope. This supports the model’s prediction of induced power decreasing as resistivity
increases. Since the models follow a similar shape, the resistivity relationship found by
Yafei et. al. accurately represents the workpiece material utilized.
However, a large discrepancy exists between the y-intercept of both best fit lines. This
suggests that there are systematic errors or an inaccurate parameter value in the model.
The “corrected power” values used in the graph is Pin − Pidle . Ideally, this represents
all induced power. However, inefficiencies in the system exist in the form of flux leakage
and switching losses. Inefficiencies not taken into account may explain the difference in
y-intercepts.
This unaccounted inefficiency prediction can be verified by analysing the initial aver-
age heating rate in the temperature-time results:

‰
Average Workpiece Temperature ( ) vs Time (s), with Tangent
500

450

400

350
‰ Temperature ( )

300

250

200

150

100
Range Uncertainty
50 Recorded Temperature
Initial Tangent: y = 5.3x + 31
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Time (s)

22
 The initial ∆T
is 5.3 ‰ , as indicated by the slope of the tangent. Re-arranging the
∆t s

heat capacity formula:

∆T
P = mcm
∆t
∆T
Where m = 0.017 is workpiece mass, cm = 477 is specific heat capacity, and ∆t
= 5.3
is the rate of temperature change, the power input can be estimated. This equates to
P = 43W , which is 2.5 W above the induced power model y-intercept. This is significantly
closer to the model than the experimental power values, supporting the idea of efficiency
losses in the induction heater and coil system, supporting the induced power model’s
fitted y-intercept value.

6 Evaluating Energy Losses

6.1 Radiation Losses

According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation, the power emitted by a body is

given by [6, p. 637]:

P = eσAs Tb4

Where P is the power dissipated, e is the body’s emissivity, As is the surface area of
the body, and Tb is the absolute temperature. However, radiation energy emitted by the
surroundings and absorbed by the body must be taken into account:

P = eσAs (Tb4 − T∞
4
)

Where T∞ is the temperature of the surroundings in kelvin. Take note when Tb =

T∞ , no heat exchange occurs. Radiation heat losses can be expressed as a function of Tb :

4
PRadiated (Tb ) = eσAs (Tb4 − T∞ ) (13)

23
6.2 Convection Losses

Throughout the experiment, no airflow was forced through the coil or along the work-
piece. However, convective heat transfer still occurs naturally due to differences in the
density of the air surrounding the workpiece [6, p. 610].

Figure 7: Natural Convection Visualisation [1]

The horizontal cylindrical workpiece heats the close surrounding air. The less-dense
hot air rises, allowing cooler room temperature air to come into contact with the work-
piece. This process repeats continuously, transferring heat from the workpiece through
natural convection. To simplify calculations, the ends of the workpiece will be considered
adiabatic.
Newton’s law of cooling quantifies convective losses stating that the rate of heat
loss from a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference of the body and
surroundings [6, p. 565]. This is expressed as:

Q̇ = hAr (Tb − T∞ ) (14)

Where Q̇ is the rate of heat transfer out of the body, h is the heat transfer coefficient,
Ar is the surface area of convection, Tb is the body temperature, and T∞ is bulk fluid
temperature, which stays constant.
The heat transfer coefficient, h, depends on the temperature of both the body and

24
the surrounding fluid, as the temperature determines the fluid flow rate. To quantify the
variables that influence h and estimate the coefficient, three non-dimensional numbers
are used. These are the Prandtl number (Pr), Grashof number (Gr), and Nusselt Number
(Nu) [7, p. 232].

6.2.1 The Prandtl Number

The Prandtl number is a fluid property that approximates the ratio of kinematic vis-
cosity to thermal diffusivity. This property changes with temperature, as fluid properties
change with temperature. For air from a temperature of 26.85 to 426.85, the Prandtl
number ranges from 0.7050 to 0.6960 respectively [8]. Within the temperature range
utilised, the Prandtl number changes marginally and therefore is assumed a constant
0.7008, which is the average over the temperature range utilized [8].

6.2.2 The Grashof Number

The Grashof number represents the ratio between the buoyancy force of the fluid and
the restraining forces due to fluid viscosity. For a pipe, the Grashof number is given as
[7, p. 224]:

gρ2a β(Tb − T ∞)D3 buoyancy forces

Gr = ∝ (15)
v2 viscous forces

Where ρa is the fluid density, g is the acceleration due to gravity, β is the coefficient
of thermal expansion, v is the kinematic viscosity, and D is the cylinder diameter. For
simplicity, all fluid properties are assumed constant over the temperature range utilized,
except fluid density.
For Natural convection, all fluid properties are evaluated at a “film temperature (Tf )”,
which estimates the fluid temperature around the workpiece [9]. This is given by [9]:

Tb + T∞
Tf =
2

25
 Where Tb is the body temperature in kelvin, and T∞ is the bulk fluid temperature. The
perfect gas law is used to estimate the density of the fluid, at the reference temperature:

ρref Tref
ρa =
Tf

Where ρa is the estimated density, and ρref is the density at reference temperature
Tref . Substituting Tf into the expression for ρa provides an expression for the density as
a function of the body temperature:

2ρref Tref
ρa (Tb ) =
Tb + T∞

The function for the density of the fluid, ρa (Tb ), can be substituted into (15) to express
the Grashof number as a function of the body temperature:

 2
2ρref Tref
g Tb +T∞
β(Tb − T ∞)D3
Gr(Tb ) =
v2

6.2.3 The Nusselt Number

The Nusselt Number is the ratio of conductive to convective heat transfer and char-
acterizes fluid flow due to convection. The Nusselt number is expressed in terms of the
heat transfer coefficient h [9]:

Dh
Nu = (16)
k

Where D is the cylinder diameter, and k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
In addition, the Nusselt number is expressed as a function of the Grashof and Prandtl
numbers so that h can be evaluated. For natural convection of a cylinder, this function
is* [9]:

26
   1
 2
0.387(P r × Gr(Tb )) 6

N u(Tb ) = 0.60 +
 

169 i 278
h 
1 + 0.559
Pr

*This Nusselt Number expression is only valid for 10−5 < (P r × Gr(Tb )) < 1012 [9].
The two expressions for the Nusselt Number can be set equal to eachother, and re-
arranged to find h, as a function of Tb :

 2
 1
0.387(P r×Gr(Tb )) 6
k 0.60 +  9
8

27
0.559 16
1+( 0.7008 )
h(Tb ) =
D

6.2.4 Total Power Loss as a Function of Temperature

The total power loss is the sum of both radiation and convective losses:

Ploss = Q̇(Tb ) + PRadiated (Tb )

Ploss = h(Tb )Ar (Tb − T∞ ) + eσAs (Tb4 − T∞

4
) (17)

Note that h(Tb ) is not substituted to keep the above expression readable.

7 Power Loss Model Empirical Comparison

Using the parameters in Table 7, the induced power and power loss models can be
plotted. For consistency, the x-axis is in ‰, but kelvin was utilized for models where
applicable.

27
Variable Value Units Variable Value Units
Induced Power Variables Radiation Loss Variables

θ 0 rad e 0.8 -
N 7 turns σ 5.67 × 10−8 W
m2 K 4

Ax 2.83 × 10−5 m2 As 1.38 × 10−3 m2

µ0 1.26 × 10−6 N
A2
T∞ 303 K

N
n Ls
= 100 - Convection Loss Variables

I0 70 A k 0.0261
ω 3.90 × 105 rad
s
D 6.00 × 10−3 m
l 1.88 × 10−2 m Pr 0.7008 -
J
Ls 0.07 m cp 1007 KgK
m
µ 100 - g 9.81 s2
kg
f 62000 Hz ρa0 1.201 m3

Tref 293.15 K
β 3.40 × 10−3 1
K
kg
v 1.85 × 10−5 m×s

Ar 1.32 × 10−3 m2

Table 7: Parameters used in models [1]

28
 ‰
Power Models vs Workpiece Temperature ( )
50
Power Induced
45 Radiation Loss Power
Convection Loss Power
40 Total Power Losses

35

30
Power (W)

25

20

15

10

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
‰
Workpiece Temperature ( )

Intuitively, total power losses increase with temperature, and this is reflected in the
model. Furthermore, the initial state of the power loss model is correct, as, at 30 ‰,
both radiation and convective losses are 0. This needs to be the case as 30 ± 2 ‰ was the
average room temperature when conducting the experiments. Interestingly, convection
losses increase linearly in the temperature range utilized, with a linear correlation of
0.9998.
As induced power decreases and power losses increase with temperature, it can be ex-
pected that the temperature-time relationship of the model will follow a steep incline at
first, then asymptote at the maximum attainable temperature. The maximum tempera-
ture is where Pin = Pout , at (439.2, 23.3), indicating a theoretical maximum temperature
of 439.2 ‰. This can be compared to the experimental values observed.

29
 ‰
Average Workpiece Temperature ( ) vs Time (s), Peak Temperature Analysis
500

450

400

350
Temperature ( )
‰

300

250

200

150

100 Range Uncertainty

Recorded Temperature
50 Inverse Exponential Fit: y = 412.8(1 − e−0.01418x + 26.9)
Fit Asymptote: y = 439.7
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Time (s)

Fitting an inverse exponential function shows the asymptote to be 440 ± 29 ‰. The

uncertainty for this extrapolated asymptote was determined by averaging the uncertainty
for the last 50 data points, which were chosen because the uncertainty remained relatively
constant, providing a suitable amount of data points for extrapolation. The extrapolated
theoretical maximum is 0.18% off the predicted value of 439.2 ‰. Furthermore, as the
predicted value of 439.2 ‰ lies within the error of ±29 ‰, the model prediction is suit-
able.

8 Combined Heating Model

A model for the workpiece temperature as a function of time can be generated by

using the induced, and power loss models. The basis for the temperature change of a

30
body due to energy transfer is given by:

dQ = mcm dT (18)

Where dQ is energy change, m is the workpiece mass, cm is the specific heat capacity
of the workpiece, and dT is the temperature difference.
Since both Peddy and Ploss are functions of temperature, equation (18) can be rear-
ranged to generate a model for temperature as a function of time. A numerical approxi-
mate solution will be determined using Peddy and Ploss :
Let the power “used” by the workpiece be Pused (Tb ) = Peddy (Tb − 273.15) − Ploss (Tb ):

dQ
Pused (Tb ) =
dt
Pused (Tb ) dt = dQ

Substituting into equation (18):

Pused (Tb ) dt = mcm dT

Pused (Tb ) dt
dT =
mcm
(Peddy (Tb − 273.15) − Ploss (Tb ))dt
dT = (19)
mcm

Equation (19) is used to generate a numerical solution using a spreadsheet for the
temperature in terms of time. The approximation utilises a 1 dt interval for accuracy.
Note that Tb is converted to ‰ for P eddy , as the function was derived for ‰.
A condensed version of the spreadsheet is below, showing the first 30 seconds. The
full spreadsheet is in Appendix E.

31
m - Mass (Kg) 0.017

cm - Specific heat capacity 477

Start Temperature ( ‰) 30

Start time (s) 0

t - time (s) P Induced P radiated P convection dT Temp ( ‰) (P r × Gr(Tb ))

1.00 40.58 0.00 0.00 5.00 35.00 100

2.00 40.28 0.04 0.05 4.96 40.01 196

3.00 39.99 0.07 0.11 4.91 44.97 289

4.00 39.70 0.11 0.17 4.86 49.87 378

5.00 39.41 0.15 0.24 4.81 54.73 463

6.00 39.13 0.19 0.32 4.76 59.55 544

7.00 38.86 0.24 0.39 4.71 64.31 623

8.00 38.58 0.28 0.47 4.67 69.02 698

9.00 38.32 0.33 0.54 4.62 73.69 770

10.00 38.05 0.38 0.62 4.57 78.31 840

11.00 37.80 0.42 0.70 4.52 82.88 906

12.00 37.54 0.48 0.78 4.48 87.40 971

13.00 37.29 0.53 0.85 4.43 91.88 1032

14.00 37.05 0.58 0.93 4.38 96.30 1092

15.00 36.81 0.63 1.01 4.34 100.69 1149

16.00 36.57 0.69 1.09 4.29 105.02 1204

17.00 36.34 0.75 1.17 4.24 109.31 1257

18.00 36.11 0.81 1.25 4.20 113.56 1308

19.00 35.88 0.87 1.32 4.16 117.76 1357

20.00 35.66 0.93 1.40 4.11 121.91 1404

21.00 35.45 0.99 1.48 4.07 126.02 1450

22.00 35.23 1.06 1.56 4.02 130.09 1494

23.00 35.03 1.12 1.63 3.98 134.11 1537

24.00 34.82 1.19 1.71 3.94 138.09 1578

25.00 34.62 1.26 1.78 3.89 142.03 1617

Table 8: Numerical Model Spreadsheet [1]

32
 The spreadsheet includes (P r × Gr(Tb )) calculations to ensure the convection cal-
culations are valid. All convection calculations are valid in this temperature range, as
(P r × Gr(Tb )) remains within 10−5 < (P r × Gr(Tb )) < 1012 .
Utilizing the spreadsheet, plotting Temperature ( ) vs Time (s): ‰
‰
Model Workpiece Temperature ( ) vs Time (s)
500

450

400

350
‰ Temperature ( )

300

250

200

150

100

50
Workpiece Temperature Model
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Time (s)

The plotted relationship matches the expected relationship based on the power vs
temperature plot outlined in section 7, exhibiting an initial steep increase in temperature,
followed by asymptotic behaviour. At a time of 342 ± 0.1 seconds, the estimated model
temperature is 437.64 ‰, approaching the theoretical limit of 439.2 ‰.

33
9 Combined Model vs Experiment Results

The Workpiece Temperature model is superimposed on top of the results of the ex-
periment:
‰
Workpiece Temperature ( ) and Model vs Time (s)
500

450

400

350
Temperature ( )
‰

300

250

200

150

100
Range Uncertainty
50 Recorded Temperature
Combined Model Temperature
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Time (s)

The model relationship is identical to the experimental relationship; through software

analysis, both follow an inverse exponential relationship. The experimental and model
values correlation coefficients are 0.999 and 0.9997, respectively, to an inverse exponen-
tial model following the form y = a(1 − e−kx ) + b. These correlation coefficients are so
close to one that these models perfectly follow an inverse exponential relationship. Fur-
thermore, the model is completely contained within the experimental error. Therefore,
within the essay’s scope, the research question has been answered. The time-temperature
relationship is inversely exponential.

34
 Something to note is that the theoretical maximum temperature of the model is 439.2
‰, whereas one trial in the experiment reached 475 ± 1 ‰ at 342 ± 0.1 seconds. This
temperature is significantly above the “theoretical maximum”, suggesting possible errors
in the experiment, or parameter values. As the experiment is time-based, small errors
propagate as time progresses. Therefore, variations in the power supply output may
have propagated, causing some trials to go above the theoretical maximum. These error
propagations are observed as the uncertainty area increases from an average of ±13 ‰ in
the first 50 seconds to ±29‰ in the last 50 seconds, which is a 3 fold increase.

10 Conclusions and Evaluation

Deriving the relationships between the workpiece and induction heater has led to
multiple interesting conclusions.
First, Induced power decreases as the workpiece temperature increases. This is due
to the increase in resistivity of the material, impeding the flow of eddy currents.
Second, convective and radiation losses increase with temperature. At first, the magni-
tude of convective losses is greater than radiation losses. However, radiation loss becomes
the main power loss method as it is proportional to the fourth power of the body temper-
ature. Interestingly, convective losses are linear within the temperature range analysed.
Finally, a numerical analysis was generated to model temperature vs time. The final
model was contained in the error bars, and exhibited the same characteristics as the
experiment, supporting the data and answering the research question: Within the scope
of this essay, the relationship between time and temperature is inversely exponential.
As the method was repeatable, 9 trials were completed, with a sample every 2 seconds.
Each trial was repeatable and consistent. A large number of trials and data samples is
what allowed for empirical verifications of the models, supporting the induced, power
loss, and combined models.
However, limitations must be addressed.

35
 First, as induction heating is complex, many factors can change the outcome of the ex-
periment. As this experiment is time-based, small errors at the beginning will propagate.
This was observed as the uncertainty bars for temperature grew to ±30 ‰. These small
errors could have been in the power supply, temperature of the room, or switching losses,
which are all uncontrollable. Another limitation is that the power loss model curves could
not be directly verified. Instead, indirect approaches such as the maximum temperature,
and initial power losses were analysed. The curves cannot be verified directly, so the
curve shapes cannot be fully understood, mainly the linear convection curve.
In addition, hysteresis losses were considered negligible as the frequency utilized was
62 kHz. However, when heating up thick pieces of metal, a large skin depth is desired.
This means a lower frequency, meaning hysteresis losses would account for a significant
portion of induced power. Furthermore, due to the solenoid magnetic field formula used,
the Induced Power model depends on a solenoid coil geometry. This model would not be
applicable to induction heating setups that use other coil geometries, or operate on lower
frequencies.
Additionally, only one material was used, and from deriving the induced power model,
it is clear that material properties significantly impacted induced power. Materials with
different resistivity curves will have different induced power curves, and therefore the
temperature vs time relationship will change.
The temperature range utilized is also quite limited, not reaching the Curie temper-
ature. Extending the temperature range to include the curie temperature would make
the models more applicable to the real world, especially for industrial applications. This
would not only extend upon the relationship between temperature and time, but it may
also provide insight into material selection. An analysis of induction heating at the curie
temperature would be an interesting extension, but is beyond the scope of this essay.

36
References

[1] Student, Student Generated. 2021.

[2] S. Zinn and S. L. Semiatin, Elements of Induction Heating. Design, Control, and
Applications. United States of America: Electric Power Research Institute, 1988.

[3] R. Martin Neary and Woodman. “22.3: Ampere’s law.” (Accessed: 2021-08-11).
(2020), [Online]. Available: https : / / phys . libretexts . org / Bookshelves / University
Physics/Book%3A Introductory Physics - Building Models to Describe Our World
(Martin Neary Rinaldo and Woodman)/22%3A Source of Magnetic Field/22.03%
3A Ampere%E2%80%99s Law.

[4] S. S. Corporation. “Grade 12.9 bolt.” (Accessed: 2021-08-11). (2020), [Online]. Avail-
able: https://www.navstarsteel.com/grade-12-9-bolt.html.

[5] N. D. Sun Yafei and S. Jing, “Temperature and carbon content dependence of elec-
trical resistivity of carbon steel,” IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and
Applications, vol. 4, 2009.

[6] Eastop and McConkey, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologies, 5th ed.
London: Addison Wesley longman, 1993.

[7] R. E. H. Frank W. Schmidt and C. H. Wolgemuth, Introduction to Thermal Sciences.

Thermodynamics, Fluid Dynamics, Heat transfer. 2nd ed. United States of America:
John Wiley and Sons, 1993.

[8] E. Units. “Prandtl number of air.” (Accessed: 2021-08-11). (2021), [Online]. Avail-
able: https://engineeringunits.com/prandtl-number-of-air/.

[9] O. G. Martynenko. “Free convection.” (Accessed: 2021-08-11). (2011), [Online]. Avail-

able: DOI:%2010.1615/AtoZ.f.free convection.

37
A Setup Dimensions and Schematics

Figure 8: Induction Heater and Apparatus Dimensions

38
Figure 9: Induction Heater Schematic

39
B Raw Data

Temperature - Time Raw Data:

Time (s) Temperature (Celsius)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9

0 30 31 31 32 32 29 31 31 30

2 43 38 40 40 40 37 38 40 37

4 67 47 50 50 50 49 48 49 47

6 90 58 68 60 60 58 60 59 55

8 102 67 71 71 69 70 72 65 64

10 103 75 82 82 80 82 83 78 73

12 108 89 91 92 91 93 94 87 81

14 112 97 101 102 100 104 106 98 90

16 117 107 110 113 110 115 116 106 100

18 125 118 119 122 120 123 127 116 108

20 133 124 128 131 124 133 137 126 117

22 140 135 137 141 137 143 146 134 126

24 149 144 144 149 145 152 156 142 133

26 158 153 152 158 152 161 166 150 141

28 165 162 160 166 160 171 173 157 149

30 173 170 163 172 167 178 182 166 155

32 180 175 168 179 173 184 190 173 162

34 186 181 175 186 181 193 198 178 169

36 194 189 183 192 187 198 205 184 175

38 202 195 191 199 199 206 213 192 181

40 208 202 199 205 200 214 219 198 188

42 214 210 204 212 207 222 227 205 193

44 220 214 210 218 217 228 235 211 199

40
46 226 221 215 223 218 232 241 217 205

48 232 227 220 228 223 238 248 224 210

50 238 233 227 234 228 246 254 231 216

52 244 239 232 240 234 250 259 236 222

54 250 244 237 245 240 254 266 241 227

56 257 249 241 250 249 259 273 246 231

58 262 256 247 255 248 266 278 251 236

60 267 258 251 258 254 271 284 258 241

62 272 265 256 265 258 277 290 263 246

64 278 270 261 270 262 281 294 268 251

66 283 274 264 275 267 285 300 273 255

68 286 281 268 278 271 291 306 278 261

70 291 284 271 281 275 295 310 283 266

72 297 288 275 286 279 296 315 298 271

74 311 294 280 291 282 303 320 292 274

76 322 300 284 295 286 305 323 295 279

78 334 302 288 298 290 310 328 300 282

80 343 305 292 302 294 316 334 304 285

82 350 310 296 306 298 320 331 309 289

84 355 314 299 308 302 322 342 312 292

86 361 320 304 313 305 327 346 316 296

88 362 323 306 317 309 333 349 318 299

90 365 324 309 321 312 337 352 321 302

92 366 329 312 323 315 342 356 325 305

94 366 331 314 326 317 346 358 327 308

96 367 336 317 330 321 349 361 331 311

41
98 370 339 320 333 329 353 365 332 315

100 374 342 322 335 326 357 368 335 318

102 375 345 325 338 329 357 372 337 321

104 376 347 328 341 337 360 375 339 323

106 377 350 331 344 335 364 378 341 326

108 378 353 334 347 336 368 381 344 328

110 380 356 338 349 339 370 383 347 331

112 381 359 340 352 341 377 385 349 334

114 381 362 341 354 344 381 388 350 335

116 385 364 343 355 344 384 391 350 339

118 387 367 345 357 348 383 393 350 343

120 397 369 347 360 348 382 396 350 344

122 390 373 348 361 351 382 398 360 344

124 394 374 351 363 353 382 400 361 344

126 393 378 353 364 355 381 404 363 343

128 395 377 354 366 358 380 405 364 346

130 397 380 356 368 359 378 407 365 349

132 399 380 358 370 361 379 410 367 351

134 401 384 361 372 364 378 410 368 352

136 402 388 361 373 367 384 411 371 356

138 403 391 363 376 368 387 413 373 359

140 404 390 365 377 370 388 416 374 361

142 406 391 366 378 368 390 417 375 364

144 406 393 367 380 370 395 419 377 366

146 405 396 370 380 371 398 421 378 388

148 407 399 372 382 373 399 422 380 371

42
150 409 401 373 383 374 398 423 383 371

152 408 402 374 385 376 399 425 383 371

154 409 403 374 386 376 404 427 385 370

156 410 406 375 387 378 407 428 388 371

158 413 390 376 388 380 407 429 390 371

160 415 412 377 388 380 405 430 392 372

162 418 416 379 389 380 406 431 393 373

164 420 418 380 391 381 406 432 394 374

166 420 418 381 391 383 403 434 394 376

168 414 421 383 394 383 405 436 395 379

170 414 422 383 395 385 408 438 397 381

172 418 425 384 395 386 409 437 399 381

174 419 425 386 397 388 412 439 400 382

176 420 426 387 397 389 416 439 402 383

178 421 425 387 398 391 417 440 402 384

180 421 425 389 400 392 417 442 404 384

182 422 423 390 400 392 421 443 405 386

184 422 424 390 401 394 420 443 407 391

186 424 424 392 403 394 423 442 407 392

188 427 424 392 403 395 424 443 407 391

190 430 423 393 404 398 426 443 407 393

192 432 423 394 405 400 426 443 408 394

194 431 422 396 405 401 427 446 408 395

196 431 422 397 405 400 427 448 409 387

198 439 421 398 406 401 426 449 411 387

200 436 420 397 407 402 428 448 412 397

43
202 437 420 402 408 402 424 450 411 400

204 438 421 401 408 402 421 451 411 402

206 438 419 403 410 401 424 451 412 402

208 438 419 403 409 401 423 452 411 402

210 441 419 403 411 402 426 453 411 401

212 441 418 403 411 403 423 455 412 402

214 441 418 403 411 402 424 455 414 401

216 440 417 404 413 404 428 455 415 401

218 437 417 403 414 404 428 456 416 401

220 438 416 404 414 404 430 457 415 401

222 440 416 403 415 403 431 457 417 403

224 439 416 403 416 404 428 457 418 404

226 436 416 403 416 404 431 456 417 404

228 434 414 403 416 404 434 457 419 405

230 438 414 403 416 405 433 456 420 405

232 437 432 403 418 405 435 457 420 406

234 440 421 403 420 405 438 458 420 408

236 440 432 404 419 406 439 459 419 410

238 440 433 405 420 405 439 460 419 410

240 444 432 404 419 406 441 459 418 411

242 446 432 404 419 406 440 461 420 412

244 445 432 405 418 407 441 461 420 412

246 445 433 405 419 407 437 463 420 412

248 441 433 405 420 408 439 461 421 413

250 442 432 405 420 409 441 462 423 414

252 443 431 405 421 409 443 463 423 414

44
254 448 431 406 421 409 441 464 424 415

256 446 429 405 422 410 436 465 423 414

258 444 430 407 422 410 436 465 424 413

260 442 429 408 423 411 437 465 424 414

262 441 445 407 422 411 439 466 424 415

264 442 448 407 422 410 443 466 424 415

266 442 445 407 422 411 445 467 423 415

268 446 448 406 423 412 446 467 424 416

270 444 448 407 423 414 449 467 423 416

272 445 446 406 423 418 443 467 423 417

274 446 445 408 424 423 442 467 424 417

276 447 447 408 423 419 443 468 423 417

278 445 446 409 422 416 441 469 425 418

280 446 447 408 422 417 440 468 423 418

282 445 447 408 423 421 443 468 424 419

284 444 425 410 423 427 442 469 424 420

286 441 429 411 423 426 442 469 425 419

288 442 430 408 424 422 449 469 426 419

290 443 430 408 424 417 447 470 428 418

292 444 430 410 425 422 445 471 429 418

294 443 429 413 426 421 447 470 428 417

296 443 429 412 426 416 444 470 429 419

298 445 428 413 427 416 444 470 420 419

300 445 428 413 428 416 448 471 428 422

302 446 428 414 427 417 444 470 429 424

304 447 432 413 427 418 443 470 428 425

45
 306 446 436 413 427 419 444 471 428 425

308 445 428 414 428 418 444 471 429 426

310 444 435 414 429 418 444 472 429 427

312 446 438 415 429 419 444 472 429 427

314 447 436 414 429 419 444 473 429 428

316 448 438 412 430 418 444 472 429 427

318 447 438 411 430 416 444 473 429 427

320 446 438 412 429 417 444 473 429 426

322 444 437 414 428 418 444 472 429 426

324 444 438 414 428 419 444 471 429 426

326 444 438 416 428 418 444 471 429 426

328 444 438 415 429 416 444 473 429 428

330 439 438 414 430 416 444 473 429 427

332 441 438 417 430 416 444 474 429 428

334 442 437 415 429 416 444 473 429 430

336 447 437 417 429 415 444 474 429 428

338 449 437 417 429 416 444 475 429 427

340 449 437 416 430 417 444 474 429 426

342 448 436 417 429 416 444 475 429 424

Table 9: Temperature Raw Data

Input Power - Time Raw Data:

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7 Trial 8 Trial 9

(Pidle ) 75 75 76 76 76 76 75 75 76

Time Input Power (Pin )

0 152 144 131 135 134 131 136 136 158

46
2 146 130 130 132 129 131 134 127 128

4 144 129 129 131 128 130 133 134 128

6 131 129 128 131 127 129 132 134 127

8 131 128 127 130 126 128 132 133 126

10 129 127 126 130 125 127 132 130 126

12 128 127 125 129 125 127 131 129 126

14 128 126 125 129 124 126 130 129 126

16 127 125 124 128 124 126 130 129 125

18 127 125 124 128 119 125 129 125 125

20 126 125 119 127 119 125 129 125 124

22 126 124 119 126 119 124 128 126 124

24 125 124 119 126 118 124 128 127 124

26 125 124 118 126 118 119 127 127 123

28 125 119 118 122 118 119 127 126 123

30 124 119 118 122 118 119 127 125 123

32 124 119 118 121 118 118 126 125 122

34 123 119 118 121 118 118 126 125 122

36 122 119 118 121 118 119 126 125 122

38 121 119 117 121 117 118 125 124 121

40 118 119 117 121 117 118 125 124 121

42 119 118 117 121 117 118 125 124 121

44 119 118 117 121 117 118 124 123 121

46 119 118 116 119 116 117 124 124 120

48 118 118 116 119 116 117 125 124 120

50 118 117 116 119 116 117 124 124 120

52 118 117 116 119 116 116 124 124 120

47
54 119 117 115 119 115 116 124 124 119

56 119 117 115 119 115 116 124 122 119

58 119 116 115 119 115 116 123 122 119

60 119 116 115 119 115 115 123 120 119

62 118 116 115 119 115 115 123 119 119

64 118 116 114 118 114 115 123 119 119

66 118 115 114 118 114 115 122 119 119

68 118 115 114 118 114 115 122 119 119

70 118 115 114 118 114 114 122 119 119

72 115 115 113 118 114 114 122 118 118

74 115 115 113 117 114 114 122 118 118

76 115 115 113 117 113 114 121 118 118

78 115 114 113 117 113 114 121 118 118

80 115 114 113 117 113 114 121 118 118

82 115 114 113 117 113 114 121 117 118

84 114 114 113 117 113 114 120 117 117

86 114 114 113 116 113 114 120 117 117

88 114 114 113 116 113 114 120 117 117

90 114 114 113 116 113 114 120 117 117

92 114 114 113 116 113 114 120 117 117

94 114 114 113 116 113 113 120 117 117

96 113 114 113 116 113 113 120 116 117

98 113 114 112 116 113 113 120 116 116

100 113 114 112 116 113 113 120 116 116

102 114 114 112 115 113 113 120 116 116

104 113 114 112 115 112 113 120 116 116

48
106 114 113 112 115 112 113 120 116 116

108 114 113 112 115 112 113 120 116 116

110 114 113 112 115 112 112 120 116 116

112 113 113 112 115 112 112 119 115 116

114 113 113 112 115 112 112 118 115 116

116 113 113 112 115 112 112 118 115 115

118 113 113 110 115 112 112 118 115 115

120 113 113 110 114 112 112 118 115 115

122 113 113 110 114 112 112 118 115 115

124 113 113 110 114 112 112 118 115 115

126 113 112 110 114 111 112 118 115 115

128 113 112 110 114 111 111 118 115 115

130 113 112 110 114 111 111 118 115 115

132 112 112 110 114 111 111 118 115 115

134 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

136 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

138 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

140 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

142 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

144 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

146 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

148 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 115

150 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 114

152 112 112 110 114 111 111 117 115 114

154 112 112 110 114 110 111 117 115 114

156 112 111 110 114 110 110 117 115 114

49
158 112 111 110 114 110 110 117 115 114

160 112 111 110 114 110 110 117 115 114

162 111 111 110 114 110 110 116 115 114

164 111 111 110 114 110 110 116 115 114

166 111 111 110 114 110 110 116 115 114

168 111 111 110 114 110 110 116 115 114

170 111 111 110 114 110 110 116 114 114

172 111 111 110 114 110 110 116 114 114

174 113 111 110 114 110 110 116 114 114

176 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

178 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

180 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

182 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

184 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

186 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

188 113 111 109 114 110 110 116 114 114

190 113 111 109 113 110 110 116 114 114

192 113 111 109 112 109 110 116 114 114

194 111 110 109 113 109 109 116 114 114

196 111 110 109 113 109 109 116 114 114

198 111 110 109 113 109 109 116 114 114

200 110 110 109 113 109 109 116 114 114

202 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 114

204 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 113

206 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 113

208 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 113

50
210 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 113

212 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 113

214 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 114 113

216 110 110 109 110 109 109 115 113 113

218 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 113 113

220 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

222 110 110 109 113 109 109 115 113 113

224 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

226 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

228 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

230 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

232 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

234 110 110 109 112 109 109 115 113 113

236 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

238 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

240 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

242 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

244 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

246 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

248 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

250 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

252 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

254 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

256 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

258 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

260 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

51
262 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

264 110 110 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

266 110 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

268 110 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

270 110 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

272 111 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

274 111 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

276 111 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

278 113 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

280 113 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

282 113 113 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

284 113 109 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

286 113 109 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

288 113 109 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

290 111 109 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

292 111 109 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

294 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

296 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

298 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

300 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

302 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

304 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

306 111 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

308 109 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

310 109 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

312 109 109 111 112 109 109 115 113 113

52
314 109 109 107 112 109 109 115 113 113

316 109 109 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

318 109 112 108 112 109 109 115 113 113

320 109 112 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

322 109 112 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

324 112 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

326 112 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

328 112 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

330 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

332 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

334 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

336 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

338 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

340 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

342 111 111 108 112 109 109 115 113 112

Table 10: Input Power Raw Data

53
C Solenoid Magnetic Field Derivation

Ampere’s circuital law can be used to determine the magnitude of B. Ampere’s

circuital law relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed-loop to the electric
current passing through the loop [3].

− →
→ −
I
B · d` = µ0 Ienc
C
→
−
Where B is the magnetic field vector at a point along the closed path, and d` is the
infinitely small line element of the path. µ0 is the permeability of free space, and Ienc is
the current passing through the loop.
Ampere’s law can be applied to calculate the magnetic field strength inside a solenoid;
→
−
relating the current in the solenoid to magnetic field strength, B . First, an amperian
loop to analyse must be selected. In this case, the amperian loop selected is the rectangle
abcd, pictured in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Amperes Circuital Loop on Solenoid [1]

Applying ampere’s law to this loop, integrating anti-clockwise in the direction of the
magnetic field:

54
 − →
→ −
I
B · d` = µ0 Ienc
C
Z b Z c d a
− →
→ − − →
→ − − →
→ − − →
→ − − →
→ −
I Z Z
B · d` = B · d` + B · d` + B · d` + B · d`
C a b c d

→
− −
→ →
−
Since bc and da are perpendicular to B :

b d
− →
→ − − →
→ − − →
→ −
I Z Z
B · d` = B · d` + 0 + B · d` + 0
C a c

→
− →
− −
→
cd is located outside the coil, furthermore bc and da can be considered to be infinitely
→
−
long, as the enclosed current does not change. Therefore, the magnetic field along cd can
be considered 0:

b
− →
→ − − →
→ −
I Z
B · d` = B · d` + 0 + 0 + 0
C a

Assuming a constant magnetic field inside the coil:

b
− →
→ − →
−
I Z
B · d` = B d` = BL
C a

BL = µ0 Ienc

The current enclosed in the loop is the current in the coil, multiplied by the number of
windings, because the current passes through the loop multiple times:

BL = µ0 Icoil N
µ0 Icoil N
B=
L

55
A new constant is introduced, n, defined as the turns per unit length:

B = µ0 nIcoil (20)

56
D Processed Data

Temperature Processed Data:

Time t Average Temp Tavg Absolute Uncertainty ∆Tavg

0 31 2

2 39 3

4 51 10

6 63 18

8 72 19

10 82 15

12 92 14

14 101 11

16 110 9

18 120 10

20 128 10

22 138 10

24 146 12

26 155 13

28 163 12

30 170 14

32 176 14

34 183 15

36 190 15

38 198 16

40 204 16

42 210 17

44 217 18

46 222 18

57
48 228 19

50 234 19

52 240 19

54 245 20

56 251 21

58 255 21

60 260 22

62 266 22

64 271 22

66 275 23

68 280 23

70 284 22

72 289 22

74 294 23

76 299 22

78 304 26

80 308 29

82 312 31

84 316 32

86 321 33

88 324 32

90 327 32

92 330 31

94 333 29

96 336 28

98 340 28

58
100 342 28

102 344 27

104 347 27

106 350 26

108 352 27

110 355 26

112 358 26

114 360 27

116 362 26

118 364 25

120 366 27

122 367 27

124 369 28

126 370 31

128 372 30

130 373 29

132 375 30

134 377 29

136 379 28

138 381 27

140 383 28

142 384 27

144 386 27

146 390 26

148 389 26

150 391 26

59
152 391 27

154 393 29

156 394 29

158 394 29

160 397 29

162 398 29

164 400 29

166 400 29

168 401 29

170 403 29

172 404 28

174 405 29

176 407 28

178 407 28

180 408 29

182 409 29

184 410 27

186 411 25

188 412 26

190 413 25

192 414 25

194 415 26

196 414 31

198 415 31

200 416 26

202 417 25

60
204 417 25

206 418 25

208 418 26

210 419 26

212 419 27

214 419 27

216 420 27

218 420 28

220 420 28

222 421 27

224 421 27

226 420 27

228 421 27

230 421 27

232 424 27

234 424 28

236 425 28

238 426 28

240 426 28

242 427 29

244 427 28

246 427 29

248 427 28

250 428 29

252 428 29

254 429 29

61
256 428 30

258 428 29

260 428 29

262 430 30

264 431 30

266 431 30

268 432 31

270 432 30

272 432 31

274 433 30

276 433 30

278 432 30

280 432 30

282 433 30

284 432 30

286 432 29

288 432 31

290 432 31

292 433 31

294 433 29

296 432 29

298 431 29

300 433 29

302 433 28

304 434 29

306 434 29

62
 308 434 29

310 435 29

312 435 29

314 435 30

316 435 30

318 435 31

320 435 31

322 435 29

324 435 29

326 435 28

328 435 29

330 434 30

332 435 29

334 435 29

336 436 30

338 436 30

340 436 29

342 435 30

Table 11: Temperature Raw Data

Power Processed Data:

Avgerage Idle Power PIdleAvg : 76

∆PIdleAvg : 1

Time (t ± 0.1s) Average Power Pavg ∆Pavg Corrected PWR Pcorrected ∆Pcorrected

0 140 14 64 14

2 132 10 56 10

4 132 8 56 9

63
6 130 4 54 4

8 129 4 53 4

10 128 4 52 4

12 127 3 51 4

14 127 3 51 4

16 126 3 50 4

18 125 5 49 6

20 124 5 48 6

22 124 5 48 5

24 124 5 48 6

26 123 5 47 5

28 122 5 46 5

30 122 5 46 5

32 121 4 45 5

34 121 4 45 5

36 121 4 45 5

38 120 4 44 5

40 120 4 44 5

42 120 4 44 5

44 120 4 44 4

46 119 4 43 5

48 119 5 43 5

50 119 4 43 5

52 119 4 43 5

54 119 5 43 5

56 118 5 42 5

64
58 118 4 42 5

60 118 4 42 5

62 118 4 42 5

64 117 5 41 5

66 117 4 41 5

68 117 4 41 5

70 117 4 41 5

72 116 5 40 5

74 116 5 40 5

76 116 4 40 5

78 116 4 40 5

80 116 4 40 5

82 116 4 40 5

84 115 4 39 4

86 115 4 39 4

88 115 4 39 4

90 115 4 39 4

92 115 4 39 4

94 115 4 39 4

96 115 4 39 4

98 115 4 39 5

100 115 4 39 5

102 115 4 39 5

104 114 4 38 5

106 114 4 38 5

108 114 4 38 5

65
110 114 4 38 5

112 114 4 38 4

114 114 3 38 4

116 114 3 38 4

118 114 4 38 5

120 114 4 38 5

122 114 4 38 5

124 114 4 38 5

126 113 4 37 5

128 113 4 37 5

130 113 4 37 5

132 113 4 37 5

134 113 4 37 4

136 113 4 37 4

138 113 4 37 4

140 113 4 37 4

142 113 4 37 4

144 113 4 37 4

146 113 4 37 4

148 113 4 37 4

150 113 4 37 4

152 113 4 37 4

154 113 4 37 4

156 112 4 36 4

158 112 4 36 4

160 112 4 36 4

66
162 112 3 36 4

164 112 3 36 4

166 112 3 36 4

168 112 3 36 4

170 112 3 36 4

172 112 3 36 4

174 112 3 36 4

176 112 4 36 4

178 112 4 36 4

180 112 4 36 4

182 112 4 36 4

184 112 4 36 4

186 112 4 36 4

188 112 4 36 4

190 112 4 36 4

192 112 4 36 4

194 112 4 36 4

196 112 4 36 4

198 112 4 36 4

200 112 4 36 4

202 112 3 36 4

204 111 3 35 4

206 111 3 35 4

208 111 3 35 4

210 111 3 35 4

212 111 3 35 4

67
214 111 3 35 4

216 111 3 35 4

218 111 3 35 4

220 111 3 35 4

222 111 3 35 4

224 111 3 35 4

226 111 3 35 4

228 111 3 35 4

230 111 3 35 4

232 111 3 35 4

234 111 3 35 4

236 111 4 35 4

238 111 4 35 4

240 111 4 35 4

242 111 4 35 4

244 111 4 35 4

246 111 4 35 4

248 111 4 35 4

250 111 4 35 4

252 111 4 35 4

254 111 4 35 4

256 111 4 35 4

258 111 4 35 4

260 111 4 35 4

262 111 4 35 4

264 111 4 35 4

68
266 111 4 35 4

268 111 4 35 4

270 111 4 35 4

272 111 4 35 4

274 111 4 35 4

276 111 4 35 4

278 112 4 36 4

280 112 4 36 4

282 112 4 36 4

284 111 4 35 4

286 111 4 35 4

288 111 4 35 4

290 111 4 35 4

292 111 4 35 4

294 111 3 35 4

296 111 3 35 4

298 111 3 35 4

300 111 3 35 4

302 111 3 35 4

304 111 3 35 4

306 111 3 35 4

308 111 3 35 4

310 111 3 35 4

312 111 3 35 4

314 111 4 35 5

316 111 4 35 4

69
318 111 4 35 4

320 111 4 35 4

322 111 4 35 4

324 111 4 35 4

326 111 4 35 4

328 111 4 35 4

330 111 4 35 4

332 111 4 35 4

334 111 4 35 4

336 111 4 35 4

338 111 4 35 4

340 111 4 35 4

342 111 4 35 4

Table 12: Power Processed Data

70
E Numerical Approximation Spreadsheet

m 0.017
cp 477
Initial Temp 30
Initial Time 0

Time P Induced P radiated P convection dT Temp (P r × Gr(Tb ))

1.00 40.58 0.00 0.00 5.00 35.00 100

2.00 40.28 0.04 0.05 4.96 40.01 196
3.00 39.99 0.07 0.11 4.91 44.97 289
4.00 39.70 0.11 0.17 4.86 49.87 378
5.00 39.41 0.15 0.24 4.81 54.73 463
6.00 39.13 0.19 0.32 4.76 59.55 544
7.00 38.86 0.24 0.39 4.71 64.31 623
8.00 38.58 0.28 0.47 4.67 69.02 698
9.00 38.32 0.33 0.54 4.62 73.69 770
10.00 38.05 0.38 0.62 4.57 78.31 840
11.00 37.80 0.42 0.70 4.52 82.88 906
12.00 37.54 0.48 0.78 4.48 87.40 971
13.00 37.29 0.53 0.85 4.43 91.88 1032
14.00 37.05 0.58 0.93 4.38 96.30 1092
15.00 36.81 0.63 1.01 4.34 100.69 1149
16.00 36.57 0.69 1.09 4.29 105.02 1204
17.00 36.34 0.75 1.17 4.24 109.31 1257
18.00 36.11 0.81 1.25 4.20 113.56 1308
19.00 35.88 0.87 1.32 4.16 117.76 1357
20.00 35.66 0.93 1.40 4.11 121.91 1404

71
21.00 35.45 0.99 1.48 4.07 126.02 1450
22.00 35.23 1.06 1.56 4.02 130.09 1494
23.00 35.03 1.12 1.63 3.98 134.11 1537
24.00 34.82 1.19 1.71 3.94 138.09 1578
25.00 34.62 1.26 1.78 3.89 142.03 1617
26.00 34.42 1.33 1.86 3.85 145.92 1655
27.00 34.23 1.40 1.93 3.81 149.78 1692
28.00 34.04 1.47 2.01 3.77 153.59 1728
29.00 33.85 1.54 2.08 3.73 157.36 1762
30.00 33.67 1.61 2.15 3.69 161.08 1796
31.00 33.49 1.69 2.22 3.65 164.77 1828
32.00 33.31 1.77 2.29 3.61 168.42 1859
33.00 33.13 1.84 2.37 3.57 172.03 1889
34.00 32.96 1.92 2.44 3.53 175.59 1918
35.00 32.80 2.00 2.50 3.49 179.12 1946
36.00 32.63 2.08 2.57 3.45 182.61 1974
37.00 32.47 2.16 2.64 3.41 186.06 2000
38.00 32.31 2.25 2.71 3.37 189.47 2025
39.00 32.15 2.33 2.78 3.34 192.84 2050
40.00 32.00 2.41 2.84 3.30 196.18 2074
41.00 31.85 2.50 2.91 3.26 199.48 2097
42.00 31.70 2.58 2.97 3.22 202.74 2120
43.00 31.56 2.67 3.04 3.19 205.96 2142
44.00 31.41 2.76 3.10 3.15 209.15 2163
45.00 31.27 2.85 3.16 3.12 212.30 2183
46.00 31.14 2.94 3.23 3.08 215.42 2203
47.00 31.00 3.03 3.29 3.04 218.50 2222

72
48.00 30.87 3.12 3.35 3.01 221.54 2241
49.00 30.74 3.21 3.41 2.97 224.55 2259
50.00 30.61 3.30 3.47 2.94 227.53 2277
51.00 30.49 3.39 3.53 2.91 230.47 2294
52.00 30.36 3.48 3.59 2.87 233.37 2310
53.00 30.24 3.58 3.64 2.84 236.24 2327
54.00 30.12 3.67 3.70 2.81 239.08 2342
55.00 30.00 3.77 3.76 2.77 241.89 2357
56.00 29.89 3.86 3.81 2.74 244.66 2372
57.00 29.78 3.96 3.87 2.71 247.40 2386
58.00 29.67 4.05 3.92 2.67 250.11 2400
59.00 29.56 4.15 3.98 2.64 252.78 2414
60.00 29.45 4.24 4.03 2.61 255.42 2427
61.00 29.34 4.34 4.08 2.58 258.04 2440
62.00 29.24 4.44 4.14 2.55 260.62 2452
63.00 29.14 4.53 4.19 2.52 263.16 2464
64.00 29.04 4.63 4.24 2.49 265.68 2476
65.00 28.94 4.73 4.29 2.46 268.17 2487
66.00 28.84 4.83 4.34 2.43 270.63 2498
67.00 28.75 4.93 4.39 2.40 273.05 2509
68.00 28.66 5.02 4.44 2.37 275.45 2520
69.00 28.57 5.12 4.48 2.34 277.82 2530
70.00 28.48 5.22 4.53 2.31 280.16 2540
71.00 28.39 5.32 4.58 2.28 282.46 2550
72.00 28.30 5.42 4.62 2.25 284.74 2559
73.00 28.21 5.51 4.67 2.22 287.00 2568
74.00 28.13 5.61 4.71 2.20 289.22 2577

73
75.00 28.05 5.71 4.76 2.17 291.42 2586
76.00 27.97 5.81 4.80 2.14 293.58 2594
77.00 27.89 5.91 4.85 2.11 295.72 2602
78.00 27.81 6.00 4.89 2.09 297.84 2610
79.00 27.73 6.10 4.93 2.06 299.92 2618
80.00 27.66 6.20 4.97 2.03 301.98 2626
81.00 27.58 6.30 5.01 2.01 304.02 2633
82.00 27.51 6.39 5.05 1.98 306.02 2640
83.00 27.44 6.49 5.09 1.96 308.00 2648
84.00 27.37 6.59 5.13 1.93 309.96 2654
85.00 27.30 6.68 5.17 1.90 311.89 2661
86.00 27.23 6.78 5.21 1.88 313.79 2668
87.00 27.16 6.87 5.25 1.85 315.67 2674
88.00 27.10 6.97 5.29 1.83 317.53 2680
89.00 27.03 7.06 5.32 1.81 319.36 2686
90.00 26.97 7.16 5.36 1.78 321.16 2692
91.00 26.91 7.25 5.40 1.76 322.95 2698
92.00 26.85 7.35 5.43 1.73 324.70 2703
93.00 26.79 7.44 5.47 1.71 326.44 2709
94.00 26.73 7.53 5.50 1.69 328.15 2714
95.00 26.67 7.63 5.54 1.67 329.84 2719
96.00 26.61 7.72 5.57 1.64 331.50 2725
97.00 26.55 7.81 5.60 1.62 333.15 2730
98.00 26.50 7.90 5.64 1.60 334.77 2734
99.00 26.44 7.99 5.67 1.58 336.37 2739
100.00 26.39 8.08 5.70 1.56 337.94 2744
101.00 26.34 8.17 5.73 1.53 339.50 2748

74
102.00 26.29 8.26 5.76 1.51 341.03 2753
103.00 26.24 8.35 5.79 1.49 342.54 2757
104.00 26.19 8.43 5.82 1.47 344.03 2761
105.00 26.14 8.52 5.85 1.45 345.51 2765
106.00 26.09 8.61 5.88 1.43 346.96 2769
107.00 26.04 8.69 5.91 1.41 348.39 2773
108.00 25.99 8.78 5.94 1.39 349.80 2777
109.00 25.95 8.86 5.97 1.37 351.19 2781
110.00 25.90 8.95 6.00 1.35 352.56 2784
111.00 25.86 9.03 6.02 1.33 353.91 2788
112.00 25.82 9.12 6.05 1.31 355.24 2791
113.00 25.77 9.20 6.08 1.29 356.55 2795
114.00 25.73 9.28 6.10 1.28 357.85 2798
115.00 25.69 9.36 6.13 1.26 359.12 2801
116.00 25.65 9.44 6.15 1.24 360.38 2804
117.00 25.61 9.52 6.18 1.22 361.62 2807
118.00 25.57 9.60 6.20 1.20 362.84 2810
119.00 25.53 9.68 6.23 1.19 364.05 2813
120.00 25.49 9.75 6.25 1.17 365.24 2816
121.00 25.45 9.83 6.28 1.15 366.40 2819
122.00 25.42 9.91 6.30 1.14 367.56 2822
123.00 25.38 9.98 6.32 1.12 368.69 2824
124.00 25.35 10.06 6.35 1.10 369.81 2827
125.00 25.31 10.13 6.37 1.09 370.92 2830
126.00 25.28 10.20 6.39 1.07 372.00 2832
127.00 25.24 10.28 6.41 1.05 373.07 2835
128.00 25.21 10.35 6.43 1.04 374.13 2837

75
129.00 25.18 10.42 6.45 1.02 375.17 2839
130.00 25.15 10.49 6.47 1.01 376.19 2842
131.00 25.11 10.56 6.49 0.99 377.20 2844
132.00 25.08 10.63 6.51 0.98 378.19 2846
133.00 25.05 10.70 6.53 0.96 379.17 2848
134.00 25.02 10.77 6.55 0.95 380.14 2850
135.00 24.99 10.83 6.57 0.94 381.09 2852
136.00 24.96 10.90 6.59 0.92 382.02 2854
137.00 24.94 10.96 6.61 0.91 382.94 2856
138.00 24.91 11.03 6.63 0.89 383.85 2858
139.00 24.88 11.09 6.65 0.88 384.75 2860
140.00 24.85 11.16 6.66 0.87 385.63 2862
141.00 24.83 11.22 6.68 0.85 386.49 2864
142.00 24.80 11.28 6.70 0.84 387.35 2866
143.00 24.78 11.34 6.72 0.83 388.19 2867
144.00 24.75 11.40 6.73 0.82 389.02 2869
145.00 24.73 11.46 6.75 0.80 389.83 2871
146.00 24.70 11.52 6.77 0.79 390.64 2872
147.00 24.68 11.58 6.78 0.78 391.43 2874
148.00 24.65 11.64 6.80 0.77 392.21 2876
149.00 24.63 11.70 6.81 0.75 392.97 2877
150.00 24.61 11.75 6.83 0.74 393.73 2879
151.00 24.59 11.81 6.84 0.73 394.47 2880
152.00 24.56 11.86 6.86 0.72 395.20 2881
153.00 24.54 11.92 6.87 0.71 395.92 2883
154.00 24.52 11.97 6.89 0.70 396.63 2884
155.00 24.50 12.02 6.90 0.69 397.33 2886

76
156.00 24.48 12.08 6.91 0.68 398.02 2887
157.00 24.46 12.13 6.93 0.67 398.69 2888
158.00 24.44 12.18 6.94 0.66 399.36 2889
159.00 24.42 12.23 6.96 0.65 400.02 2891
160.00 24.40 12.28 6.97 0.64 400.66 2892
161.00 24.38 12.33 6.98 0.63 401.30 2893
162.00 24.36 12.38 6.99 0.62 401.92 2894
163.00 24.34 12.43 7.01 0.61 402.54 2895
164.00 24.33 12.47 7.02 0.60 403.14 2897
165.00 24.31 12.52 7.03 0.59 403.74 2898
166.00 24.29 12.57 7.04 0.58 404.33 2899
167.00 24.27 12.61 7.05 0.57 404.90 2900
168.00 24.26 12.66 7.07 0.56 405.47 2901
169.00 24.24 12.70 7.08 0.55 406.03 2902
170.00 24.23 12.74 7.09 0.54 406.58 2903
171.00 24.21 12.79 7.10 0.53 407.12 2904
172.00 24.19 12.83 7.11 0.52 407.66 2905
173.00 24.18 12.87 7.12 0.52 408.18 2906
174.00 24.16 12.91 7.13 0.51 408.70 2907
175.00 24.15 12.95 7.14 0.50 409.21 2908
176.00 24.13 12.99 7.15 0.49 409.71 2908
177.00 24.12 13.03 7.16 0.48 410.20 2909
178.00 24.11 13.07 7.17 0.48 410.68 2910
179.00 24.09 13.11 7.18 0.47 411.16 2911
180.00 24.08 13.15 7.19 0.46 411.63 2912
181.00 24.06 13.19 7.20 0.45 412.09 2913
182.00 24.05 13.22 7.21 0.45 412.54 2913

77
183.00 24.04 13.26 7.22 0.44 412.99 2914
184.00 24.03 13.30 7.23 0.43 413.43 2915
185.00 24.01 13.33 7.23 0.43 413.86 2916
186.00 24.00 13.37 7.24 0.42 414.29 2916
187.00 23.99 13.40 7.25 0.41 414.70 2917
188.00 23.98 13.44 7.26 0.40 415.12 2918
189.00 23.97 13.47 7.27 0.40 415.52 2918
190.00 23.95 13.50 7.28 0.39 415.92 2919
191.00 23.94 13.53 7.28 0.39 416.31 2920
192.00 23.93 13.57 7.29 0.38 416.70 2920
193.00 23.92 13.60 7.30 0.37 417.07 2921
194.00 23.91 13.63 7.31 0.37 417.45 2922
195.00 23.90 13.66 7.31 0.36 417.81 2922
196.00 23.89 13.69 7.32 0.36 418.18 2923
197.00 23.88 13.72 7.33 0.35 418.53 2923
198.00 23.87 13.75 7.34 0.34 418.88 2924
199.00 23.86 13.78 7.34 0.34 419.22 2925
200.00 23.85 13.81 7.35 0.33 419.56 2925
201.00 23.84 13.83 7.36 0.33 419.89 2926
202.00 23.83 13.86 7.36 0.32 420.22 2926
203.00 23.82 13.89 7.37 0.32 420.54 2927
204.00 23.81 13.92 7.38 0.31 420.86 2927
205.00 23.80 13.94 7.38 0.31 421.17 2928
206.00 23.80 13.97 7.39 0.30 421.47 2928
207.00 23.79 13.99 7.39 0.30 421.78 2929
208.00 23.78 14.02 7.40 0.29 422.07 2929
209.00 23.77 14.04 7.41 0.29 422.36 2930

78
210.00 23.76 14.07 7.41 0.28 422.65 2930
211.00 23.75 14.09 7.42 0.28 422.93 2931
212.00 23.75 14.12 7.42 0.27 423.21 2931
213.00 23.74 14.14 7.43 0.27 423.48 2931
214.00 23.73 14.16 7.43 0.26 423.75 2932
215.00 23.72 14.18 7.44 0.26 424.01 2932
216.00 23.72 14.21 7.44 0.25 424.27 2933
217.00 23.71 14.23 7.45 0.25 424.52 2933
218.00 23.70 14.25 7.45 0.25 424.78 2933
219.00 23.69 14.27 7.46 0.24 425.02 2934
220.00 23.69 14.29 7.46 0.24 425.26 2934
221.00 23.68 14.31 7.47 0.23 425.50 2935
222.00 23.67 14.33 7.47 0.23 425.74 2935
223.00 23.67 14.35 7.48 0.23 425.97 2935
224.00 23.66 14.37 7.48 0.22 426.19 2936
225.00 23.66 14.39 7.49 0.22 426.42 2936
226.00 23.65 14.41 7.49 0.22 426.64 2936
227.00 23.64 14.43 7.50 0.21 426.85 2937
228.00 23.64 14.45 7.50 0.21 427.06 2937
229.00 23.63 14.47 7.50 0.20 427.27 2937
230.00 23.63 14.48 7.51 0.20 427.48 2938
231.00 23.62 14.50 7.51 0.20 427.68 2938
232.00 23.61 14.52 7.52 0.19 427.88 2938
233.00 23.61 14.54 7.52 0.19 428.07 2939
234.00 23.60 14.55 7.52 0.19 428.26 2939
235.00 23.60 14.57 7.53 0.19 428.45 2939
236.00 23.59 14.59 7.53 0.18 428.63 2939

79
237.00 23.59 14.60 7.54 0.18 428.82 2940
238.00 23.58 14.62 7.54 0.18 429.00 2940
239.00 23.58 14.63 7.54 0.17 429.17 2940
240.00 23.57 14.65 7.55 0.17 429.34 2940
241.00 23.57 14.66 7.55 0.17 429.51 2941
242.00 23.56 14.68 7.55 0.16 429.68 2941
243.00 23.56 14.69 7.56 0.16 429.85 2941
244.00 23.55 14.71 7.56 0.16 430.01 2941
245.00 23.55 14.72 7.56 0.16 430.17 2942
246.00 23.55 14.73 7.57 0.15 430.32 2942
247.00 23.54 14.75 7.57 0.15 430.48 2942
248.00 23.54 14.76 7.57 0.15 430.63 2942
249.00 23.53 14.77 7.57 0.15 430.78 2943
250.00 23.53 14.79 7.58 0.14 430.92 2943
251.00 23.53 14.80 7.58 0.14 431.07 2943
252.00 23.52 14.81 7.58 0.14 431.21 2943
253.00 23.52 14.82 7.59 0.14 431.35 2943
254.00 23.51 14.84 7.59 0.13 431.48 2944
255.00 23.51 14.85 7.59 0.13 431.62 2944
256.00 23.51 14.86 7.59 0.13 431.75 2944
257.00 23.50 14.87 7.60 0.13 431.88 2944
258.00 23.50 14.88 7.60 0.13 432.01 2944
259.00 23.50 14.89 7.60 0.12 432.13 2945
260.00 23.49 14.91 7.60 0.12 432.25 2945
261.00 23.49 14.92 7.61 0.12 432.38 2945
262.00 23.49 14.93 7.61 0.12 432.50 2945
263.00 23.48 14.94 7.61 0.12 432.61 2945

80
264.00 23.48 14.95 7.61 0.11 432.73 2946
265.00 23.48 14.96 7.62 0.11 432.84 2946
266.00 23.47 14.97 7.62 0.11 432.95 2946
267.00 23.47 14.98 7.62 0.11 433.06 2946
268.00 23.47 14.99 7.62 0.11 433.17 2946
269.00 23.46 15.00 7.62 0.10 433.27 2946
270.00 23.46 15.01 7.63 0.10 433.38 2946
271.00 23.46 15.01 7.63 0.10 433.48 2947
272.00 23.46 15.02 7.63 0.10 433.58 2947
273.00 23.45 15.03 7.63 0.10 433.68 2947
274.00 23.45 15.04 7.63 0.10 433.78 2947
275.00 23.45 15.05 7.64 0.09 433.87 2947
276.00 23.44 15.06 7.64 0.09 433.97 2947
277.00 23.44 15.07 7.64 0.09 434.06 2947
278.00 23.44 15.07 7.64 0.09 434.15 2948
279.00 23.44 15.08 7.64 0.09 434.24 2948
280.00 23.43 15.09 7.65 0.09 434.33 2948
281.00 23.43 15.10 7.65 0.08 434.41 2948
282.00 23.43 15.11 7.65 0.08 434.50 2948
283.00 23.43 15.11 7.65 0.08 434.58 2948
284.00 23.43 15.12 7.65 0.08 434.66 2948
285.00 23.42 15.13 7.65 0.08 434.74 2948
286.00 23.42 15.14 7.66 0.08 434.82 2949
287.00 23.42 15.14 7.66 0.08 434.90 2949
288.00 23.42 15.15 7.66 0.08 434.97 2949
289.00 23.41 15.16 7.66 0.07 435.05 2949
290.00 23.41 15.16 7.66 0.07 435.12 2949

81
291.00 23.41 15.17 7.66 0.07 435.20 2949
292.00 23.41 15.18 7.66 0.07 435.27 2949
293.00 23.41 15.18 7.67 0.07 435.34 2949
294.00 23.40 15.19 7.67 0.07 435.41 2949
295.00 23.40 15.19 7.67 0.07 435.47 2950
296.00 23.40 15.20 7.67 0.07 435.54 2950
297.00 23.40 15.21 7.67 0.06 435.61 2950
298.00 23.40 15.21 7.67 0.06 435.67 2950
299.00 23.40 15.22 7.67 0.06 435.73 2950
300.00 23.39 15.22 7.68 0.06 435.80 2950
301.00 23.39 15.23 7.68 0.06 435.86 2950
302.00 23.39 15.23 7.68 0.06 435.92 2950
303.00 23.39 15.24 7.68 0.06 435.98 2950
304.00 23.39 15.24 7.68 0.06 436.03 2950
305.00 23.39 15.25 7.68 0.06 436.09 2950
306.00 23.38 15.25 7.68 0.06 436.15 2951
307.00 23.38 15.26 7.68 0.05 436.20 2951
308.00 23.38 15.26 7.68 0.05 436.26 2951
309.00 23.38 15.27 7.69 0.05 436.31 2951
310.00 23.38 15.27 7.69 0.05 436.36 2951
311.00 23.38 15.28 7.69 0.05 436.41 2951
312.00 23.38 15.28 7.69 0.05 436.46 2951
313.00 23.37 15.29 7.69 0.05 436.51 2951
314.00 23.37 15.29 7.69 0.05 436.56 2951
315.00 23.37 15.30 7.69 0.05 436.61 2951
316.00 23.37 15.30 7.69 0.05 436.66 2951
317.00 23.37 15.31 7.69 0.05 436.70 2951

82
318.00 23.37 15.31 7.69 0.04 436.75 2951
319.00 23.37 15.31 7.70 0.04 436.79 2951
320.00 23.36 15.32 7.70 0.04 436.84 2951
321.00 23.36 15.32 7.70 0.04 436.88 2952
322.00 23.36 15.33 7.70 0.04 436.92 2952
323.00 23.36 15.33 7.70 0.04 436.97 2952
324.00 23.36 15.33 7.70 0.04 437.01 2952
325.00 23.36 15.34 7.70 0.04 437.05 2952
326.00 23.36 15.34 7.70 0.04 437.09 2952
327.00 23.36 15.34 7.70 0.04 437.13 2952
328.00 23.36 15.35 7.70 0.04 437.16 2952
329.00 23.35 15.35 7.70 0.04 437.20 2952
330.00 23.35 15.35 7.70 0.04 437.24 2952
331.00 23.35 15.36 7.71 0.04 437.28 2952
332.00 23.35 15.36 7.71 0.04 437.31 2952
333.00 23.35 15.36 7.71 0.03 437.35 2952
334.00 23.35 15.37 7.71 0.03 437.38 2952
335.00 23.35 15.37 7.71 0.03 437.42 2952
336.00 23.35 15.37 7.71 0.03 437.45 2952
337.00 23.35 15.38 7.71 0.03 437.48 2952
338.00 23.35 15.38 7.71 0.03 437.51 2952
339.00 23.35 15.38 7.71 0.03 437.55 2952
340.00 23.34 15.38 7.71 0.03 437.58 2953
341.00 23.34 15.39 7.71 0.03 437.61 2953
342.00 23.34 15.39 7.71 0.03 437.64 2953

83