International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

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International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijbiomac

Sodium alginate edible coating to reduce oil absorption of French fries with
maintaining overall acceptability: Based on a water
replacement mechanism
Ying Li , Xue Bai , Mengna Zhao , Hui Wang , Jia Feng , Xiufang Xia *, Qian Liu *
College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The effect of sodium alginate (SA) coating on the oil content and quality of fries was evaluated, and the
French fries inhibitory mechanism of SA on oil absorption was analyzed based on the water replacement theory. Compared to
Sodium alginate coating uncoated samples, the penetrated surface oil (PSO), structure oil (STO), and total oil (TO) contents, a*, and b* of
Water migration
coated fries decreased, whereas moisture content, L* and hardness increased with no significant difference
Oil absorption
Food quality
revealed by sensory evaluation of all samples. The water contact angle of the films correlated negatively with the
Oil content water content and hardness of the fries. In contrast, it correlated positively with PSO, STO, and TO contents. The
TO content of fries with 1 % SA film which had a compact microstructure, was the lowest, reduced by 52.5 %
compared to the control sample. SA coating reduces the pores and roughness on the fries' surface, which inhibits
the oil from penetrating into the samples. SA coating decreased the T21, T22, and pores of the starch, and
increased the P2b, P21, relative crystallinity, and ΔH significantly (P < 0.05). Therefore, SA coating inhibits the
oil absorption in fries by reducing water evaporation which is attributed to the increase in double helices and
crystallinity of starch.

1. Introduction
With their golden color, crispy taste, and typical frying flavors,
French fries cater to the contemporary fast-paced, low-priced mass
consumption habits, being a popular fast food worldwide. In Europe,
potato supply reached 1,964,759 t in 2019, and frozen potatoes
accounted for 50 % of the total supply of potatoes, most of which are
used for manufacturing French fries (FAO, 2019). Texture accounts for
30 % of the quality score of French fries [1], and their crispy texture and
crunching sound bring a pleasant feeling to consumers. The excellent
sensory qualities of fries are attributed to starch gelatinization [2],
Maillard reaction [3], and changes in the surface microstructure [4],
resulting from heat and mass transfer (moisture loss and oil uptake)
during frying. In addition to imparting a crispy texture to the fries, the
porous structure of the fries is also a major channel for the migration of
moisture and oils. During frying, the removal of water forms empty
spaces for oil to enter, resulting in up to 35 % oil content in the food [4],
which leads to an increased incidence of obesity, heart diseases, and
certain cancers for consumers who prefer deep-fried food [1].
Three possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain the oil
uptake in fried food including water replacement [1]: (1) the water in
fried food evaporates to form channels which oil penetrates; (2) the
cooling-phase effect: the oil is sucked into the cracks in the crust of fried
food during the cooling phase due to a “vacuum effect”; (3) surface-
active agents: the oil undergoes a hydrolysis reaction during frying,
which reduces the interfacial tension between oil and food. The jury is
still out on which of these three mechanisms is the dominant one.
Studying the main oil absorption mechanism of fried food can signifi­
cantly help in exploring more effective measurements in oil reduction.
Current studies related to oil content reduction focus on monitoring
frying conditions [5], frying technology development [6], pre-treatment
[7], and food surface modification [8]. Some researchers analyzed the
changes in the oil content of potato strips fried with different oils or at
different temperatures and frying times. Still, the found effect on oil
reduction was not noteworthy [5,9]. Innovative frying technologies and
pre-treatment methods, such as air frying [6], electric field frying [7],
and hot-air pre-drying [6], positively affect oil reduction, but, regret­
tably, are time-consuming and energy-intensive [10]. Compared with
these methods, using an edible coating to inhibit the oil uptake in fried
food has the advantages of being low-cost, wide sources of materials,

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: xiaxiufang@neau.edu.cn (X. Xia), liuqian@neau.edu.cn (Q. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124042
Received 26 December 2022; Received in revised form 6 March 2023; Accepted 10 March 2023
Available online 15 March 2023
0141-8130/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al.
convenient operation, and so on. Nowadays, some natural poly­
saccharide coatings such as pectin [3] and guar gum [10] have been
used to inhibit oil absorption in fried food, reducing the potato chips' oil
content by 31.0 % and 26.9 %, respectively. Polysaccharide coatings
reduce water loss and change the surface structure by forming barrier
coatings on the food surface [11]. However, pectin treatment adversely
affects the overall acceptability of samples [3]. Meanwhile, guar gum is
generated from guar beans at a high cost [10]. Sodium alginate (SA), a
by-product sourced from brown algae [12], is edible, highly hydrophilic
[13], flexible [14], and low-permeable to oil [15], and has already been
used as a coating for food packaging and preservation [16]. In contrast,
its applications for oil reduction have been few.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to use a natural, environ­
mentally friendly, and low cost edible coating to reduce the oil uptake
and improve the quality of French fries, and provide insights into the
water replacement mechanism by studying (1) the effect of SA coating
on the water content, oil fraction content, and quality of samples; (2) the
relation between the films' properties and the water content, oil content,
and quality of the French fries; (3) the effect of SA coating on the
macroscope and microscope oil distribution, and surface microstructure
of fries; (4) the effect of SA coating on the crystallinity and double he­
lices of starch in fries.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
SA was supplied by Qingdao Bright Moon Seaweed Group Co., Ltd.
(Qingdao, China). The frozen potato strips were obtained from Lamb
Weston Potato Industry Co., Ltd. (Inner Mongolia, China), cut into 10 ×
10 × 50 mm strips, and stored at − 18 ◦ C. The soybean oil for the
experiment was obtained from the local market (Harbin, China).
2.2. Preparation of coating solutions and films
The SA was added to distilled water to prepare polymeric solutions of
0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 % (w/v). Ultrasound was used to remove air
bubbles from the film-forming solution. The solutions were then poured
into disposable Petri dishes and dried at 30 ◦ C for 36 h [17]. Finally, the
SA films (SAFs) were peeled off the Petri dishes.
2.3. Preparation of coated French fries
The pre-fried frozen potato strips were immersed into the respective
SA solutions (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 %) for 5 s. After draining off the
excess liquid, the coated strips were then fried in soybean oil at 170 ◦ C
for 3 min using a thermostatically temperature-controlled fryer (DF25A,
Guangzhou, China) (uncoated potato strips were used as control sam­
ples). After frying, the samples were subsequently shaken in an
aluminum basket to drain off excess oil for 30 s. Then, all samples were
allowed for further analysis.
2.4. Extraction of potato starch
The starch of the unfried potato strips, uncoated French fries, and SA-
coated fries was extracted, according to Li et al. [18].
2.5. Analysis of coating films
2.5.1. Microstructure
The SA films were fixed on the metal sample stage. The cross-sections
were examined with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (TM-5570,
Hitachi High-Technologies Corp., Tokyo, Japan) at 2500×
magnification.
2
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042
2.5.2. Water contact angle (WCA)
The hydrophilicity of the coating films was assessed by WCA mea­
surements using a contact angle meter (Data Physics, Germany). Milli-Q
purified water (3 μL) was dropped on the film surface, and an angle
image was taken with a digital camera.
2.5.3. Thickness and viscosity
The thickness of the films was measured by a digimatic micrometer
(YHT127, Guangdong, China). Ten values obtained at different positions
of each sample were used to calculate the average thickness.
The viscosity of the coatings was evaluated using a viscometer
(*DVS+, China). The test was performed in triplicates.
2.5.4. Mechanical properties
The films' tensile strength (TS) and elongation at break (EB) were
tested on a texture analyzer (TA.XT Plus C, Stable Microsystems, UK).
The films were cut into 10 × 50 mm rectangular strips according to Zhao
et al. [17].
2.5.5. Water vapor transition rate
The water vapor transition rate (WVTR) of the films was evaluated
following the ASTM E-96 procedure (2016). Distilled water was placed
in a 50 mL centrifuge tube, and the distance from the water surface to
the tube mouth was kept at 2–3 cm. The film was sealed to the tube
mouth and closed tightly. The tube was then weighed and placed into a
constant-temperature-humidity chamber (BPS-50CL, Shanghai, China)
set at 25 ◦ C with 75 % relative humidity. The tube was weighed once
every 24 h until the weight reduction reached equilibrium. All samples
were tested in triplicates, and the WVTR and water vapor permeability
(WVP) were calculated according to Eqs. (1) and (2):
( )/
WVTR = Δm × Tf A × t (1)
( )/
WVP = Δm × Tf (A × t × Δp) (2)
where Δm (g) is the difference in tube weight, Tf (mm) is the thickness of
the film, A (m2) is the effective area of the films, t (d) is the time interval,
and Δp is the saturation vapor pressure of water (Pa) at 25 ◦ C (1754 Pa).
2.5.6. Oil resistance
The oil resistance of the films was determined as per the TAPPI T559
cm-12 standard (1996).
2.6. Moisture content and oil fraction contents
The moisture content of fries was evaluated according to the
methods of AOAC (2000).
The oil fraction contents (g/100 g db) of fries were measured ac­
cording to the method described by Li et al. [18]. The French fries were
quickly taken out of the fryer and immersed into a constant-weight
aluminum box containing 30 mL petroleum ether for 1 to 2 s. The oil
content dissolved in petroleum ether was computed as the sum of the
surface oil (SO) and penetrated surface oil (PSO) contents. The same
measurement was carried out after the fries had been removed from the
frying oil for 20 min, and the result was classified as the SO content. The
measurements were repeated six times. After removing SO and PSO, the
fries were freeze-dried (Pilot3-6 M, Beijing, China), and the remaining
oil was extracted by the Soxhlet extraction method. This oil fraction was
classified as structure oil (STO). The total oil (TO) content was expressed
as the sum of SO, PSO, and STO contents. The TO content was measured
by Soxhlet extraction.
2.7. Quality of French fries
2.7.1. Color
The skin color of the French fries was measured using a ZE-6000
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 1. The preparation process of SA film (a); effect of sodium alginate concentrations on the microstructure (b1, b2, b3, b4), water contact angle (c), thickness and
viscosity (d), mechanical properties (e), and barrier properties (f) of films.
SAF-0.5, SAF-1.0, SAF-1.5, SAF-2.0 indicates 0.5 % SA films, 1 % SA films, 1.5 % SA films, 2.0 % SA films. The results are expressed as the mean ± standard error.
Different lower-case letters (a-d) denote significant differences within different samples (P < 0.05).
colorimeter (Juki Corp, Tokyo, Japan). The test was repeated three
times. Color difference (ΔE) and Browning Index (BI) were expressed as
follows [18]:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
ΔE = (L* − L0 * )2 + (a* − a0 * )2 + (b* − b0 * )2
BI = (100 × (x − 0.31) )/0.17
x = (a* + 1.75L* )/(5.645L* + a0 * − 3.012b* )
where L0*, a0*, and b0*: the color of unfried fries; L*, a*, and b*: the
color of fried fries.
2.7.2. Texture
The texture of the samples was measured by a puncture test using a
TA.XT Plus C texture analyzer (Stable Microsystems, UK) by the methods
of Li et al. [18] and Zhang et al. [19].
2.7.3. Sensory evaluation
The freshly fried samples were placed in disposable meal boxes with
random 3-digit numbers and served to 20 trained panelists, which were
divided into 2 groups of 10 people. The panelists evaluated five sensory
attributes: color, texture, flavor, oiliness, and overall acceptability (on a
1–9 scale).
2.8. Water and oil distribution, oil distribution
The macroscopic water and oil distribution of the fries were observed
by a magnetic resonance imager (MRI, MesoMR23-060H-I analyzer,
Newmart Analytical Instruments Co., Ltd., Suzhou, China) according to
Wang et al. [20]. The Spin-echo (SE) sequence parameters were: 23.312
MHz resonance frequency, 0.5 T magnet strength, 20 ms echo time (TE),
and 500 ms repetition time.
The microscopic oil distribution was evaluated using a confocal laser
scanning microscope (CLSM, TCS SP8, Leica, Germany) according to Bai
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042
et al. [21] and Yang et al. [22], with little modification. A 1-mm dried
sample section was observed at a 10× magnification using a 514 nm
laser. The obtained images were processed using the Lecia confocal
software (Lecia Microsystems, Germany).
(3)
2.9. Microstructure
(4)
The microstructure of the French fries was observed using an SEM
(5) (TM 5570, Hitachi High-Technologies Corp., Tokyo, Japan). The de-
oiled and freeze-dried surface slices of the fries were fixed on the
metal sample stage. Surface microstructure images were acquired at an
accelerating voltage of 5 kV and 160× magnification.
2.10. Water states
The water proton signal of unfried, control, and SA-coated samples
was determined using a magnetic resonance imager [23] (MRI,
MesoMR23-060H-I analyzer, Newmart Analytical Instruments Co., Ltd.,
Suzhou, China) following the methods of Li et al. [18].
2.11. Starch solubility and swelling power
The starch solubility and swelling power of samples were determined
by the methods of Li et al. [18].
2.12. X-ray diffraction
The relative crystallinity of the samples was analyzed using an X'Pert
Pro diffractometer (PA 148 Nalytical B.V., The Netherlands) at 2θ in the
4◦ to 40◦ range.
2.13. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
The changes in double helices of the starch in the fries were char­
acterized using a DSC (DSC 250, TA instruments Waters Inc., America)
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Y. Li et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

a 70 b SO PSO STO TO
a
Water content 40 a ab
60 a a
a a b
30 b
b
Water content (%)

50 b

Oil Content (%)

b
c
20 c
40 d
a
30 6
5 b
4 b
20 bc
3
10 2 c
a a a a a
1
0 0
Control SA0.5 SA1.0 SA1.5 SA2.0 Control SA0.5 SA1.0 SA1.5 SA2.0
c 110 d 40
SO PSO STO
a ab ab
ab b
Oil fraction percentage (%)

100 35

Oil Content (%)

y= -0.8822x + 76.2664
90 30 Pearson's r= -0.7086
a
20 b b 25
b
b
10 20
abc a ab
c bc
0 15
Control SA0.5 SA1.0 SA1.5 SA2.0 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62
Water content (%)

Fig. 2. Effect of sodium alginate coatings on the water content (a), oil content (b), oil fraction percentage (c) and the correlation between water and oil content (d) of
French fries.
SA0.5, SA1.0, SA1.5, SA2.0 indicates the fried potato strips with 0.5 g/100 g, 1.0 g/100 g, 1.5 g/100 g, 2.0 g/100 g SA coatings. The results are expressed as the mean
± standard error. Different lower-case letters (a-d) denote significant differences within different samples (P < 0.05).

according to the methods of Gao et al. [24].
2.14. Statistical analysis
All experiments in this study were conducted at least three times, and
the results were presented as the mean values ± standard error by using
the Statistix 8.1 software (Analytical Software, St. Paul, MN, USA).
Graphs were generated by using Origin 8.5, and the significance level
was set to P < 0.05.
The changes in the microstructure of SA films are related to inter­
molecular interactions in the film solution [15]. Hydrogen bonds be­
tween SA molecules and hydration between SA-H2O are formed less at
the early stage (Fig. 1a). Then, a dynamic equilibrium between these two
interactions is obtained in the 1 % SA solution, which allows the
hydrogen bonds between the SA chains to arrange regularly, improving
the compactness of the film structure. However, the excessive addition
of SA induces more interaction between SA molecules than between SA
and H2O, resulting in a random agglomeration of the SA molecular
chains and, thus, the formation of a coarse and loose structure.

3. Results and discussion 3.1.2. Water contact angle

3.1. SA films' properties
The effectiveness of edible coatings in oil reduction in fried food
depends on the film-forming properties such as thickness, mechanical
properties, barrier properties, and microstructure.
3.1.1. Cross-section microstructure
The edible coating can create a three-dimensional network structure
on the food surface and change its properties, so it is vital to observe the
microstructure of the films [11]. Fig. 1b shows the cross-section
microstructure of SA films. It is intuitive that the film thickness gradu­
ally increases with the increasing SA concentration. In the case of SAF-
0.5, some fractures and cracks were observed on the films. Meanwhile,
the surface was uneven. SAF-1.0 had a homogeneous and smooth cross-
section without structural defects. In the SAF-1.5 and SAF-2.0 cross-
sections, there were faults and more cracks.
The water contact angle (WCA) is an essential parameter to measure
the surface hydrophilicity of films. A hydrophilic coating material is
preferable for fried food rather than a hydrophobic one because it can
form an effective barrier and thus inhibit the escape of water vapor [11].
The WCAs of all films were below 90◦ , which indicates that the SA
coatings are hydrophilic (Fig. 1c). With an increase in SA concentration,
the WCAs of the films decreased significantly and then gradually
increased. The minimum value was obtained in SAF-1.0. The results can
be explained by the fact that the increased SA-SA interaction led to the
formation of high-molecular-weight aggregation, partially burying hy­
drophilic groups [18].
3.1.3. Viscosity and thickness
The changes in viscosity and thickness of SA coatings with increasing
concentration are shown in Fig. 1d. The viscosity and thickness grow
with increasing SA concentration (P < 0.05), which corresponds well

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Y. Li et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

Fig. 3. Effect of sodium alginate coatings on the color (a, b), texture (c, d), sensory evaluation (e) and appearance (f) of French fries.
The results are expressed as the mean ± standard error. Different letters (a-e) in the same column indicate statistically significant differences (P < 0.05).

with the results in Fig. 1b, mainly because of the increase in solid con­
tent and SA swelling.
3.1.4. Mechanical and barrier properties
Mechanical and barrier properties are crucial parameters to evaluate
the effectiveness of edible coatings in water retention and oil reduction
[11]. The mechanical properties, including TS and EB, can be illustrated
by the maximum mechanical resistance and the ability to extend in the
longitudinal direction in the tensile test. The changes in TS, EB, WVTR,
and kit number of SA films with increasing SA concentration are dis­
played in Fig. 1e and f.
The TS, EB, WVTR, WVP, and kit number values increased with the
SA concentration increasing (P < 0.05). One possible reason for the
increase in TS is an increased number of hydrogen bonds and aggregates
between SA chains at higher SA concentrations, which reduces the dis­
tances between the molecular chains in the network structure of the SA
films. Thus, more force is required to break the film under strain [25].
Naeeji, Shahbazi, & Shavisir [26] also reported that the increasing TS of
the films is likely related to the presence of high intermolecular in­
teractions between the polymers in the films. Besides, Comaposada,
Gou, Marcos, & Arnau [27] reported that the maximum force in the
tensile test of alginate films increases with thickness. This is also true for
the SA coating films in this study and possibly contributes to the
increased TS values (Fig. 1e). The improvement in EB is due to the
increasing amount of SA, which causes more cracks and fractures in the
microstructure of the films (Fig. 1b), thus, resulting in the ability to

5
Y. Li et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

Fig. 4. Correlation between the properties of SA coating films and the water content, oil content, quality of French fries.

extend of a film improved [28]. surface gets sucked into these pores during the cooling phase due to a
The increasing WVTR and WVP are ascribed to an increase in the free subsequent decrease in internal pressure. Therefore, it is assumed that
volume due to the random entanglement of the SA molecules [29,30], the reduction in PSO and STO was caused by the SA coating forming a
which contributed to water vapor penetrating the films, as already network structure on the fries' surface, which involved hydrogen
stated in the EB results and shown for the cross-section of the micro­ bonding between SA molecules and hydration between SA-H2O mole­
structure (Fig. 1e and b). The increased kit number was caused by the cules. This reduced the porosity of the fries due to the escape of water
longer channels of oil penetration, for which the increased thickness vapor, leading to less oil penetrating into the fries.
may be a reasonable explanation.
3.2.3. Oil fraction percentages
In both control and coated fries, the STO fraction constituted most of
3.2. Effects of SA coating on the oil absorption and quality of French fries
TO, followed by PSO and SO (Fig. 2c), indicating that the oil absorption
of French fries mainly occurred during the frying process through the
3.2.1. Moisture content
pathway left by the removal of water. However, Zhang, Xie, & Fan [31]
The moisture content of fried products is an important parameter
obtained different results, in which the PSO percentage relative to the
related to oil uptake, color, and texture during frying [3]. The moisture
TO content in fried chips was the highest, followed by PSO and SO. This
content of French fries coated with different SA concentrations is shown
may be explained by the condensation mechanism being mainly suitable
in Fig. 2a. The moisture content of SA-coated samples shows a signifi­
for frying processes with high initial moisture content and large frying
cant increase compared with the control samples (P < 0.05). Further­
samples [32].
more, all coated samples show no significant difference in moisture
content (P > 0.05).
3.2.4. Correlation analysis between the moisture and total oil contents
A strong negative correlation can be observed between the moisture
3.2.2. Oil content
and TO contents of the fries (Fig. 2d), which confirms that the water
The TO content comprises SO (the oil adhering to the sample sur­
replacement theory is valid for the frying process. Meanwhile, the SA
face), PSO (the oil penetrating the fried sample during cooling), and STO
coating prevented the oil from entering the fries by reducing moisture
(the oil penetrating the sample interior during frying). The variation in
loss. This led to higher moisture content, lower oil content, and more
TO content is associated with changes in the three oil fractions' contents
crispness, which are consumers' pursuits in fried food [3].
(Fig. 2b). The SA coating showed no noticeable effect on the SO (P >
0.05). The PSO and STO contents first decreased and then increased with
3.2.5. Color
growing SA concentration and, at 1 % SA, reached minima that were
The golden yellow appearance of fried products, corresponding to
significantly lower than in control samples (P < 0.05). The TO content
higher L*, b* and lower a*, is a key organoleptic attribute that attracts
presented a similar trend with PSO and STO, being dramatically reduced
consumers' attention [4,33]. Fig. 3a and b shows the L*, a*, b*, ΔE, and
by 52.5 % compared with the control samples, which indicates that the
BI values of all samples.
PSO and STO contents are the main contributors to TO.
The coated samples showed a higher L*; lower a*, b*, BI, and ΔE than
The formation of STO and PSO can be explained by water replace­
the control samples (P < 0.05), which indicates that the Maillard reac­
ment and condensation mechanisms [1]: the heat flux from the surface
tion of the fries reduced, resulting in the surface browning being
to the inner core of the samples made the moisture within boil and
inhibited. This was because that sugars and amino-group-containing
evaporated, which resulted in a loose and porous crust, allowing the oil
compounds were buried due to the steric hindrance of the SA network
to penetrate the steam passages. Afterward, the oil adhering to the food

6
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 5. Effect of sodium alginate coating on the water and oil macroscope distribution (a), oil macroscope distribution (b), oil microscope distribution (c), and surface
microstructure (d) of French fries.
structure. However, highly retained moisture also contributed to this
result. Liu, Liu, Man, & Liu [34] reported a more noticeable reduction in
the free asparagine content of bread with starch coating than without it,
which confirms our results. Notably, the increased L* and decreased b*
values may be explained by the SA-coated fries retained the higher
moisture content, which increases the light reflection [35]. Further­
more, less oil accumulated over the surface (Fig. 2b), making the color
lighter than that of the control samples.
3.2.6. Texture
The crispy and tender texture is one of the attractive attributes of
French fries for consumers. The maximum force and area under the
force-time curve were obtained from a puncture test of texture analysis
7
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042
to represent the crust hardness, and overall hardness of fried samples,
respectively (Fig. 3c and d). The crust hardness and overall hardness of
the SA-coated samples were significantly higher than those of the con­
trol ones (P < 0.05). The increase in crust hardness was attributed to the
fact that SA coating reduces the pores and cracks on the surface and thus
acts as a barrier. The increasing overall hardness is related to the higher
moisture content in the 1 % SA-coated fries, inhibiting the volume
shrinkage caused by starch gelatinization, resulting in higher flexibility
[36].
3.2.7. Sensory evaluation
The sensory evaluation of French fries is given in Fig. 3e. A signifi­
cant difference was observed in color and crispness between the control
Y. Li et al.
and SA-coated fries. In contrast, there was no significant difference in
the other sensory attributes. Compared to the control fries, the crispness
of the SA-coated fries increased, while the color scores decreased.
Although the decreasing b* values in the SA-coated fries affected the
color adversely (Fig. 3e and a), the overall impression showed no sig­
nificant difference among all samples. Thus, SA coating are able to
inhibit oil absorption of fried food while maintaining its quality.
3.3. Correlation analysis between SA films' properties and their inhibitory
effect on oil absorption of French fries
The correlation between the SA films' properties and water content,
oil content, and the quality of French fries is displayed by the heatmap in
Fig. 4. The redder the grid, the stronger the positive correlation, and the
bluer the grid, the stronger the negative correlation. The WCA value of
the films negatively correlated with the water content, Fmax, and Area,
and positively correlated with the PSO, STO, and TO content in the
French fries. This result can be explained by that the simple observation
that the higher the WCA values, the more hydrophilic groups exist in SA
films. The hydrophilic groups in the films inhibit water evaporation
during frying, which reduces the oil penetration into fries, resulting in
the PSO, STO, and TO content decreasing. The viscosity, EB, and WVTR
values were positively correlated with the PSO, STO, and TO content.
The increased EB and WVTR of the films were attributed to the films
being compact in proper concentration due to the hydrogen bonds be­
tween SA molecules closely arranging, which allows the oil to penetrate
the samples (Fig. 2a). The correlation between the L* and TS value was
strongly negative, which is owed to the higher the TS, the rigidity the
film. This compact structure can effectively reduce non-enzymatic
browning by shielding some reducing terminals on the surface of fries.
3.4. Mechanism of inhibiting French fries' oil absorption by SA coating
3.4.1. Macroscopic water and oil distribution
The macroscopic water, oil content, and distribution can be reflected
by the proton density pseudo-color images of unfried, control, and SA-
coated samples (Fig. 5a). The color range from blue, green, yellow,
and red indicate the total content of increased water and oil. Large areas
of green and yellow occur on the longitudinal section of the unfried
samples. After frying, the edge of the fries was uniformly distributed
with green color, and the center area was almost red. The blue area
between the edge and the center indicates that the water in the outer
region entirely evaporated and that the oil entered the center of the fries
to form a moist core. In the coated samples, the blue area between the
edge and center of the fries was significantly reduced. Compared to the
uncoated samples, the red and yellow areas of the coated fries' center
were more evenly distributed. This result shows that the rate of water
migration reduced, which causes more water to remain at the center of
the fries, confirming the water replacement theory.
3.4.2. Macroscopical oil distribution
Fig. 5b shows the proton density pseudo-color images of the unfried,
controlled, and coated samples, indicating changes in oil content and
macroscopical oil distribution in the longitudinal sections. The color
changes in the order of blue, green, and yellow to red denote a gradual
increase in oil content.
In the unfried samples, the area of the edge layer exhibits an evenly
distributed green color, stronger than the inner regions (blue color),
creating a distinct boundary between the crust and interior of the strips.
After frying, the color of the outer layer in the control samples changed
from green to yellow and red, and the color of the center changed from
blue to red, indicating that the structure of the fries was broken and
numerous pores and cracks were created, providing passages for oil
infiltration. Huang et al. [7] also found that oil was mainly concentrated
in the crust at the early frying stage. However, the core showed more oil
than the crust with the prolonged frying time. In the SA-coated samples,
8
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042
the yellow and red edge areas showed less oil than the control ones,
implying that the crust of fries coated with 1 % SA is rigid and smooth,
which makes it difficult for oil to penetrate [36]. Moreover, the center
red area of the SA-coated fries diminished considerably compared with
the control ones, demonstrating that the STO content of SA-coated fries
decreased (Fig. 2b).
3.4.3. Microscopical oil distribution
The location and proportion of the red area in the unfried, control,
and SA-coated samples were observed using CLSM to illustrate the dif­
ferences in oil absorption behavior at the micro-level (Fig. 5c). It can be
noted that the honeycomb-like structure outlined in red lines is recog­
nizable in the unfried sample, indicating that a small amount of free oil
was located in the cell gaps. After frying, the red color occupied nearly
the whole region, indicating that the oil filled the cells, cracks, and pores
due to the destruction of cell structure by the rapidly dissipating steam.
The images of the SA-coated fries had a smaller red area than the control
fries, which was mainly concentrated in the enlarged intercellular
spaces due to the contraction and deformation of the cells during frying
[10,37]. This result indicates that the 1 % SA coating protects the cell
structure from being destroyed by steam and, consequently, prevents the
oil from entering the starch granules. This outcome corresponds well
with the oil content (Fig. 2b) and macroscopical oil distribution
(Fig. 5b).
3.4.4. Microstructure
The microstructure plays a key role in explaining the pathway of oil
penetration and changes in samples' texture. The microstructure on the
sample surface is displayed in Fig. 5d. There are more ruptures and pores
on the surface of the fried samples compared with the compact surface of
the unfried sample, which makes the products crispy and oily. The cell
walls collapsed because the starch granules were separated from the cell
walls during frying. The pores in the fries were caused by the escape of
water vapor due to intensive heat transfer. The percentage of the pores'
area to the total area in the SA-coated fries is significantly lower than in
the control ones, resulting in a smoother and more compact crust due to
less water vapor escape. Thus, the coated fries had a hard texture (Fig. 3c
and d) and less PSO, STO, and TO contents (Fig. 2b). Yu et al. [10] re­
ported that the surface microstructure of potato chips coated with guar
gum/glycerol appeared smoother than that of those without coating.
3.4.5. Water states
The water in food is divided into bound water (T2b, 1–10 ms),
immobile water (T21, 10–100 ms), and free water (T22, 100-1000 ms).
Furthermore, the shorter the T2 relaxation time, the more closely the
fries' components are bound to water [38]. The water status and content
are closely related to the oil uptake, color, and texture of the French
fries, which are reflected by the T2 relaxation time and peaks' ratio
(Fig. 6a1, a2, and a3). Compared to unfried fries, the T2b, T21, and T22
relaxation times, and P2b and P21 of the control samples significantly
increased, while the P22 value decreased (P < 0.05). After treatment
with SA, the T21, and T22 relaxation times and the P21 value of the
samples significantly decreased (P < 0.05), while the P2b value increased
(P < 0.05). In the uncoated samples, the mobility of the water molecules
in the fries increased because of the intensive water evaporation, which
destroyed the ordered starch structure. Further, lots of starch hydroxyl
groups were exposed, which increased the interaction between starch
and water [18]. However, in the coated fries, the coating acted as a
diffusion barrier that blocked heat transfer, resulting in reduced water
evaporation. More free water was bound by the starch gel structure
during frying, reducing the interaction between starch and oil.
3.4.6. Solubility and swelling power
The tightness of the starch structure can be characterized by the
starch solubility and swelling power (Fig. 6b1). Compared to the unfried
samples, the starch solubility in the control samples increased, while the
 Y. Li et al.
9

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

Fig. 6. The LF-NMR relaxation times' distribution (a1), the T2 relaxation times (a2), and T2 relaxation population (T2 peak ratio) (a3) of French fries; the solubility, swelling power (b1), XRD pattern (b2), thermal
properties (b3), molecular structure (c) of starch in French fries.
Note: Unfried: the unfried potato strips; Control: the uncoated potato strips after frying; SA1.0: the 1 % SA coated fries after frying.
The results are expressed as the mean ± standard error. Different lower-case letters (a-d) denote significant differences within different samples (P < 0.05).
Y. Li et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

Fig. 7. The inhibiting mechanism of sodium alginate coating on oil absorption of French fries.

10
Y. Li et al.
swelling power decreased, significantly (P < 0.05). The solubility and
swelling power decreased significantly when the fries were coated with
SA (P < 0.05). The changes in solubility and swelling power indicate
that the starch structure in the control samples became loose [39],
which increases the binding sites of the starch and water molecules,
resulting in an increased starch dissolution. Meanwhile, this loose
structure provides space for oil penetration and inhibits the expansion of
the starch. When the fries were coated with SA, the compactness of the
fries' structure was due to the reduction of water evaporation, which
decreases the binding of starch and water, and the pathway for oil
penetration.
3.4.7. Starch structure
Starch structures are composed of concentric alternating amorphous
and semi-crystalline growth rings. The crystalline region is formed by
aggregated double helices of amylopectin side chains. The amorphous
region comprises branch points of amylopectin and a disordered
arrangement of amylose [40].
3.4.7.1. Crystalline region. The starch crystalline region and relative
crystallinity of French fries were characterized by the peak position and
area in X-ray diffraction patterns (Fig. 6b2). There are four diffraction
peaks (2θ = 5.8, 17.3, 21.8, and 24.2◦ ) in the unfried samples [41]. In
the control fries, the diffraction peak at 2θ = 5.8◦ disappeared, and the
diffraction peak's intensity at 2θ = 17.3, 21.8, and 24.2◦ decreased.
Meanwhile, the relative crystallinity significantly decreased by 22.9 %
(P < 0.05). Compared to the control samples, the intensity of the peaks
at 2θ = 5.8 and 17.3◦ increased, and the relative crystallinity of the SA-
coated samples increased by 30.2 %. The results indicate that the crys­
talline region of the starch in the control samples was severely destroyed
because the amorphous regions swelled with water and even stripped
starch chains from the crystalline region [37]. However, in the SA-
coated samples, the ordered structure of the crystalline regions
increased. This phenomenon could be explained by the fact that the SA
coating hinders the transfer of energy from the frying medium to the
interior of the fries, thus reducing the pressure of water vapor on the
fries' tissue and improving their preservation. This compact structure
impeded the oil penetration into crystalline regions.
3.4.7.2. Double helix structure. The gelatinization temperature (T0, Tp,
Tc) and enthalpies (ΔH) of unfried, control, and SA-coated fries obtained
from DSC curves are presented in Fig. 6b3, which can reflect the stability
of double helices (Fig. 6c). The T0, Tp, Tc, and ΔH values of the unfried
samples were 53.3, 60.0, 77.3 ◦ C and 2.7 J/g, respectively. After frying,
there was no endothermic peak in the control fries, while the peak
reappeared in the SA-coated fries, and the T0, Tp, Tc and ΔH values were
52.8, 60.3, 76.9 ◦ C, and 2.0 J/g, respectively.
The changes in gelatinization temperature and ΔH indicated that the
double helices of amylopectin in control samples were destroyed and
transformed into single left-hand helices, which formed a helical cavity.
Consequently, the hydrophobic lipids could easily enter the starch helix
cavity to form a starch single helix-lipid complex [42] (Fig. 6c). How­
ever, the endothermic peak that appeared in the coated French fries
indicates that the SA coating inhibited moisture migration. Hence, the
starch swelled, which increased the hydrogen bonds between starch
molecules [43], resulting in the lipid being unable to enter the helical
cavity.
3.4.8. Schematic mechanism of oil reduction
The inhibitory mechanism of SA coating on the oil uptake of fries
based on the exchange theory of water and oil is exhibited in Fig. 7. The
inhibitory effect of SA coating on oil uptake is closely related to its
surface microstructure and hydrophilicity. If the SA concentration is
lower than 1 %, the SA molecules are loosely arranged and disordered.
As SA concentration increases, a dynamic equilibrium between SA
11
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042
molecules and SA-H20 molecules is reached (1 % SA), which allows for
the SA molecules to be arranged orderly and densely. However, if the SA
concentration increases to >1 %, the hydrogen bonds between SA
molecules are supersaturated, which leads to free SA molecules being
entangled and agglomerated. The more dense and hydrophilic the
coating is, the more effectively it inhibits water migration and oil up­
take. The water content negatively correlates with the oil content, which
confirms the water replacement mechanism in the frying process: the
temperature of the frying medium was transferred from the crust to the
center of the fries during frying, which causes the water evaporation to
move inward. In the control samples, the amorphous region of the starch
swelled; and even deprived starch chains of the crystalline region, which
destroyed the double helices of amylopectin, leading to the formation of
a left-handed single helical structure. This structure formed a helical
cavity that lipids could enter by hydrophobic. Thus, the crystalline
structure became loose, resulting in an increased oil penetration.
In the SA-coated fries, the double helices of the starch increased;
meanwhile, the crystalline structure and growth ring became more
complete compared to the uncoated samples. This was attributed to the
SA coating hindering the heat and water transfer, hence reducing the
spaces for oil penetration.
4. Conclusions
SA coating showed the ability to reduce French fries' water evapo­
ration and oil uptake. The inhibitive efficiency of the 1 % SA coating was
the most significant. Compared to the control fries, the L*, crispness of
the SA-coated samples improved, while b* and a* decreased, signifi­
cantly (P < 0.05). A correlation analysis revealed that the film hydro­
philicity positively correlates with the PSO, STO, and TO content and
negatively correlates with the Fmax and Area of the fries. Compared to
the control samples, water evaporation in SA-coated fries reduced and
more water was locked in the starch gel network, which was confirmed
by LF-NMR. In terms of starch, the crystalline structure and double he­
lices increased, reducing the water migration and oil penetration. MRI,
CLSM, and SEM results indicate that the edible coatings formed a barrier
on the fries' surface by changing surface structure, which reduces the
formation of water vapor channels, leading to an altered oil absorptive
pathway and distribution. This study found that the main mechanism of
oil absorption in French fries is water replacement and confirmed that
SA coating effectively inhibits water migration and oil uptake in fries. In
summary, this study developed an economical and effective coating
(estimated unit cost = 0.11CNY/Kg of French fries) that provides a
theoretical basis for the industrial application of low-fat fried foods.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ying Li: Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Writing – original draft. Xue Bai: Investigation. Mengna
Zhao: Conceptualization, Resources. Hui Wang: Investigation. Jia
Feng: Investigation. Xiufang Xia: Conceptualization, Supervision,
Formal analysis, Funding acquisition. Qian Liu: Formal analysis,
Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Founda­
tion of China (Grant No. 32172273).
Y. Li et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 236 (2023) 124042

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