Paper No: 10 Environmental Pollution II- Water & Soil

Module: 29 Soil Quality Analysis

Development Team
Principal Investigator
Prof. R.K. Kohli
&
Prof. V.K. Garg & Prof. Ashok Dhawan
Co- Principal Investigator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda

Prof. J.S. Laura

Paper Coordinator
Content Writer
Content Reviewer
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak
Dr. Meenakshi Nandal
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak
Prof. J.S. Laura
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak

Anchor Institute Central University of Punjab

Water and soil

Environmental
Pollution II Soil Quality Analysis
 Description of Module

Subject Name Environmental Sciences

Paper Name Environmental Pollution II: Water and soil

Module Name/Title 29: Soil Quality Analysis

Module Id EVS/EP-II/29

Pre-requisites

 To study the soil quality index.

Objectives  To study the Reasons for evaluating soil quality
 To study different types of soil quality indicators.
Keywords Soil quality , Soil indicators, Soil Quality Index

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 29.1 Introduction

Maintaining the productivity of our agricultural soils is of principal importance not only for the
present but for the future also. The analysis of soil helps in assessing the need to apply nutrients
in fertilizers and/or manures to preserve soil fertility.A wide range of agricultural management
practices are adopted with goal to improve soil quality, crop yield, and decrease the ecological
foot print. The management practices can either progress or reduce soil quality. Soil quality can
be degraded by erosion, compaction, salinization, sodification, acidification, and pollution with
toxic chemicals.By increasing soil protection through crop residues and plants, adding organic
matter to the soil, through crop rotations, manures, careful management of fertilizers and
pesticides we can improve soil quality etc.Soil quality and soil health are interchangeable terms.
Soil quality is considered as the capacity of a soil to function and health is most often used to
highlight the linkage between soil and human or animal health. Soil quality is the ability of soil
to provide ecosystem and society services through its carrying capacities and respond to external
influences and cannot be measured directly in the field or laboratory as it is a complex functional
concept. Hence,a range of soil parameters or indicators has been identified to estimate soil
quality. However, it is often related to the management goal and practices as well to soil
characteristics.Thus, a mathematical or statistical framework was put forward in early 1990’s to
estimate soil quality index (SQI) which can be used as an indicator of the ‘goodness’ of soil with
regards to functions and responses. The SQI was assessed so that the management goals are not
only focused on productivity, but also on environmental issues. Further SQI may serve three
important goals: environmental quality, agronomic sustainability, and socio-economic viability.
Soil quality or its capacity to function can be evaluated by using inherent and dynamic soil
properties. Inherent soil properties like soil texture, type of clay, bedrock form over thousands of
years and result primarily from the soil forming factors: climate, topography, parent material,
biota and time and are not easily affected by management practices. On the other hand dynamic
or management dependent, soil properties are affected by human management and natural
disturbances. Significant changes can be observed in dynamic soil properties in a single year or
growing season.The functions of soil get affected by soil indicators and further depend on their
physical, chemical and biological categories.Since a soil property or indicator can affect multiple
soil functions or categories, however these categories are not always clearly defined.

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 Fig 29.1: Soil quality with its concerns- environment, human health and biological productivity.
Source: Allan et al., 1996

The concept of soil quality is more complex than that of water or air quality analysis. However,
despite the complexity the maintenance of soil quality is significant for ensuring the
sustainability of the environment and the biosphere. The method for evaluating soil quality is
designed fully flexible in order to link it with the evaluation of degradation threats.For assessing
the quality of the soil system consideration of soil threats is essential.
Some of the major threats faced by soils are
 Soil erosion
 Soil contamination
 Decline in organic matter and biodiversity
 Soil compaction
 Soil salinization
 Floods and landslides
 Soil sealing
Sometimes these threats are place specific for example with respect to restoration of soil quality
soil erosion is the most severe consequence of soil degradation in some of the place and
controlling erosion is a requirement of a healthy soil. Most of the soil degradation processes are
interlinked and are often related by similar contributory factors.Understanding the soil quality
process means managing the soil so that it functions optimally now and is not degraded for future
use.Three main indexes in the sustainable soil-use domain is calculated based on the evaluation
procedure:

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Environmental
Pollution II Soil Quality Analysis
 1) Soil Quality Index: It is expressed as the ability of soil to execute ecosystem and social
services
2) Soil Threat Index: It definesthe intensity of hazard on which the soil is exposed to
degradation threats.
3) Soil Sustainability Index: This parameter is used for the comparative measurement of soil
quality across a gradient of stress or disturbance
The effects of management practices on soil function can be learnt through soil quality
evaluation and the evaluation fall into three categories:
Awareness and education: An ecological approach to land management depends upon soil
quality concept. In complex systems such as soil, management actions don't have simple, single
effects whereas it has multiple effects, both direct and indirect. For example, tillage is used to
loosen surface soil, prepare the seedbed, and control weeds and pests.On the other hand tillage
can also cause the disorders like soil structure fracturing, increase the decomposition and loss of
organic matter, increase the risk of erosion, destroy the habitat of helpful micro biota and cause
compaction.Adopting the better existing management options is a first step towards improved
land management and public policy. Assessment as an Educational Tool includes one-on-one
and field day use of in-field testing tools.
Evaluation of practice effects and trouble-shooting: Soil quality is often referred to as "Soil
Health" because of objectives similar to the monitoring and maintenance of human health.
Monitoring health indicators and watching for irregularities or declines in health status doctors
can judge the state of individual health. During a check-up the set of health indicators measured
is familiar to all of us: temperature, pulse, blood pressure, heartbeat, blood and urine sample
analyses etc. By monitoring these indicators we can reveal potential problems well in time before
the onset of painful symptoms; the earlier problems are detected the easier they are treated.
Likewise, soil indicators reveal irregularity or decline over time and provide a signal for
management aspect to be taken into account.Although soil fertility testing already serves this role
in regard to plant nutrition, soil quality assessment expands this to include the wider range of soil
functions and environmental outcomes.Soil quality measurement is one of the ways to
investigate specific problems related with soil. The low nutrient status may only be one cause of
low productivity in a specific area out of many, or indeed a symptom rather than a cause.

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 Over time when soil quality is assessed, it can put into picture about the sustainability of
management practices.
Evaluation of alternative practices: Beyond awareness and evaluating current practices, soil
quality assessment methods provide a framework for comparing management tradeoffs and
deciding which management options provide the greatest good, whether for one's farming
operation or at a watershed or regional scale.
29.2 Assessment as an adaptive management tool:
Soil quality assessment tools allow one to examine the effects of making a change in
management before actually committing full resources to that change. Soil quality assessments
can be used to compare the effects of management practices on similar soils.
29.3 Soil Quality Indicators
Any indicator criteria used to assess soil quality should be practical and useful across a range of
ecological and socio-economic situations. As per Chen, 1999, the Soil quality indicators should
meet the following criteria:
1. Correlate and encompass natural processes in the environment
2. Integrate soil physical, chemical and biological characteristics and processes
3. Be easy to use and accessible for a broad range of users and field conditions
4. Be sensitive to changes in management or environmental conditions
5. Be present in existing environmental databases when possible
Cameron et al. (1998) proposed the application of these steps to a simple scoring system to
decide, whether to accept a possible soil quality indicator in the assessment of polluted soils.
A = L(S, U,M,I,R)
Whereas A = Acceptance level of the indicator
S = Sensitivity of the indicator to changes from degradation or remediation
U = Ease of use and/or understanding
M = Cost effectiveness of measurement of the indicator
I = Predictable influence of properties on soil, plant and animal health
R = correlation and relationship to ecosystem processes
In this equation each parameter is rated between 1 and 5.
The sum of all the parameters gives the acceptance level, which can then be compared to other
indicators. By applying this system screening of the most useful and vigorous soil quality

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 indicators for a specific assessment can be identified. A soil quality indicator scoring level of 23
would be more valuable compared to an indicatorwith a level of 15.By evaluating indicators such
as physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils assessments of soil quality can be
conducted (Table 29.1).Morphological or visual features as indicators of plants are considered to
observe management induced changes in the soil.
Table 29.1 Minimum Data Set of Indicators for Soil Quality
(Adapted from Doran et al, 1996; Larson and Pierce, 1994; and Seybold et al, 1997)
Indicator Relationship to Soil Health
Soil organic matter (SOM) Soil fertility, structure, stability, nutrient retention, soil
erosion, and available water capacity
PHYSICAL
Soil structure Retention and transport of water and nutrients, habitat
for microbes, and soil erosion
Depth of soil and rooting Estimate of crop productivity potential, compaction, and
plow pan
Infiltration and bulk density Water movement, porosity, and workability
Water holding capacity Water storage and availability
CHEMICAL
pH Biological and nutrient availability
Electrical conductivity Plant growth, microbial activity, and salt tolerance
Extractable nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), Plant available nutrients and potential for N and P loss
and potassium (K)
BIOLOGICAL
Microbial biomass carbon (C) and Microbial catalytic potential and repository for C and N
nitrogen (N)
Potentially mineralizable Nitrogen Soil productivity and N supplying potential
Soil respiration Microbial activity measure

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 Fig 29.2 Minimum Data Set of Indicators for Soil Quality
Source: http://soilquality.org/tools/smaf_intro.html
Different chemical indicators widely used are related to the respective basic functions they
measure. Those basic functions include:
 Promoting biodiversity activity and productivity,
 Filtering, buffering, degrading, and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials,
 Controlling the regulation and partition of water and solute flow,
 Cycling carbon and nutrients,
 Providing physical stability for plants and animals as well as providing support for
structures associated with human habitats (Fig 29.2)
The chemical components and properties of the soil affect many reactions and processes
occurring in the soil environment. For example, soil pH plays important role as
1. It controls the solubility and mobility of heavy metals, such as Al, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn,
and nutrients, such as phosphorus. It also controls the toxicity of many heavy metals.
2. It affects soil biological properties like microbial growth and diversity.
3. Other properties like percent saturation, soil buffering capacity, cation-exchange capacity
(CEC) are influenced by pH.

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Pollution II Soil Quality Analysis
 Like physical and biological indicators chemical indicators are also being affected by soil
management and natural disturbance like
 Tillage practices (e.g. continuous till, conservation till, and organic and inorganic
amendments) may change the levels of soil reaction (pH), as well as nitrate, TOC, and P
content.
 Without the correction of pH by liming can lead to soil acidification during continuous
cultivation processes.
 To lowers soil pH values of alkaline soils a continuous application of acidifying
fertilizers, such as ammonium nitrate NH4NO3, ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4, and
elemental sulfur (S) is being added.
 Soil can slightly acidify by leguminous crops
 Soil salinizationalso increases with irrigating water having high amounts of salt
concentrations (high EC values).Soil quality can be assessed at three points of the soil
system shown in Figure 29.3.

Fig 29.3 Soil Quality research frame work

Source- Accessing the soil system, Ann Lewandowski, 1999
The insight into the living component of the soil is being provided by the soil biological
indicators. Biological, physical and chemical indicators have a relationship to soil functions and
can evaluate soil functions to assess soil quality and these indicators are dynamic properties of
soil that are very susceptible to land management, natural disturbances, and chemical

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 contaminants. Doran and Safley (1997) and Pankhurst et al. (1997) suggested that an indicator,
regardless of its nature, must fulfill the following criteria:
 Be interpretable
 Correlate well with ecosystem processes
 Integrate soil physical, chemical, and biological properties and processes
 Be accessible to many users
 Be sensitive to changes.
In addition, an indicator must have reproducibility, low temporal and spatial variability, and
simple sampling and analytical methods. There are myriads of organisms in the thin layer of the
soil surface. They play key roles in the decomposition of soil organic matter, nutrient cycling,
soil pollutant degradation, and the formation and stability of soil structure. They adapt to changes
in their environment, such as stress due to drought, flooding, substrate shortages (e.g. food
shortages), and contaminants. To soil management and land use changes soil biota responds
rapidly and are considered suitable soil quality indicators. However, measuring soil organisms
directly as indicators of soil quality have their own limitations. For the biological dynamic
properties of soil (respiration, particulate organic matter, potentially mineralisable nitrogen),
enzymes are often selected as surrogates for measurement of processes mediated by soil biota.
Biological indicators may reflect the overall number, type, and activity of microorganisms and
the diversity of the living organisms in soil, particularly the microbial population. Earthworms
have been considered usable biological indicators as they are not often diverse and are easy to
count in the field by determination of their abundance. Earthworms are native to non-glaciated
areas of North America, but non-native species from Europe and Asia also exist in this areas.Top
soil that is rich in organic matter provides home to mineral soil-dwellers. Deep soil-burrowers
(night crawlers) dig long, large burrows into deep soil layers. They carry with them plant
residues for consumption. They burrow narrow channels and feed on a mixture of soil and plant
residues. The digested material that is excreted back into the soil is known as earthworm cast.
While passing through the worm’s digestive system cast is enriched with nutrients (N, P, K, and
Ca) and microorganisms. Nutrient cycling and intense microbial activity occurs in fresh cast.
Earthworms not only help in building of soil structure and aggregate stabilization but also
contribute nutrients to the soil and improve porosity, tilt, and root development and serve to be
the best visible bio indicators towards any disturbance in the soil.

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 Summary
Integration of soil quality measures to policy planning is essential to harmonize efforts of soil
resources utilization and environmental resources conservation.Ability of soil to provide
ecosystem and social services through its capacities to perform key functions and respond to
externalinfluences depends upon soil quality.For soil quality soil structure is an important
component; therefore, soil quality gets affected by management factors and soil structure most
likely.The formation of water stable aggregates and bio pores are the two basic soil structure
components which gets influence by the nutrient cycles which thereby gets influence by the
processes acting on soil quality parameters like biological, chemical, and physical. Soil organic
mattertransformations lead to primary process changes linking to nutrient cycling and soil
structure, and therefore, influencing soil quality. By observing or measuring several different
properties or processes soil quality is estimated. For indexing of soil quality no single property
can be used. The selection of indicators should be based on the land use process; the connection
between an indicator and the soil function can be assessed depending on the simplicity and
consistency of the measurement; variation between sampling times and variation across the
sampling area; the sensitivity of the measurement to changes in soil management; compatibility
with regular sampling and monitoring; the skills required for use and analysis. Because of
differences in parent material, climatic condition, topographic or landscape position, soil
organisms, and type of vegetation; soils and their indicator values vary. For example, cation
exchange capacity may relate to organic matter, but it may also relate to the kind and amount of
clay. Soil quality has also been described as the balance between soil degradation and soil
resilience. Preserving and improving soil quality is about sustainability. It is about maintaining
the long-term function of our soils.Quality soil will produce healthy crops over the long-term
without increasing levels of inputs. It will also control water flow and will filter and degrade
potential environmental contaminants. Against wide swings in temperature, moisture and other
environmental conditions healthy soils always remain buffered. This buffering capacity can be
reflected in low levels of pest outbreaks control and comparatively achieving stable production
levels. The first step in the development of systematic criteria of sustainability includes the
minimum data set criteria. The setting of soil quality as the long-term goal for the management
of soil has implications in national-level assessments, design of programs for conservation of
soil resources and for analyses of sustainable farming systems.

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 Reference:

1. Allan,D.L., Adriano,D.C., Bezdicek,D.F., Cline,R.G., Coleman,D.C., Doran,J.W.,

Harris,R., Juo,A.S.R., Mausbach,M.J., Peterson,G.A., Schuman,G.E., Singer,M.J. and
Karlen,D.L 1995. SSSA statement on soil quality. In: Agronomy News, June 1995, ASA,
Madison,Wisconsin.
2. Arshad, M.A. and G.M. Coen. 1992. Characterization of soil quality: Physical and
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 10. Papendick, R.I. and J.F. Parr. 1992. Soil quality - The key to a sustainable agriculture.
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11. Seybold, C.A., M.J. Mausbach, D.L. Karlen, and H.H. Rogers. 1998. Quantification of
soil quality. p. 387-404. In: R. Lal, J.M. Kimble, R.F. Follett, and B.A. Stewart (eds.)
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