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Soft Carbonated Beverages

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 Chapter - 6

SOFT CARBONATED BEVERAGES

Vandana Chaudhary

1. Introduction
2. Legislation in India
3. Ingredients
4. Technology of Soft Carbonated Beverages
5. Carbonated Fruit Beverage
6. Mineral Water
7. Carbonated Water
8. Spoilage and Safety Concerns
9. Health Effects of Soft Carbonated Beverages
References

1. INTRODUCTION
Soft carbonated beverage is a non alcoholic, sweet, light, flavoured, water based
drink that have carbon dioxide added to them to make them bubbly or fizzy. The
flavouring agents used may be artificial or natural, are often coloured and can
also contain fruit pulp, fruit juice or caffeine. The sweetener may be fruit juice,
fructose corn syrup, sugar or sugar substitutes. These are also known as fizzy
drink, soda pop, coke, pop etc varying from region to region.
It is generally accepted that the description of soft drinks excludes tea,
coffee, dairy‐based beverages and, until recently, alcohol. Soft carbonated
beverages may contain alcohol but the content should not be more than 0.5% of
the total volume.
Attempts to reproduce the natural effervescence of some spring waters for
presumed health benefits began before 1700. Joseph Priestley’s in 1767 infused
water with carbon dioxide leading to the development of carbonated water. In
late eighteenth century, Jacob Berzelius added flavours such as juices, spices and
Soft Carbonated Beverages 91

wine to the carbonated water. Jacob Schweppe in 1783 bottled the carbonated
water and started selling it commercially. Baltimore machinist William Painter's
1892 invention of the crown cork bottle seal, which crimps a cork-filled metal lid
onto glass bottles, allowed manufacturers to package carbonated beverages in
bottles that would not explode or lose carbonation. Glass bottles were the
preferred packaging for soft drinks until the second half of the 20th century,
when lightweight cans gained in popularity (www.leaf.tv). Soft carbonated
beverages soon outgrew their origins in the medical world and became a widely
consumed beverage readily available for the masses. Today there are hundreds of
variants of flavoured carbonated soft drinks in the market.
Soft Carbonated beverages may be classified as:
i. Flavoured and sweetened carbonated beverages.
ii. Carbonated water or soda with or without permitted flavours
iii. Flavoured and sweetened carbonated water with dietetic/ electrolyte
mixtures in formulation
iv. Flavoured and sweetened carbonated water with fruit juice, fruit pulp
and fruit concentrate

2. LEGISLATION IN INDIA
Soft drinks intended for human consumption are covered by national regulations
based on codes and standards. In India, under category 2.10 beverages (other
than dairy and fruits & vegetables based) of FSS (Food products standards and
food additives) Regulation, 2011, the beverages are categorised as: Beverages
(other than dairy and fruits & vegetables based). Food additives which may be
added to beverages are given in Appendix A under the title list of food additives
(http://old.fssai.gov.in). The additives which are allowed in beverages are as
follows: preservatives like sorbic acid, sulphates, benzoates and their sodium,
calcium and potassium salts; acidulants like malic acid, phosphoric acid, fumaric
acid, lactic acid; artificial sweeteners (acesulphame K, sucralose, saccharin
sodium, aspartame); flavour enhancers; emulsifiers like gums, pectins; colours
(sunset yellow, titanium oxide, tartrazine, carmoisine etc.) and antioxidants.

3. INGREDIENTS
The term ‘soft carbonated beverages’ is related to beverages containing additives,
carbon dioxide and/or fruit juices to improve the appearance and stability of the
beverage and to increase the shelf life of the product and make it suitable for
human consumption. Table 1 enlists the ingredients of soft carbonated beverages
with their usage levels and functions.
92 Beverages: Processing & Technology

Table 1. Ingredients of Soft Carbonated Beverages

Ingredients Usage level Functions

Water Approx. 90% of a regular Tasteless; odourless; acts as solvent for
product and 98% in a low other ingredients; provides hydration
calorie beverage
(http://www.britishsoft-
drinks.com)
Sweeteners 8-12% w/v Taste; Balances flavour
Flavourings 0.1-0.5% w/v Give flavour; Provide uniqueness to the
drink
Carbon dioxide 0.3-0.6% w/v Sparkling effect to the drink; Gives rise to
fizz and effervescence; Sharpen the
flavour and taste; Preservative effect
Acidulants 0.05-0.3% w/v Improve beverage flavour profile;
Provides sourness to modify taste of sugar;
Imparts tart taste; Preservative effect
Colours 0-70 ppm Delivers colour; Make product
aesthetically appealing; Physiological
impact; Helps to adjust natural variations
in colour during storage or processing
Preservatives As per standards Maintain safety; To protect flavour; To
retain freshness
Stabilizers 01-0.2% per GMP To sustain emulsions; Avoid disintegration
on storage; Enhance mouthfeel
Emulsifiers Hold fatty flavours suspended in beverage;
Avoid formation of rings and layers
Fruit Juices Usually up to 10% Reduces the amount of sugar usage; Add
flavour and acidity
Other Ingredients Saponins help in producing stable foams;
(saponins, Antioxidants prevent deterioration caused
antioxidants etc) due to oxidation of flavours and colour
components during storage

3.1 Water
Water is the major ingredient of carbonated soft drinks. Conventional soft drinks
comprise somewhat 90% water whereas the diet soft carbonated beverage may
contain up to 98% water. It also acts as a solvent and carrier for other ingredients.
The quality of water used in manufacture has direct implications for the quality
of the end-product (Table 2). Normal water contains a number of trace minerals
and ions which can alter the taste of beverage. Soft carbonated beverage
Soft Carbonated Beverages 93

manufacturers thus use softened water in order to prevent off taste and aroma.
The characteristics of water required for soft carbonated beverages are:

Table 2. Types of impurities in water and their treatments

Impurities Defects in the beverage Treatment

present in water
Turbidity - Haziness in the end product. - Filtration
- Deposition in the pipelines or - Coagulation
the equipment - Settlement tank
Hardness - Scaling in the pipelines or the - Demineralisation
equipment - Softening
- off taste to the product - Addition of surface active
agents
Chloride - Production of off flavours - Demineralisation
- Augment the corrosive nature of - Reverse osmosis
water
Fluorides - Damage to teeth enamel - Demineralisation
- Reverse osmosis
Oxygen - Corrodes the water pipe lines and - Deaeration
equipments
Nitrates - May cause “blue baby - Demineralisation
syndrome” in small children - Reverse osmosis
- Causes perforations in soft drink
cans
Suspended solids - Deposition in the pipelines or the - Filtration
equipment - Coagulation
- Settlement tank

3.2 Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colourless gas having a density higher than that of
normal air. At optimum concentrations it is odourless but at higher
94 Beverages: Processing & Technology

concentrations it has an acidic odour. Carbon dioxide is the only gas which can
provide effervescence in the soft carbonated beverages. The reason being CO2 is
a colourless, odourless, tasteless, inert and non toxic in nature. When dissolved in
water it undergoes exothermic reaction and forms carbonic acid.
H2O + CO2 ⎯⎯→ H2CO3 + Energy
The maximum amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in water is 8
g per litre. The excess will normally only remain in water when the drink is under
pressure. Once the pressure is released - i.e. when the container is exposed to
normal atmospheric pressure - the carbon dioxide will begin to escape
(www.unesda.eu).
Carbon dioxide also exerts a preservative effect by preventing the growth of
micro organisms such as yeast, mould and lactic acid bacteria. It also serves to
impart internal pressure in the cans and hence prevent shape deformation in cans.

3.3 Sweeteners
Sweeteners are the substances which are used to sweeten the beverage,
particularly other than sugar. Sweeteners are the primary ingredients (8-12%
w/v) in the manufacture of soft carbonated beverages. Chemically, the primary
sweeteners in soft carbonated beverages are carbohydrates, which consist of a
group of widely varied chemical substances present in both plants and animals.

Table 3. Bulk sweeteners used in soft carbonated beverages

Bulk Sweetener Properties

Sorbitol A sugar alcohol with a sweet taste; metabolized slowly by human
body
Mannitol Substitute of sugar in food specially for diabetics; absorbed poorly
from the digestive tract
Maltitol Used as an alternative of table sugar because it contains half calorie,
does not promote tooth decay, and a little effect on blood glucose
Erythritol Is 60–70% as sweet as sucrose (table sugar); contains almost no
calories; no effect on blood sugar, does not cause tooth decay; is
partially absorbed by the body, excreted in urine and faeces
Isomalt Properties similar to that of sugar; very less or no effect on blood
glucose levels; do not stimulate the release of insulin; is tooth
friendly; calorific value is 2 kcal/g, half of that of carbohydrates
Lactitol Used as a replacement of bulk sweeteners for low cal foods; Approx
40% as sweet as sugar
Xylitol Low chances of developing cavities; soluble in water
High fructose corn Is easier to deal with; sweetness is comparable to that of sucrose;
syrup (HFCS) cheap
Soft Carbonated Beverages 95

Sweeteners can be broadly allocated into two categories – bulk sweeteners

and intense sweeteners. Sugar has a number of physical properties that contribute
to the structural and sensory characteristics of food (as well as providing
sweetness) and bulk sweeteners are used when these functional characteristics are
required. Bulk sweeteners mainly include sugar alcohols (e.g. maltitol, sorbitol,
erythritol, mannitol, isomalt, lactitol, xylitol) Table 3. Human beings are not able
to fully digest them and as a result few calories are available per gram (2.4kcal/g
as compared to 4 kcal/g for sucrose). Hence they serve as a better substitute for
sugars in beverages. They do not cause any harm to teeth and also have low
glycemic index however, excessive use and consumption of these can cause
bloating or stomach cramps. Other bulk sweeteners often referred to as ‘corn
syrups’, obtained by controlled hydrolysis of starch are glucose syrup and high
fructose corn syrup (HFCS).

Table 4. Artificial sweeteners used in soft carbonated beverages

Artificial Sweetener Usage level Properties

Aspartame (E951) 700 ppm Approx. 200 times sweeter than sucrose; taste of
aspartame lasts longer as compared to sucrose;
Stable at acidic pH 4.3; goes along well with aces-
ulfame potassium, cyclamates, saccharin and
sugars; Should be avoided by persons having phen-
ylketonuria as aspartame contains elevated levels
of phenylalanine an essential amino acid
(Magnuson et al. 2007)
Saccharin 100 ppm 300-400 times as sweet as table sugar; has a meta-
llic or bitter after taste; chemically inert; synergi-
stic with cyclamates and aspartame; it’s sodium
and calcium salts are highly water soluble; safe for
consumption by people having diabetes; no nutri-
tional value; cheap alternative (www.drugs.com)
Sucralose (E955) 300 ppm 320-1000 times more sweeter than common sugar;
three times sweeter than acesulfame and aspart-
ame; stable over a wide range of pH; safe for dia-
betics; calorie free sweetener
(https://en.wikipedia.org)
Acesulfame (E950) 300 ppm 200 times more sweet than cane sugar; generally it
is used after blending with other sweeteners
(www.food.gov.uk)
Neotame (E961) 33 ppm 7000 to 13000 more sweeter than common sugar
(Mayhew et al. 2012); chemically similar to
aspartame; stable in nature and used at very low
concentrations
96 Beverages: Processing & Technology

Intense sweeteners, also known as non-caloric sweeteners, artificial

sweeteners or just sweeteners, are used to provide sweetness of taste without the
calories. These are many times sweeter than sugar. Food Safety and Standard
Authority of India has approved five artificial sweeteners aspartame (methyl
esters), saccharin sodium, sucralose, acesulfame and neotame (Table 4).
Blends of sweeteners (e.g. ace-K/aspartame) can also be used particularly in
soft drinks to achieve particular taste profiles. Their use can result in a different
‘mouth feel’ to sugar. Some intense sweeteners are broken down on digestion
(e.g. aspartame) while others are not metabolised and are excreted intact (e.g.
sucralose).

3.4 Flavourings
Flavour is he sensory impression of food or other substance, and is determined
primarily by the chemical senses of taste and smell. According to Codex
Alimentarius “flavourings or flavouring substances are added to food to impart
aroma or taste. Like other food additives their use should not present an
unacceptable risk to human health and should not mislead consumers. The
quantity added to foods should be at the lowest level necessary to achieve the
intended flavouring effect. Flavours and flavouring substances should also be of
appropriate food grade quality; and be prepared and handled in the same way as
a food ingredient”. Flavour is an essential component in all soft carbonated
drinks. Flavours can be classified as- natural flavours, nature identical flavours
and synthetic flavours.
(i) Natural flavours (various plant or animal extracts and volatile oils).
Natural flavourings can be either used in their natural form or
processed form for human consumption and they cannot contain any
nature-identical or artificial flavouring substances.
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations defines natural flavourings as
“the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate,
distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which
contains the flavouring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit
juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root,
leaf or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry,
eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary
function in food is flavouring rather than nutritional.”
(ii) Nature identical flavours- These are flavours which are synthesized or
are separated chemically but are identical to naturally occurring
chemicals.
(iii) Synthetic or artificial flavourings which have not been found to occur
naturally. They are less expensive and readily available.
Flavours used in soft carbonated beverages may be broadly divided into two
types on the basis of their solubility in water: water soluble and water insoluble.
Soft Carbonated Beverages 97

Water soluble flavours dissolve in water to form clear solutions and are required
in small amounts. These mainly consist of oxygenated and ionic compounds.
Water insoluble flavourings are introduced in the beverage system in the form of
emulsion (Fig. 1). Emulsion usually consists of at least two immiscible liquid
phases one of which is dispersed as globules in the other liquid phase stabilized
by a third substance called emulsifying agent. The common liquid phases are
aqueous phase and oil phase. Aqueous phase consists of water and different gums
as hydrocolloids, and oil phase consists of usually citrus oil based with weighting
agent, brominated vegetable-oil, ester gum, sucrose acetate iso-butyrate, bees-
wax etc (Saifullah and Aziz, 2011).

Fig. 1. Process of preparation of flavour emulsion

3.5 Acidulants
Acidulants are the food additives that bestow sour, tart or acidic flavour to the
carbonated beverage. Selection of acidulant depends upon various factors such as
pH, hygroscopic nature, solubility index and flavour profile (desired sharpness)
(Table 5). They exhibit a variety of functions in the beverage:
I. Act as preservative: As these are acidic in nature, they restrict the
growth of micro organisms and also check the activity of various
enzymes if present.
98 Beverages: Processing & Technology

II. Augment flavour.

III. Perform the function of buffering agent also by controlling the acidity
during processing.
IV. Contributes to characteristic taste (lemon flavour contributed by
citrates and acetates give vinegar like flavour) of the carbonated
beverage.

Table 5. Common acidulants used in soft carbonated beverages

Acidulant Characteristics
Phosphoric acid Provides tangy or sour taste; acidic in nature; use is mostly
(E338) confined to cola beverages; cause dental caries (Moynihan, 2002)
Citric acid (E330) Weak organic acid; naturally occurs in citrus fruits; provides fruity
flavour; widely used in carbonated beverages: improves the shelf
life of flavour components; possess antioxidant properties; impart
negative impact on colour in presence of light (Greenfield &
Southgate, 2003)
Lactic acid (E270) Colourless; water soluble; also acts as an antioxidant as well as a
preservative; used in soft carbonated beverages to modify or
enhance flavour
Malic acid (E296) Hygroscopic in nature; provides sourness to the beverage; strength
is slightly more than citric acid; used to mask off taste of some
sugar substitutes; mostly preferred in low calorie drinks
Acetic acid (E260) Acidic taste; excellent bacteriostatic properties
(http://foodsafetyhelpline.com/)

3.6 Colours
Colour has an important implication as far as food is concerned as it plays a
major role in the taste and perception of food along with flavour and texture. It is
a known fact that if food does not look attractive then consumers will probably
reject it. So that food appeals to customers and is accepted by them, the
manufacturers add colour, but at the same time try to retain its natural looks, as
far as possible. Natural appearance is always more appetising then anything that
looks unusually coloured (www. foodsafetyhelpline.com). Colour serves various
purposes in the carbonated beverages such as:
(i) It helps in masking the deterioration caused during preparation of a
beverage.
(ii) These tend to enhance the preference by making beverage attractive
and increase the sale of the beverage.
(iii) Consumers associate colours with flavour for example orange colour
with orange fruit etc.
Soft Carbonated Beverages 99

(iv) Colours also augment the natural colour of beverage making them
look more appealing and attractive.
(v) Colours do not influence the sensory properties of the carbonated
beverage but they affect the consumer’s perception of flavour.
According to the source from which colours are derived colours are
differentiated into two categories: natural and synthetic colours (Table 6).
Natural colours are obtained from natural resources like plants, fruits, seeds or
vegetables animal sources, minerals and algae. Colours come from variety of
sources like seeds, fruits, vegetables, algae and insect. Grass, beet root, and
turmeric are some of the natural sources from which colours are extracted.
Synthetic colours are produced chemically. In comparison to natural colours they
are less expensive and also provides uniform colour to the carbonated beverage.
They can also blend easily to give a variety of hues. The usage of synthetic food
colours is gradually coming down in India too after realising their harmful
effects.

Table 6. Food colours used in soft carbonated beverage

Natural Colours
Chlorophyll (E140)
Riboflavin (E101)
Saffron (E164)
Beta-Carotene (E160a)
Curcumin (E100)
Lutein (E161a)
Anthocyanin (E163)
Synthetic Colours
Indigo Carmine (E132)
Brilliant Blue FCF (E133)
Allura red (E129)
Amaranth (E123)

Synthetic colours can be added up to a maximum limit of 100 ppm of the

carbonated beverage. Nevertheless, in some beverages the maximum prescribed
limit is 200 ppm (FSS Regulations, 2011).

3.7 Preservatives
Preservatives are the substances which enhances the shelf life of soft carbonated
beverages by refraining the growth of micro organisms. The kinds of
100 Beverages: Processing & Technology

preservatives used are influenced by chemical and physical properties of both the
preservative and the beverage. The pH and water activity of the product,
availability of oxygen and nutrients, type of packaging, temperature and storage
conditions determines the type of preservative to be added in the soft carbonated
beverage. Main function of the preservative is to make soft carbonated beverage
safe for human consumption. Commonly used preservatives in soft drinks are:
sorbic acid, sorbates, sulphur dioxide, sulphites, parabens, benzoic acids and
benzoates (Table 7).

Table 7. Preservatives used in soft carbonated beverages

Preservatives Properties
Sorbic Acid and salts Antimicrobial action; prevents the growth of fungi, mould and
(E200-E203) yeast; it’s salts (calcium sorbate, potassium sorbate and sodium
sorbate) are generally preferred in soft carbonated beverages as
these readily dissolve in water but active form is acid; shows
antimicrobial activity below pH 6.5
Benzoic acid and salts Added directly or in the form of sodium, potassium or calcium
(E210-213) salts; hinders the growth of mould, some bacteria and yeast;
effective at low pH
Sulphur dioxide and Acts as a preservative as well as have antioxidant properties;
sulphites (E220-E228) may be used in the form of sulphur dioxide generating salts;
more effective at pH below 4; impede the growth of bacteria,
fungi and mould; may initiate allergic reactions in some
consumers
Parabens (E214-E219) para-hydroxybenzoic acid esters; used as antimicrobial agents;
prolongs the shelf life of the beverage; safe within permissible
limits; if consumed in excess may cause cancerous tumours

3.8 Stabilizers, emulsifiers, saponins, antioxidants

Stabilizers are the substances used to stabilize emulsions and to maintain the
dispersion of fruit solids in carbonated beverages. These improve the mouthfeel
characteristics of carbonated beverage by enhancing the viscosity. These include
carrageenans, pectin, acacia, xanthan, alginates, carboxy methyl cellulose and
gums derived from vegetables. Extract of quillia is also used in carbonated
beverages as stabilizer but also for its foaming properties.
Emulsifiers are added to soft carbonated beverage to hold the fatty flavour
emulsion in the beverage. Moreover it do not allow phase separation and
formation of layers during storage of beverages.
Saponins are chemical compounds found in roots of many plant species
(mainly genus Saponaria) and these produce foams when shaken in aqueous
solutions. In carbonated beverages saponins produce very stable foam (a
desirable characteristic of soft carbonated beverages).
Soft Carbonated Beverages 101

Antioxidants are added to prevent the deterioration caused due to the

oxidation of flavour and colour components during storage. Generally citrus
flavoured drinks and flavour emulsions are more prone to oxidation. Butylated
hydroxy anisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) are widely used as
antioxidants. As in many countries use of BHA and BHT is restricted due to
health implications, natural or nature identical antioxidants like tocopherol,
ascorbyl palmitate and its salts are being used.

4. TECHNOLOGY OF SOFT CARBONATED BEVERAGE

4.1 Water Treatment

Impurities such as suspended particles, organic matter and bacteria may degrade
the taste and colour. They are removed through the traditional process of a series
of coagulation, filtration and chlorination (Figure 2). Coagulation involves
mixing a gelatinous precipitate, or floc (ferric sulphate or aluminium sulphate)
into the water. The floc helps in absorbing suspended particles, thus making them
bigger in size so that they are easily entrapped by filters. The clarified water is
then made to pass through sand filter aiding the removal of fine floc particles.

Fig. 2. Process of removing impurities from water (http://www.madehow.com)

102 Beverages: Processing & Technology

Microbiological quality of water is also taken into consideration. The

presence of bacteria and organic compounds hamper the organoleptic quality of
water. For disinfecting, water is treated with small quantity of chlorine and kept
in the tank for at least two hours to complete the reaction. After that it is passed
through activated carbon filter which helps in dechlorinating the water and also
the remaining organic matter. This is followed by deaeration of water by
pumping it through vacuum pump. The water which is to be used should be
either soft (<50 mg/l as CaCO3) or medium soft (50–100 mg/l as CaCO3).

4.2 Deaeration
Carbonated beverages are very sensitive to the amount of oxygen dissolved in
water. Retention of vitamins, appearance, taste and the storage life of carbonated
beverage is influenced by the dissolved oxygen. In addition to it, dissolved
oxygen negatively affects the performance of filler and also trigger causes excess
filler foaming, thus hampering the fill-volume control. Higher the amount of air
in water more difficult it becomes to hold carbon dioxide in the beverage.

In the process of deaeration by using pressure, nitrogen and oxygen are

removed from water by addition of carbon dioxide. Pressure deaeration is used
when the levels of dissolved carbon dioxide content of water is low.
Deaeration of water for soft carbonated beverages can also be done by
creating vacuum in the deaeration tank. Water is injected by spraying in the
deaeration tank held under vacuum, whereas the gases nitrogen and oxygen are
wheedle out from the water and drawn out of the deaerator. Deaeration by
pressure and/or vacuum can be performed in one line with the use of liquid ring
pump. In this process, water is introduced in a horizontal tank by spray valves
over the perforated plates, thus increasing the surface area which enables proper
gas transfer. The horizontal tank is kept under low pressure so as to remove
oxygen. In single stage de-aeration oxygen levels of 0.5 ppm can be achieved,
but in dual stage processes, in which we use two de-aeration tanks, oxygen level
up to 0.03 mg/l or less can be attained. In dual stage, carbon dioxide or nitrogen
can be added for stripping the oxygen.

4.3 Preparation of Syrup

Basic ingredient of most of the soft carbonated beverages is sugar syrup, which
can be prepared by combining cane sugar or beet sugar with water. Sugar used
may be in granulated or liquid form. Liquid sugar dissolves directly in water
however if it is granulated then it require special conditions for dissolution such
as increased temperature which hasten the rate of solubility. Cane or beet sugar
Soft Carbonated Beverages 103

can also be replaced by high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). HFCS is a sweetener
derived from enzymatically treated corn starch so as to increase its fructose
content.
Syrup is produced in concentrated form in the syrup rooms. It includes
mixing of all the ingredients in proportions either manually or automatically with
required ratio of water. Finally the syrup is diluted with addition of carbonated
water and bottled (Figure 3).

Fig. 3. Process of preparation of syrup

4.4 Carbonation
Carbonation is the process of impregnating liquid with carbon dioxide. During
carbonation the temperature of the liquid should be low as the solubility of
carbon dioxide increases with decreasing temperature. The gas which is injected
into the beverage should be free from microorganisms and dust particles. The
level of carbonation differs with the type of beverage and the perceived flavour
(Table 8). For example fruit drinks require low carbonation as compared to
drinks which are meant to be diluted.
During carbonation, carbon dioxide is added to the beverage in a carbonator,
where vaporised carbon dioxide is mixed under pressure with temperature
controlled beverage mix. The flow rate of the beverage and the pressure of CO2
are significant for required level of carbonation. Greater the surface area of the
beverage higher will be the rate of solubility of CO2. When carbon dioxide is
imbibed in the beverage the CO2 bubbles start rising to the surface causing some
of the gas to dissolve in beverage. The undissolved portion of CO2 outflow from
104 Beverages: Processing & Technology

the surface of the beverage and changes its state from liquid to gas. The gas fills
the space above the beverage. Equilibrium is set between the rate of release of
gas and the rate of dissolution of gas in the beverage. However, the equilibrium
pressure fluctuates with augmentation in temperature or decline in pressure. This
equilibrium breaks with opening of can or bottle and causes the gas to be released
spontaneously and the process is known as foaming.

Table 8. Level of carbonation in different types of beverages

Type of Beverage Level of carbonation

Lemonades and colas Medium to high
Malt based beverages Low to medium
Wellness drinks Low to medium
Energy drinks Low to medium
Sports drinks None to low
Carbonators contain refrigerated system so that the CO2 is added to the
beverage at refrigeration temperature to ensure maximum solubility. The
carbonator contain a number of heat exchanger plated through which the coolant
is circulates. The beverage which enters in to the system is made to flow in thin
films over the plates. This ensures effective carbonation as well as cooling of the
beverage. In Mojonnier system the beverage is introduced in carbonator in the
form of a water fall.
Carbonation is not just alone addition of CO2 to beverage. This process also
transforms the taste by producing a sharp tangy flavour, due to the formation of
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid also has a mild antibiotic effect that prevents the
growth of bacteria (www.cnet.com).

4.5 Filling and Packaging

Soft carbonated beverage prepared according to specifications is filled in bottles
or cans. Initially thick walled, reusable glass bottles were used. In recent years
glass bottles are being replaced by PET bottles which are thin walled and easier
to handle during processing and storage. Filling is done under gravity, in which
the flow rate depends on the difference between the container to be filled and
filler basin. Flow rate of beverage increases with increase in the overhead
pressure. Two types of fillers are generally used i.e. gravity fillers and counter
pressure filler. Now a days, volumetric and capacitance probe fillers are also
used. The later uses a capacitance probe to check the point at which filling should
be stopped. In the former i.e. volumetric fillers exact amount of carbonated
beverage is introduced in the container. It has a disadvantage that no two
containers will have the exactly same amount of carbonated beverage.
Soft Carbonated Beverages 105

Soft carbonated beverages are packed in diverse packaging materials and

various sizes, depending on characteristics of product, target customers and
geographic conditions. Maintenance of product quality and filling with accuracy
are the prime requirements of the filling process. Various factors are to be
considered during the filling process:
I. Temperature variations- At high temperature the solubility of CO2
decreases and the gas will come out of the beverage giving a flat taste.
II. Constituents of the beverage especially gases- As soft carbonated
beverage contains dissolved carbon dioxide, utmost care should be
taken to prevent the passage of CO2 from the solution during the
process of filling.
III. Flow properties of the carbonated beverage
IV. Shape and size of container- Shape and size of container to be filled
plays a very crucial role. During filling, the carbonated beverage is
entered at the highest probable point and then moves towards the
bottom of container. Smooth contoured bottle will aid in gentle flow of
the beverage.
Filling of carbonated beverage consists of following steps:
I. Creating vacuum
II. Gas flushing
III. Pressurising with gas
IV. Container filling
V. Fill level correction
VI. Allowing beverage to settle and avoid fobbing

5. CARBONATED FRUIT BEVERAGE

Soft carbonated beverages are preferred by the consumers for their thirst
quenching and refreshing characteristics. Conversely they lack any kind of
nutrition except empty calories due to high sugar content. Whereas, fruit juices
contain freshness of a fruit as well as are good from nutritional point of view.
This has led to the emergence of a new concept carbonated fruit beverages.
According to FSSAI, carbonated fruit beverages are the beverage with fruit juice
quantity below 10% but not less than 5%, and 2.5% in case of lime or lemon.
Fruit juices are perishable in nature with a very small storage life of 2-3
days under refrigeration hence preservatives are added to preserve them.
Preservatives increase the shelf life of product but may cause undesirable
changes in taste and colour of fruit juice. Moreover the customers are also getting
aware of the health impacts of preservatives. Hence, carbonating fruit juice
seems to be a promising technology to preserve the freshness of the fruit as well
as to retain the nutrients.
106 Beverages: Processing & Technology

Amount of CO2 in carbonated fruit beverages ranges from 1 to 8 g/litre.

Despite of the fact that this concentration is much lower than that required (14.6
g/litre) for complete inhibition of microbial growth, yet it is significant in
supplementing the lethal effect of acidity on pathogenic bacteria. Carbonation of
fruit juices helps in expelling air which establishes anaerobic environment and
decreases the rate of oxidation of ascorbic acid. As oxygen is essential for the
growth of yeasts and moulds, they become inactive in CO2 rich environment. The
shelf life of carbonated fruit beverages can be further increased by addition of
50ppm sodium benzoate.

6. MINERAL WATER
Mineral Water is the natural water which contains minerals naturally or may be
added artificially and does not contain less than 250 parts per million of total
dissolved solids. It can be differentiated from other categories of bottled water by
its constant level and relative proportions of mineral and trace elements at the
point of emergence from the source. This water cannot be subjected to any kind
of treatment except carbonation, removal of manganese, arsenic, sulphur or iron
(http://www.bottledwater.org). Mineral water has somewhat salty taste due to the
presence of minerals in it (https://food.ndtv.com). In mineral water disinfection
process is not permitted.
Mineral water may be classified according to the presence or absence of
added gases as still or sparkling.

7. CARBONATED WATER
Carbonated water (also known as bubbly water, sparkling water, soda water) is
produced by infusing carbon dioxide (CO2) in water. CO2 reacts with water
forming carbonic acid, increasing the acidity of water. It may contain a little
amount of additives such as sodium chloride, potassium bicarbonate, sodium
hydrogen carbonate. These help in developing slightly salty taste in carbonated
water.
In 1767, Joseph Priestley discovered carbonated water when he introduced
CO2 in a water bowl suspended over a beer vat at a brewery in Leeds, England.
He mentioned the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and published a
paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in 1772.
Carbonated water is referred to be a healthy alternative to soft carbonated
beverages. It not only helps in quenching thirst but also helps in improving
digestion and constipation (www.livestrong.com). A study carried out by Rosario
et al. 2002 reported that patients having constipation and dyspepsia, consumption
of carbonated water improved both the conditions.
According to FSSAI, The carbonated water should confirm to following
requirements: total plate count per ml not more than 50 colony forming unit
(cfu); coliform count in 100 ml should be 0 cfu and yeast & mould count per ml
Soft Carbonated Beverages 107

not more than 2 cfu. It should not contain caffeine not exceeding 145 parts per
million (ppm), estergum not more than 100 ppm and saccharin sodium not
exceeding 700 ppm. or sucralose not exceeding 300 ppm or Neotame not
exceeding 33 ppm (http://foodregulatory.fssai.gov.in).
Although carbonated water and soda may have some health benefits, but
should be taken in moderation. Soda is high in sugar, which can cause a number
of health problems, including obesity and diabetes.
A study published in the journal Obesity Research and Clinical Practice,
found that rats who drank fizzy drinks had higher levels of the ghrelin hormone,
which increases hunger (Eweis et al., 2017). Occasionally having carbonated
water is not harmful but having it regularly may cause dentine erosion and
obesity (www.aarp.org).

8. SPOILAGE AND SAFETY CONCERNS

Soft carbonated beverages represent an important market segment of the food
industry. These beverages are nutrient deficient and hence are spoiled by very
few organisms. Carbonated beverages may get microbiologically contaminated
during the production process. Factors mainly responsible for microbiological
contamination are: ingredients, production equipments, packaging materials,
workers and premises. Yeasts are accounted to be the chief spoilage micro-
organism in soft carbonated beverages, primarily due to their capability to resist
low pH and high carbonation. Several yeasts can even tolerate low temperature
and medium high carbonation. Spoilage in soft carbonated beverages is thus
mainly due to facultative anaerobes which can grow in the presence or absence of
oxygen. Spoilage due to moulds and bacteria is very uncommon in carbonated
beverages as these are sensitive to carbon dioxide.
Increase in the population of yeast in the soft carbonated beverage plant may
be attributed to insufficient heat treatment during clean in place system, personal
hygiene of the handlers, poor quality raw materials and overall hygiene of the
plant.
Davenport (1996) gave classification of yeasts responsible for spoilage in
soft carbonated beverages. He divided various spoilage causing yeasts into four
groups (1-4) Table 9. Group 1 comprises yeasts which can adapt to the
carbonated beverage environment and are potent to cause spoilage in less
numbers also. These are preservative resistant, osmotolerant and require vitamins
to grow. Group 2 involves the organism which can cause spoilage only if
something goes wrong during the manufacturing process. Group 3 implies to
class of organism which are indicators of poor hygiene. Group 4 are called aliens
that are those which are out of their indigenous environment.
Moulds grow as white, delicate, fluffy, cottony masses suspended in soft
drinks. Fungal spores or conidia and mycelium fragments can contaminate
beverages at any stage of the production process.
108 Beverages: Processing & Technology

Table 9. Various yeast species found in soft carbonated beverages

Groups of yeast Species of yeast

Group 1 Dekkera anomala, Saccharomyces cerevisae,
Zygosaccharomyces bisporus, Z. lentus
Group 2 Candida parapsilopsis, Pichia anomala, S. cerevisae
Group 3 Candida sake, C. saloni, Rhodotorula glutinis,
Aureobasidium pullulans
Group 4 Kluyveromyces marxianus, K. lactis (both are dairy yeast)
Source: Davenport, 1996

9. HEALTH EFFECTS OF SOFT CARBONATED BEVERAGES

Soft carbonated beverages are gaining popularity day by day. Unfortunately,
carbonated beverages are frequently used as a replacement for water and other
healthy beverages. These have many disadvantages like obesity, dental caries,
dentine erosion, loss of calcium, heart burn, belching, metabolic disorders like
diabetes and dehydration.

9.1 Obesity
Generally soft carbonated beverages have high concentration of sugars.
Imbalance in energy levels which may be because of endocrinal, genetic or
idiopathic reason. Soft carbonated beverages overloaded with sweeteners seem to
be a contributory factor to childhood obesity. These beverages are energy dense
and also have a high glycaemic index. Intake of one carbonated beverage drink
leads to 10% higher intake as compared to others (James et al. 2004).
In a meta-analysis of 88 studies, we examined the association between soft
drink consumption and nutrition and health outcomes. We found clear
associations of soft drink intake with increased energy intake and body weight.
Soft drink intake also was associated with lower intakes of milk, calcium, and
other nutrients and with an increased risk of several medical problems (Vartanian
et al. 2007).

9.2 Dental Health

Soft drinks have many potential health problems. Carbon dioxide and sugar in
soft carbonated beverages affect the oral and dental health by causing alterations
in the taste buds and corrosion of teeth enamel and causing dental cavities. It has
been established that dental caries may result from a long-term high intake of soft
drinks and deterioration in oral hygiene patterns. The acids and sugars present in
carbonated beverages have both acidogenic and carcinogenic potential, resulting
in dental caries and potential enamel erosion (Cheng et al. 2009). Soft carbonated
beverages may be more damaging to children's and adolescent's teeth as the tooth
Soft Carbonated Beverages 109

enamel in these are not fully formed. Primary tooth enamel has a higher degree
of porosity and a lower degree of mineralization than permanent enamel
(https://prezi.com).

9.3 Bone Health

Phosphoric acid (phosphate) which is used as an acidulant and flavour enhancer
in soft carbonated beverages can interfere with absorption of calcium hence
causing loss of calcium from bones.
A research study indicated that in adolescent girls carbonated beverages
cause low bone density and fractures. Researchers at Tufts University examined
data from 2,500 women and men (ages 49 to 69) involved in the Framingham
Osteoporosis Study. They assessed dietary intake and measured bone mineral
density (BMD) at the spine and hip. Non-cola carbonated drinks were not associ-
ated with low BMD, but cola intake was associated with lower BMD at the hip
(though not the spine) in the women, but not in the men
(https://www.health.harvard.edu).

9.4 Heartburn and Belching

Carbon dioxide dissolved in soft carbonated beverages converts to gas at normal
body temperature. On drinking carbonated beverage stomach expands to
accommodate the carbon dioxide dissolved in beverage. This process is also
known as belching. As a result acid present in stomach may enter the food pipe
causing heartburn and bitter taste in mouth Johnson et al. 2010).

9.5 Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes

In recent years, consumption of carbonated beverages has augmented manifolds.
These beverages contain energy rich sweetening agents like HFCS, cane sugar,
or beet sugar. Consumption of these beverages increases the blood sugar level
and also the weight of the person. Regular intake of these beverages may cause
diabetes and other metabolic disorders (Nettleton et al. 2009).

9.6 Dehydration
Human body is mainly composed of water. For proper functioning of body
regular hydration is required. It is often observed that instead of water people
consumes soft carbonated beverages. Some soft carbonated beverages may
contain caffeine acts like a diuretic, increase urination hence deplete body of
water and also affect the salivary flow (Hildebrandt et al. 2013). Some
carbonated beverages also contain sodium which leads to removal of water from
body cells and thus causing dehydration.
110 Beverages: Processing & Technology

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