National Institute of Technology, Delhi

Satellite Communication

UNIT I
National Institute of Technology, Delhi

Origin and History of Satellite

communication
● Satellite communications began in October 1957 with the launch by the USSR of a small satellite called
Sputnik I.
● Originally developed to provide long distance telephone service
● First satellite launched by U.S. was Explorer I, on 31 January 1958 on a Juno I rocket
● In mid-1963, 99% of all satellites had been launched into LEO
● In the 1970s and 1980s there was rapid development of GEO satellite systems for international, regional,
and domestic telephone traffic and video distribution.
● By 1995 GEO wide band satellite systems were handling high speed internet data transmission.
 Different applications of Satellite communication

One way satellite link from earth station A to earth station B.

Uplink frequency is f 1, downlink frequency is f 2
Two way connection between earth station A and earth station B. Station A transmits at frequency
f 1 and receives at frequency f 4. Station B transmits at frequency f 3 and receives at frequency f 2

Point to multipoint link (broadcasting) from a single uplink transmitting station to many Illustration of four GPS satellites broadcasting to an
receiving stations. Uplink frequency is f 1 and all downlinks are at the same frequency f 2 automobile. The GPS receiver uses an omnidirectional antenna.
Current state of satellite communication
● GEO satellites were the backbone of the commercial satellite communications industry for 50
years.
● Television program distribution and DBS-TV became the major source of revenue for commercial
satellite system operators
● D2H satellite and the distribution of video material to cable TV operators and broadcast stations
are huge in satellite communication industry
● LEO satellites are used for surveillance of the earth’s surface like maps and weather observation
● LEO satellites operate in the Ka- and V-bands (18–50 GHz) providing internet access
● GEO satellites use up C and Ku bands
Used in 5G
Advantages of Satellite communication
● Through satellite transmission, coverage over geographical area is quite large mainly for sparsely
populated areas.
● High bandwidth.
● Wireless and mobile communication applications can be easily established by satellite communication
independent of location.
● It is used in wide variety of applications such as global mobile communication, private business networks,
Long distance telephone transmission, weather forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting, gathering
intelligence in military, navigation of ships and air crafts, connecting remote areas, television distribution
etc.
● Security in satellite transmission is usually provided by the coding and decoding equipment.
● Service from one single provider is easy to obtain and uniform service is available.
● Over long distances, it can be cheaper.
● The laying and maintenance is easy and cheap in satellite communication therefore it is best alterative.
● During critical condition, each Earth Station may be removed relatively quickly from a location and
reinstalled somewhere else.
● Ground station sites are easy to install and maintain.
What is a satellite?
● A satellite is simply any body that moves
around another (usually much larger) one in
a mathematically predictable path called an
orbit
● A communication satellite is a microwave
repeater station in space that is used for
telecommunication, radio and television
signals.
Exploded view of TDRS satellite
Working of Satellite Communication
● Two stations on earth want to communicate through radio broadcast but are too far away to use
conventional repeater
● The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for their communication
● One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite. Uplink frequency is the frequency at which
Ground Stations communicating with satellite.
● The satellite Transponder converts the signal and sends it down to the second earth station. This
frequency is called a Downlink frequency.
 Main Components of Satellite Communications

Space Segment
Satellite Control Center

Propagation medium

Earth Segment

Tx. Earth station Rx. Earth Station

Use of satellite communication
● Direct to home broadcasting for television and radio
● Satellite news gathering
● Very small aperture terminals for commercial data transfer
● ISP and mobile network backbone
● Television and radio networking
● Disaster communications
● Mobile communications
● Remote area telecom
● Many more...
Active and Passive satellites
● Active satellites will amplify and retransmit
the signal from the earth and it has several
advantages over the passive satellites like it
requires lower power earth station and is
less costly
● Passive satellite reflects the signal from
one earth station to other earth station (or
stations) without any amplification or
retransmission
Disadvantages of Passive satellites
● Earth stations require high power (10kW) to transmit signals strong enough to produce an
adequate return echo.
● Large Earth Stations with tracking facilities were expensive
● Communications via the Moon is limited by simultaneous visibility of the Moon by both transmit
and receive stations along with the larger distance required to be covered compared to that of
closer to earth satellite.
● A global system would have required a larger number of passive satellites accessed randomly by
different users
● Control of satellites not possible from ground.
Active Satellites
● Advantages
○ Require lower earth station
○ Less expensive than passive system
○ Not open to random use
○ Directly controlled by operators from ground
● Disadvantages
○ Needs hi-res design to avoid disruption of service due to failure of electronic components on-board the
satellite
○ Requirement of on-board power supply
○ Requirement of larger and powerful rockets launch heavier satellites in orbit
Orbital Aspects
of Satellite
Communication
 Laws of Planetary motion
The planets orbit in elliptical path with sun at focus
Same is true for satellites around earth

Johannes Kepler
1571 - 1630

The line joining a planet to sun sweeps out equal space in equal time
Velocity of satellite is slower at apogee and faster at perigee
Revision of Newton’s laws for celestial mechanics
Third Law of Planetary motion
The square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the mean
distance from the sun

● Acceleration a due to gravity

● Where μ is Kepler’s constant GME =
● Universal gravitational constant is
● Since force = mass x acceleration

ME is mass of earth Forces acting on a satellite in a

● Centrifugal Acceleration stable orbit around the earth
● Centrifugal force
Period of satellite circular orbit
Derivation for a circular orbit

Centripetal Force = Centrifugal Force

● If the forces on the satellite are balanced, FIN = FOUT

● Velocity
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1. The orbit of any smaller body about a larger body is always an ellipse,
with the center of mass of the larger body as one of the two foci.
2. The orbit of the smaller body sweeps out equal areas in equal time.
3. The square of the period of revolution of the smaller body about the
larger body equals a constant multiplied by the third power of the
semimajor axis of the orbital ellipse. That is T2 = (4π2a3)/μ where T is
the orbital period, a is the semimajor axis of the orbital ellipse, and μ
is Kepler’s constant. If the orbit is circular, then a becomes distance r

Kepler’s second law

of planetary motion
Circle is a special form of Ellipse
Apogee Perigee

ra rp

eccentricity: Semi-major axis:

For elliptical orbit
Velocity at apogee

Velocity at perigee
To be perfectly geostationary, the orbit of a
satellite needs to have three features

1. It must be exactly circular (i.e., have an eccentricity of zero)

2. It must be at the correct altitude (i.e., have the correct orbital period)
3. It must be in the plane of the equator (i.e., have a zero inclination with respect to the equator).
Look Angle
Determination
Look Angle Determination
● Look angles: The coordinates to which an ES must point to communicate with a
satellite. These are azimuth (AZ) and elevation angle (EL)
○ AZ: The angle measured from N to E to projection of satellite path onto horizontal
plane
○ EL: The angle measured from the horizontal plane to the orbit plane
● The subsatellite point: The point, on the earth’s surface, of intersection between
a line from the earth’s center to the satellite
Look Angle Definition
Calculating Look Angle
● Need six Orbital Elements
● Calculate the orbit from these Orbital Elements
● Define the orbital plane
● Locate satellite at time t with respect to the First Point of Aries
● Find Location of the Greenwich Meridian relative to the first point of Aries
● Use Spherical Trigonometry to find the position of the satellite relative to a point
on the earth’s surface
Coordinate System
● Latitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the
equator.
L from -90 to +90 (or from 90S to 90N)
● Longitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, from a given reference
longitudinal line (Greenwich, London)
l from 0 to 360E (or 180W to 180E)
Coordinate System
Satellite Coordinates
● SUB-SATELLITE POINT
Latitude Ls
Longitude ls
● EARTH STATION LOCATION
Latitude Le
Longitude le
● Calculate γ, ANGLE AT EARTH CENTER
Between the line that connects the earth-center to the satellite and the link from the
earth-center to the earth station.
Review of Geometry
● Review of plane trigonometry

● Review of plane trigonometry

Geometry of Elevation Angle
● Plane in picture is the one that includes
center of the earth, Earth Station and
Satellite.
● Subsatellite point will also be on the same
plane.
Central Angle
● γ is defined so that it is non-negative and

● The magnitude of the vectors joining the center of the earth, the satellite and the earth station are
related by
Elevation Angle calculation
● By the sine law we have

● Which yields
Example: Elevation Angle for GEO Satellite
Using rs = 42,164 km and re = 6,378.14 km gives

d = 42,164 [1.0228826 - 0.3025396 cos(γ)]1/2 km

Which finally gives the elevation angle

Azimuth Angle Calculation
● More complex approach for non-geo satellites.
● Different formulas and corrections apply depending on the combination of positions
of the earth station and subsatellite point with relation to each of the four quadrants
(NW, NE, SW, SE).
● Its calculation is simple for GEO satellites
Azimuth Angle Calculation for GEO Satellites
● SUB-SATELLITE POINT
○ Equatorial plane, Latitude Ls = 0o
○ Longitude ls
● EARTH STATION LOCATION
○ Latitude Le
○ Longitude le
Azimuth Angle for GEO sat.
● The original calculation previously shown:

● Simplifies using Ls = 0o since the satellite is over the equator:

Azimuth Angle for GEO satellite
● To find the azimuth angle, an intermediate angle, α, must first be found. The intermediate angle
allows the correct quadrant to be found since the azimuthal direction can lie anywhere between 0o
(true North) and clockwise through 360o (back to true North again). The intermediate angle is
found from
Azimuth Angle for GEO sat.

● Case1: Earth station in the Northern Hemisphere with

○ Satellite to the SE of the earth station: Az = 180o – α
○ Satellite to the SW of the earth station: Az = 180o + α
● Case 2: Earth in the Southern Hemisphere with
○ Satellite to the NE of the earth station: Az = α
○ Satellite to the NW of the earth station: Az = 360o – α
Example for Look Angle Calculation of a GEO satellite

FIND the Elevation and Azimuth Look angles for

the following case:

Earth Station Latitude 52oN

London, England
Dockland region
Earth Station Longitude 0o

Satellite Latitude 0o Geostationary

INTELSAT IOR Primary
Satellite Longitude 66oE
Example (Contd.)
Step 1 Find the central angle γ

= cos(52) cos(66)
= 0.2504
yielding γ = 75.4981o
Step 2 Find the elevation angle El

𝐸𝑙 = 5.85𝑜
Example (Contd.)
● Step 3: Find the intermediate angle, α
Example (Contd.)
The earth station is in the Northern hemisphere and the satellite is to the South East of the earth station.
This gives

Az = 180o – α

= 180 – 70.6668 = 109.333 (clockwise from true North)

Answer: The look angles to the satellite are

Elevation Angle = 5.85o

Azimuth Angle = 109.33o

LIMITS OF VISIBILITY
● There are a number of perturbing forces that cause an orbit to depart from the ideal
keplerian orbit.
● The period for a geostationary satellite is 23 h, 56 min, 4 s, or 86,164 s.
● The reciprocal of this is 1.00273896 rev/day,
● The east and west limits of geostationary are visible from any given Earth station.
● These limits are set by the geographic coordinates of the Earth station and antenna
elevation.
● The lowest elevation is zero (in theory) but in practice, to avoid reception of excess noise
from Earth some finite minimum value of elevation is issued.
● The earth station can see a satellite over a geostationary arc bounded by +/- (81.3o) about
the earth station's longitude.
NEAR GEOSTATIONARY ORBITS
● There are a number of perbuting forces that cause an orbit to depart from ideal Keplerian
orbit.
● The most affecting ones are
○ gravitational fields of sun and moon,
○ non-spherical shape of the Earth,
○ reaction of the satellite itself to motor movements within the satellites.
● Thus the earth station keeps manoeuvring the satellite to maintain its position within a set
of nominal geostationary coordinates.
● Thus the exact GEO is not attainable in practice and the orbital parameters vary with time.
● Hence these satellites are called “Geosynchronous” satellites or “Near-Geostationary
satellites”.
EARTH ECLIPSE OF A SATELLITE

If the earth’s equatorial plane

coincided with the plane of
the earth’s orbit around the
sun geostationary satellites
would be eclipsed by the
earth once each day.

Around the spring and

autumnal equinoxes,
when the sun is crossing the
equator, the satellite does
pass into the earth’s shadow The equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of
at certain periods 23.4° to the ecliptic plane, and this keeps the
satellite in full view of the sun for most days of
the year
EARTH ECLIPSE OF A SATELLITE
● Eclipses begin 23 days before equinox and end 23 days after
● equinox.
● The eclipse lasts about 10 min at the beginning and end of the
● eclipse period and increases to a maximum duration of about 72 min
● at full eclipse.
● The solar cells of the satellite become non-functional during the eclipse period and
the satellite is made to operate with the help of power supplied from the batteries.
SUN TRANSIT OUTAGE
● Transit of the satellite between earth and sun
● The sun comes within the beamwidth of the earth station antenna.
● When this happens, the sun appears as an extremely noisy source which completely blanks out the
signal from the satellite .
● An increase in the error rate, or total destruction of the signal.
● This effect is termed sun transit outage, and it lasts for short periods
● The occurrence and duration of the sun transit outage depends on the latitude of the earth station,
a maximum outage time of 10 min.
● Sun outages occur in February, March, September and October, that is, around the time of the
equinoxes.
● As the sun radiates strongly at the microwave frequencies used to communicate with satellites
(C-band, Ka band and Ku band) the sun swamps the signal from the satellite.
Launching Orbits
● Low Earth Orbiting satellites are directly injected into their orbits.
● This cannot be done in case of GEOs as they have to be positioned 36,000 kms above
the Earth’s surface.
● Launch vehicles are hence used to set these satellites in their orbits. These vehicles
are reusable.
● They are also known as “Space Transportation System‟ (STS)
Launching Orbits
● When the orbital altitude is greater than 1,200 km it becomes expensive to directly inject the
satellite in its orbit.
● For this purpose, a satellite must be placed in to a transfer orbit between the initial lower orbit and
destination orbit.
● The transfer orbit is commonly known as “Hohmann-Transfer Orbit”
Launching Orbits
● The transfer orbit is selected to minimize the energy required for the transfer.
● This orbit forms a tangent to the low altitude orbit at the point of its perigee and tangent to high
altitude orbit at the point of its apogee.

● The rocket injects the satellite with the required thrust into
the transfer orbit.
● With the STS, the satellite carries a perigee kick motor which
imparts the required thrust to inject the satellite in its
transfer orbit.
● Similarly, an apogee kick motor (AKM) is used to inject the
satellite in its destination orbit.
Launching Orbits
● Generally it takes 1-2 months for the satellite to become fully functional. The Earth Station
performs the Telemetry Tracking and Command (TTC) function to control the satellite transits and
functionalities
● It is better to launch rockets closer to the equator because the Earth rotates at a greater speed
here than that at either pole.
● This extra speed at the equator means a rocket needs less thrust (and therefore less fuel) to launch
into orbit.
● In addition, launching at the equator provides an additional 1,667 km/h of speed once the vehicle
reaches orbit.
● This speed bonus means the vehicle needs less fuel, and that freed space can be used to carry more
pay load
Propagation Delay
● Using c = 3*108 m/s & time = distance(altitude)/speed
● Uplink delay → from earth station to satellite
● Round trip delay → 4*uplink delay.
● All other delays in signal coding, compression & processing on Satellite & earth station are
neglected.
Round trip delay of GEO signal
Orbital Spacing
For GEO satellites, orbital spacing is the minimum
angle measured from ground between two
satellites for minimum interference.

Orbital spacing is 9° for the high-power satellites,

so adjacent satellite interference is considered
nonexistent
Link Design
Basic Transmission Theory
● The calculation of power received by an earth station from satellite is fundamental to the
understanding of satellite communication.
● Consider a transmitting source, in free space, radiating a total power Pt watts uniformly in all
directions.
● Such source is called isotropic
● At a distance R meters from isotropic source, flux density crossing the surface
● For a transmitter with output Pt watts driving a lossless antenna with gain
Gt, the flux density at distance R meters is

● The product Pt Gt is called effective isotropic radiated power or EIRP, it

describes the combination of transmitting power & antenna gain in terms of
an equivalent isotropic source with power Pt Gt watts.
● If we had an ideal receiving antenna with an aperture of A m2, we would collect power Pr watts
given by
Pr = F * A watts

A practical antenna with physical aperture area of A m2 will not deliver power as given in above
equation.

Some of the energy incident on aperture is reflected away from the antenna, some is absorbed by
lossy components.
The effective aperture Ae is
Ae = ηAA

Where ηA is aperture efficiency of the antenna.

For parabolic reflector ηA = 50 to 75%

For Horn antennas ηA = 90%
● Thus the power received by real antenna with effective aperture area Ae m2 is
……. (A)

● A fundamental relation in antenna theory is gain & area of an antenna are related by

● Substituting above equation in equation (A) gives

● This expression is known as link equation & essential in calculation of power received in any radio
link.
● The term (4ℼR/λ)2 is known as path loss Lp.
● Collecting various factors, we can write
Power received
= (EIRP * Receiving antenna gain / path loss)watts
● In decibel, we have
Pr = EIRP + Gr - Lp ………………………………….. (B)
Where EIRP = 10log10(Pt Gt) dbW
Atmospheric effects on link design
● Equation B represents an idealized case, in which there are no additional losses in the
link.
● In practice, we need to take account of a more complex situation in which we have
losses in atmosphere due to attenuation by oxygen, water vapour and rain, losses in
the antennas at each of the link.
● So equation B can be written as
Pr = EIRP + Gr - Lp - La - Lta - Lra dBW
Where La = attenuation in atmosphere
Lta = losses associated with transmitting antenna
Lra = losses associated with receiving antenna
● The receiving power Pr is commonly referred to as carrier power C.
● This is because most satellite links use either frequency modulation for analog
transmission or phase modulation for digital system.
● In both of the modulation schemes, the amplitude of the carrier is not changed
when data are modulated onto the carrier, so carrier power C is always equal to
received power Pr.
System Noise Temperature & G/T ratio
● Noise Temperature provides a way of determining how much thermal noise is
generated by active and passive devices in the receiving system.
● At microwave frequencies, a black body with physical temperature Tp degrees kelvin,
generate electrical noise over a wide bandwidth.
● The noise power is given by
Pn = kTnB
● Where
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 * 10-23J/K = -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Tn = Noise temperature of source in K
B = noise bandwidth in which noise power is measured, in Hz
● System noise temperature Ts, is the noise temperature of noise sources
at the input of noiseless receiver, which gives same noise power as the
original receiver, measured at the output of receiver.
Calculation of System noise temperature
● The noisy devices in the receiver are replaced by equivalent noiseless blocks
with the same gain and noise generators at the input to each block such that the
block produce same noise at its output as the device it replaces.
● The total noise power at the output of the IF amplifier of the receiver is given by

Pn = GIFkTIFBn + GIFGmkTmBn + GIFGmGRFkBn(TRF + Tin)

● This equation can be written as

Pn = GIFGmGRF[(kTIFBn)/(GRFGm) + (kTmBn)/GRF + (TRF + Tin)]

= GIFGmGRF[TRF+ Tin + Tm/GRF + TIF/(GRFGm)]

● The single source of noise shown in above figure with noise temperature Ts generates the
same noise power Pn at its output
● So the system noise temperature is
Noise Figure
● Noise figure is used to specify the noise generated within a device.
● The operational noise figure is
Noise Temperature
● Noise temperature is more useful in satellite communication systems, it is best to
convert noise figure to noise temperature, T
T = To(NF - 1)
● Where
NF is a linear ratio, not in decibels
To is the reference temperature (290 K)
G/T Ratio for earth stations
● The link equation can be rewritten in terms of (C/N) at the earth stations
Downlink Design
● The design of any satellite communication is based on two objectives:
○ Meeting a minimum C/N ratio for a specified percentage of time
○ Carrying the maximum revenue earning traffic at minimum cost.
● Any satellite link can be designed with very large antennas to achieve high C/N ratios
under all conditions, but the cost will be high.
● The art of good system design is to reach the best compromise of system parameters
that meets the specification at the lower cost
Link Budget
● C/N ratio calculation is simplified by the use of link budgets.
● A link budget is a tabular method for evaluating the received power and noise power.
● Link budgets invariably use decibel units for all quantities so that signal and noise
power can be calculated by addition and subtraction.
● Since it is usually impossible to design a satellite link at the first attempt, link budgets
make the task much easier because, once a link budget has been established, it is easy
to change any of the parameters and recalculate the result.
Downlink noise budget in clear air

k = Boltzmann’s constant - 228.6 dBW/K/Hz

Ts = System noise temperature, 75K 18.8 dBK
Bn = Noise bandwidth, 27MHz 74.3 dBHz
N = Receiver noise power -135.5 dBW

C/N ratio in receiver in clear air

C/N = Pt - N = -119.5 dBW - (- 135.5 dBW) = 16.0dB

Uplink Design
● The Uplink design is easier than the downlink, since an accurately specified carrier
power must be presented at the satellite transponder and it is often feasible to use
much higher power transmitters at earth stations that can be used on a satellite.
● The cost of transmitters tend to be high compared with the cost of receiving
equipment in satellite communication system.
● Earth station transmitter power is set by the power level required at the
input to the transponder.
● Analysis of the uplink requires calculation of the power level at the input to
the transponder so that the uplink C/N ratio can be found.
● The link equation is used to make this calculation.
● Let (C/N)up be the specified C/N ratio in the transponder, measured in a
noise bandwidth Bn Hz.
The noise power referred to the transponder input is Nxp watts. In dB units

where Txp is the system noise temperature of the transponder in dBK and Bn is in units of dBHz.

The power received at the input to the transponder is Prxp where

where Pt +Gt is the uplink earth station EIRP in dBW, Gr is the satellite antenna gain in dB in the direction
of the uplink earth station and Lp is the path loss in dB. The factor Lup accounts for all uplink losses other
than path loss. The value of (CNR)up at the LNA input of the satellite receiver is given by

The received power at the transponder input is also given by

● At frequencies above 10 GHz, propagating disturbances in the form of
fading in rain causes the received power level at the satellite to fall.
● This lowers the uplink C/N ratio in the transponder, which lowers the
overall (C/N)o ratio in the earth station receiver.
Complete link design
● When more than one C/N ratio is present in the link, we can add the individual C/N ratios
reciprocally to obtain C/N ratio denoted as (C/N)o
● The overall (C/N)o ratio is

● This sometimes referred as reciprocal C/N formula.

● The C/N values must be linear ratios, not decibel values.
● In dB units:

● C/N ratio at the receiver always yield (C/N)o, the combination of transponder
and earth station C/N ratios.
Estimating C/N ratio from two C/N values
● To calculate the performance of a satellite link we must therefore determine the uplink (C/N)up
ratio in the transponder and the downlink (C/N)dn in the earth station receiver.
● Since C/N values are usually calculated from power and noise budgets, there values are typically in
decibels.
● There are some useful rules of thumb for estimating (C/N)o from two C/N values:
○ If the C/N values are equal, as in the example above, (C/N)o is 3 dB lower than either value.
○ If one C/N values in 10 dB smaller than the other value, (C/N)o is 0.4 dB lower than the smaller of the C/N
values
○ If one C/N value is 20 dB or more greater than the other C/N value, the overall (C/N)o is equal to smaller of
the two C/N values within the accuracy of decibel calculations
Numerical
● Thermal noise in an earth station receiver results in a (C/N) downlink ratio of 20.0 dB. A signal is
received from a bent pipe transponder with a carrier t noise ratio (C/N)up = 20.0 dB. What is the
value of overall (C/N)o at the earth station? If the transponder introduces intermodulation
products with (C/I) ratio = 24 dB, what is the overall (C/N)o ratio at the receiving earth station?
● Using Eq. above and noting that (C/N) = 20.0 dB corresponds to a (C/N) ratio of 100. The
intermodulation (C/I) value of 24.0 dB corresponds to a ratio of 250.
● The overall (C/N)o value is then
Satellite Communication Link Design Procedure
1. Determine the frequency band in which system must operate. Comparative designs
may be required to help make the selection
2. Determine the communications parameters of the satellite. Estimate any values that
are not known.
3. Determine the parameters of the transmitting and receiving earth stations
4. Start at the transmitting earth station. Establish an uplink budget and a transponder
noise power to find (C/N)up in the transponder.
 5. Find the output power of the transponder based on transponder gain or output
backoff.
6. Establish a downlink power and noise budget for the receiving earth station.
Calculate (C/N)dn and (C/N)o for a station at the edge of the coverage zone.
7. Calculate S/N or BER in the baseband channel. Find the link margin.
8. Evaluate the result and compare with the specification requirements. Change
parameters of the system as required to obtain acceptable (C/N)o or S/N or BER
values. This may require several trial design
9. Determine the propagation calculations under which the link must operate. Calculate
outage times for the uplinks and downlinks.
10. Redesign the system by changing some parameters if the link margins are inadequate.
Check that all parameters are reasonable, and that the design can be implemented
within the expected budget.
Thank you.