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. \

GES 103: GOVERNMENT, SOCIETY AND

· ECONOMY

.. .. .
· lbudan Ut1iversity Press,
Publishing House,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria .

''

·© 2019 Centre for General Studies

First Published 2019

All Rights Reserv~d

No pa~ of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted,

transcribed, stored in a retrieval system, or translated into any
language or computer language, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, magnetk, chemical, photocopy, recording,
manual or otherwise, without the prior permission. of the publisher .
..

ISBN: 978 - 978 - 8529 - 85 - 9

Printing & Blnding:Alafas Nigeria Company

 CON1'ENTS
I I

' t
Page
Preface ..
Contributors .
VII
_IX

Introduction: The• Object and Nature of the Social Sciences 1

A.S. Jegede

I The ~ludy of Politics and t~e Concept of 9

Gove111n1ent
S.A. Lafemva

2 Organisation and Classification of Government 31

S.!\. Lafemva

3 Politi~al Socialisation and Political Participation 59

I. Johnson and A. Alabi '

4 Law, ·Democracy and Good G~vemance in 85

Nigeria
0.1. Adejumo

5 .. . Definition, Focus and Relevance ofSociology 129

P: Taiwo

6 Basic Methods in Data Collection and Analysis 145

in Sociology
I'. Taiwo mu/ A.S. 01110/awal

7 Concept of Econon1ics and Development 189

S.O. Orekoya

8 Growth and Development of the Nigerian 2 13

Economy
S. 0 . Orckoya and N. O/asciiule
 9 Psychology: Man and His World
~\ \ 239
Abigail 0 . Taiwo, S.K. Balo,~1111,
' - A.M. lawa!, N.A. Shenge and R.A. Adu
'

10 Psychobiological Basis of Behaviour and 253

Methods of Measure1nent in Psycho1ogy l L, J/
Abigail 0. Taiwo, S.K. Balogun, Sylvester
. A. Okhaku11ze
. and 0. Adeshina

11 The Physical and l-1u1nan Environment 275

Yingigba C. Akinye111i and 0. Oladiran

12 Natural Resource Use, Exploitation and 293

Sustainable Development
Yingigba C. Akinye111i

- --- - 13
_-:----'

Current Discourse in Peace and Conflict 315

-- - --- Studies
A:L Alabi, T.A. Joshua and Ojuge Folorunso
--
14 Information and Com1nunications Technology
and Socia] Sciences in the 21 st Century 339

- Index ----
A.S. Jege_de

359

. .
• t I

! (
 I PREFACE
I an1 honoured to write the preface of this book Goven1111e11t
Society, and Econo111y. The book is tneant to' serve as a~
introduction to non-social scientists who have no idea of the social
science disciplines. This book is not ·the first of its kind but an
i1nprove1nent on the previous editions. There was a curriculum
review and there arose a need for the addition of other aspects
"CutTent Discourse in Peace and Conflict Resolution," and "ICT
and Social Science in the 21st Century" which will enrich the
course and the knowledge of the students about the social science
disciplines.
The itnportance of the study of the human society and
behaviour with the ultimate aim of gaining enduring understanding
of social phenomena cannot be overemphasised. This will help the
students to relate better with situations they have and are
experiencing in their daily environment. . · ·
The Chapters in the Book have been ·written in simple and clear
concepts, and practical examples provided to make reading
interesting and easy to understand. The authors are seasoned
faculty m~mbers with proven academic records. Th~ bo~k i~ hi~hly .
recommended for use in any university or other tertiary 1nst1tuttons
where Introduction to the Social Science disciplines is taught.

Prof. A.S. Jegede

Former Dean, Faculty of the Social Sciences

I
 CONTRIBUTORS
Prof. A~S. Jegede: Depart1n.ent of Sociology, Faculty of the Socj.al .
Sciences, University of Ibadan. · ·

Prof. S.K. Balogun: Depart1nent of Psychology, Faculty of the

Social Sciences, U.l., Nigeria.

Dr. -S.A. Lafenwa: Depart1nent of Political Science, Faculty of the

Social Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Dr. Patricia Taiwo: Department of Sociology, Faculty of the Social

Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Dr. Yingigba Akinyemi: Department of Geography, Faculty of the

Social Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Dr. I.A. Johnson: Depart1nent of Political Science, Faculty of the

Scx;ial Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Dr. A.S. Omolawal: .Depart1nent of Socio)of,y, Faculty. of the

Social Sciences, University of Ibadan. . .

Dr. S.O. Orekoya: Department of Economics, Faculty of the Social

Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Dr: N. Olaseinde: Departn1ent of Econo1nics, Faculty of the Social

Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Dr: N.A. Shenge: Dcpartrnent of Psychology, F~cul ty of the Social

Sciences, University of Ibadan.

~r.. S.A. .Okhakumc: Department of Psychology, Faculty of the

ocial Sciences, University pf Ibadan,

R.~. Adu: Departrnent pf Psychology, Faculty of the Social

Sciences, U.I., Nigeri'l:
Dr: 0. Adesl~ina: ~epart1nent of Psychology, Faculty of the Social
Sciences, Un1vers1ty of Ibadan.

Dr..Abig~il 0. Taiwo: Departn1ent of Psychology, Faculty of the

Social Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Mr. q.I.
Adeju1no: Departtnent of Public and International Law,
Faculty of Law, University of Ibadan.

Mr. A. Alabi: Department of Political Science, ·Faculty of the

Social Sciences, University of Ibadan.

Mr. 0. Joshua: Department of Sociology, Faculty of the Social

Sciences, University of lbadan!

Mrs. Ojuge Folorunso: Department of Sociology, Faculty of the

Social Sciences, University of Ibadan. .

Mr! O. OJ~qiran: Dep~rtrnent of Geography, Faculty of the Social

Sciences, University of Ib~dan.
 Introduction: The Object and Nature of"the
Social Sciences
' A.S. Jegetle

What is Social Science? ·•

Social scienc~ is t~1e· study of human relationship within the socio-
cultural environment. Scho]ars have defined social science
di~erent~y frotn various perspectives. According to Charles Beard,
social sciences. are the .b~dy ~f k~owledge and thought pertaining
to h~man ~ffatrs as dtstlngu1shed from sticks, stones, stars and
physical objects (Kochhar 1984). James High was of the view that
social sciences ar~ those bodies· of learning and· study which
recognise the simultaneous and mutual action of physical and non-
physical stimuli which · produce · social reaction (Singh 2008).
Sitnply, social scie.nce · can . be ,defined as· the study of hui:nan
· relations (Hunt anrl: ~.olander 2008). It is the study of the activities
pf social ~nd physical '· environine~f..... It ·consists of the field 'o f
J<nowledg~ that studies human s~ciety or human relationships. The
gjff~rent QPf~-components of social behaviour of human life are,
~C~TIQftlia b~haviour, pqlitical · beh·avi'our~ cultural behaviour and
tradition, ~J.JS~OJ'JlS ~nCJ socfal institutions, religious faiths and
CJthi~~~ VFJJu~ p~tt~rrJ fpJlpwed in society, 11nd so on.

Evt>lutloJl of th~ SoQj~l Science h

Social §Qjenc(f is the propuct of'tJ1~ l 8t century and became a field
of stygy jn higher equcational institutions. Social sciences evolved
~nd. ~ft}W ~$ "by.-pr~duot of modernis.ation, industrialis'ltion,
renai~~an~e, J.Jrban1sat1on, growth of sc1ence and n1any more
r~hl~Q develqpri:i~nts'' (~ ilrker 19~7.; Ross. 1991). There were
many cn'lnge& in human _hves an~ hv1ng, which were _hardly seen
bt!fQffj, during the eighteenth century, and afterwards. As argued,
0r~nms~an~~ jn JtuJy and oJher puropean countries, French
revoh.Jtion, l 789, jn4ustrial revolutions starting fron1 1767,
Arnerh~nn war of incfependence, 1776, devclopn1ent of new forms
Qf c»pf talism, irnn1ense develo1?1:11.~ni i.n natural scienGes, .and ~o on,
brought 9,oth happ/ness and d1ff1cult1es for hun1an society 111 the .
world" (Ba9}(house, Roger and Philippe 20LQ, 2014).

. ,
,.
\

\
2
.
A.S. Jegede

In the eighteenth centut')', social science developed as a

response to the need for ,understa!1~ing the tnodernity (Ross
1991: 3). Scholars' theorc(1cul pos1t1ons such as Montesquieu
Spilit of the Laws (1748), Adatn Stnith's Wealth of Nations
1
(1776), Condorcet's Outline of an Historical View of the Progress
of the Hun1an Kind (1795), and J.G. Herder's Idea towards a
Philosophy of History ( 1784-91 ), were exemplary texts of the
social sciences (Backhouse, Roger and Philippe 2010, 2014). With
I

increasing industrialisation, tnodernisation, and scienti fie

development, tnany new social problems are arising and affecting
the whole social system and paralysing it. While rapid growth of
industrialisation and modernisation brings in multitude social
problems including diseases, social alienation, workers
exploitation, and so on, modern science creates germ warfare,
atoms for destruction of humanity, many hazardous chemical and
nuclear reactions, that eventually altered and continue to alter
human relationship (Backhouse, Roger and Philippe 2010, 2014).
Today, we are talking about climate change, .a product of the effect
of science and human activities. This has led to desertification in
many places including the northern part of Nigeria, resulting in
many communal conflicts due to reduction in land space.

What is Scientific about Social Science?

Social science consists of the disciplined and systematic study of
society and its institutions, and of how and why people behave as
they do, both as individuals and in groups within society (Hargittai
2009). Being "scientific" requires a systen1atic and stepwise
approach to knowledge acquisition and analysis. It is also about the
fact that knowledge tnust be verifiable. This n1cans that knowledge
acquired must tncet scienti fie standard as laid down by the
scientific com1nunity. It should not raise any doubt and n1ust be
ope~ for verificulion at all titnes. This n1eans that analysis of the
subject matter 1nust be objective. The question then arises fron1 the
fact th.at hutnun beings are not stable and thcrefore can change
fr~~ tu~c to tin1c. And this raises the question: Must science in
socJal scJcncc he practised like it is done in the hard sciences like
physics and chen1istry? There is the fact that research objects in the

-- .....
 lmroduction: The Object and Nnwre of 1/1e Socinl Sciences 3

.
hard sciences can be held constant but in social science human
beings as substance o.f study are subject to change which thus
brings about the pheno1nenon of 'ceteris · paribus' meaning "all
things being equal" (Galavotti 2003).
Although some· scholars have argued that "society, its
institutions and social relationships are not susceptible to scientific
study, and that the methods of the natural sciences should not be
applied to social phenomena" (Gareau 1987). The decision of the
British Govem1nent in the early 1980s to change the name of the
Social Science Research Council (which included mass
communication research in its remit) to the Economic and Social
Research Council is a good illustration of the fact that the term
"social" and "scientific" may not sit comfortably together.
Scholars have argued that "the message seemed to be: if it's social
it can't be scientific!" (Halloran 1998).

The Scope of Social Science

The scope of social science is as wide as the discipline itself. It
covers a wide area relating to the subject matter. While social
science is concerned with human relations, it is also a product of
history and deve.lopment. With the knowledge of the past, social
science disciplines are able to develop development models that
can enhance human welfare. This is necessary because without
good understanding of the society both in terms of history and
contemporary situation, it will be difficult to construct develop-
ment agenda. It involves the study of.man-made institutions which
are created to regulate human behaviour. Society would have been
chaotic without hutnan institutions like the family, marriage,
politics, economy, and so on. This is because human beings like
freedo1n but the freedorn of an individual ends with another
person's freedo1n. So, human institutions have helped to regulate
interpersonal relationships such as who to 1nan·y and not to 1narry.
This .thus helps to develop citizen related traits that can enhance
the value of society.
Knowledge of societal values which are transtnitted from
generation to generation sustains societies. Social science creates
an avenue for organised knowledge generation and transtnission
and so enables the study of natural science and development.
~ A.S. Jrgedr

Today, it is possible to predict the behaviour related lo evolving

t~chnologie~ und. prepare f?r their. 1nenaces such as cybcrcrime.
Finally, social science studies relations based on internationalism
and helps to understand relationships beyond borders. This is
relevant in the context of globalisation. Through social researches
the co1nplexities invo.lved in hun1an relations are identified and
solutions are provided for 1nitigating the effect of such
complexities for ease of access to life opportunities.

Why Study Social Science?

As 1nentioned earlier, through social science, man is able to solve
practical problems like social, econotnic, political, and health
issues and so on. Most of the health challenges affecting humanity
are products of human behaviour and interaction. Knowledge of
the behavioural pattern do help to cut the link between man and
disease, like the Hutnan Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV) that
ravaged most parts of Africa and Asia in the late 1990s and early
2000. This was why the University of Ibadan introduced GES 107
which focused primarily on teaching and introducing students to
the causes, prevention and 111anagement of the disease. Social
science helps in developing efficient citizens of democracy. It
helps to forn1 man's social character. It is important for the moral
progress of society. Generally, social science is important for
institutions and co1rununities development. Finally, social science
is significant for development of an international viewpoint
through ~nowledge generation and dissemination. Today,
information exists virtually on all areas of human endeavour and
this has helped in decision making both at the individual and
corporate levels. It enlightens the path of progress and
advancement.

Objectives of Social Science

Social science developed to fulfil certain objectives. These
objectives arc paran1ount to the needs of every individual and
society at large. Sociul science provides the knowledge of natur~I
and social cnvironn1ent and 1nakcs 1nan 'know how to fulfil his
needs. It is a n1eans of developing hu1nan qualities. thro~gh
.
functtonal . an
education, lca1111ng . d socHl
. 1·1sat1on
. Process in which
 l11troductio11 : "/11r Object nnd Nnwre of tlte Social Sciences 5

learners know their dµties tow•1rds human society. Social science

_helps to. develop itnagination, critical thinking, and _reasoning
power . tn students and helps to provide knowledge and
understanding to students. Knowledge of social science will enable
students to work according to the environment and to develop
desirable ~ttitudes that .will provide training in good behaviour. It
is expected that students of social science will develop
fundamental proficiencies able to compare, .analyse, summarise,
and evaluate phenomena. While social science aims to develop the
personality of the individual, it also develops a feeling of
1

cooperation and feeling of moral.ity in students, which are to be

acquired with the social thinking by observing ~ociety' s approval
of social values and . developing the feeling of universal
brotherhood.
. This is the . hallmark
'
of. the Ibadan School of Social
Sciences.

The Ibadan School of Social Sciences

The Ibadan School of Social Sciences (IBSSS) (Faculty of the
Social Sciences' 2015/20 l 6) is as old as the history of the
university. The IBSSS commenced with Depaitment of Economics
in 1958 as a small department with limited number of students.
Although, Geography Department started much earlier as a
foundational department in 1948, it was located in both Faculty of
Arts and Science until 1967 when the Department· joined the
Faculty of the Social Sciences. Since the birth of the IBSSS, it has
grown from strength to strength with Political Science growing out
of Economics, Sociology out of Political Science, and Law and
Psychology out ·of Sociology. The Faculty consists of six
departments. Presently, two faculties namely, Faculties of
Economics and Environmental Design and Management, have
emerged out of the faculty. The IBSSS over the years has
decolonised the theories and perspectives of social analysis though
using univers~I theories and methodologies but contextualising for
paradigm shifts for the develop1nenl and delivery pf a culturally
relevant social science curriculu1n. In line with this tradition, much
emphasis is · still· placed on socially and culturally driven
scholarship. It is on this -~asis that this book is written to expose
students to their i m1nediate environ1nent.
~-

6 A.S. Jegede

Conclusion
For effective service delivery in social science assignments, social
scientists need to understand people. They need to be detached
the111selves fro111 con1111011 sense thut is the perspective of the
person on the street. They should, however, not be so detached to
the extent tha~ they itnpose their own perspective upon the object
without regard for the experience of those involved, that is the
perspective of the expert. Social scientists, therefore, need to be
objective in their judgement as much as possible.
Taking into consideration the important role of the social
science disciplines for "developing healthy social and democratic
citizenship qualities of individuals", this book is written in clear
and simple language in order to introduce university
undergraduates to the principles and practice of analysing the
emerging an~ re-emerging social problems of the twenty-first
century Nigerian society. As mentioned above, the book is written
with clear language through· theoretically guided discussions and
argumentations, realistic examples and experiences suitable
enough to expose learners to social analysis of the contemporary
Nigerian society.

References
Backhouse, Roger E. and Phil~ppe Fontaine, eds. 2014. A historlograpliy
of the moden1 social sciences. Cambridge University Press.
Backhouse, Roger E. Fontaine, eds., Philippe, eds. 2010. The History of
the Social Sciences Science 1945. Cmnbridge University Press.
Barker, E. 1967. Principles of social and political theory. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Faculty of the Social Sciences. 201512016 Faculty flmulbook. University
of Ibadan.
Galavot.li, M..c. 2003. Obse11,atio11 and e.\JJC~riment in the 1~at11ral and
soqa/ sc1e11ces. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. 232.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISON 9781402012518.
Garea~, F.H. J98~. Expansion and increasing diversification of th~
uruverse of soctal science. International Social Science Journal 114·
595-606.
 lntrml11c·tlrm: 111< Object nml Nature of tl1e Social Srie11ces
1
7

Hallornn, J.D. 1998. Social science, communication research and the

Third World. Media Devel<>J'ment Vol. 2, WACC.
Hnrgiuai, E. 2009. Re.~earc/1 c:m~fldential: Sol11tio11s to problems most
social .~ciemists J'retend they never have. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press.
Hunt, E.F. and D.C. Colander. 2008. Social Jcience: An introduction to
tire study of society. Boston: Peason/Alfyn and Bacon.
ISBN 9780205524068.
Kochhar;S.K. 1984. The Teac/1ing of Social Studies, First Edition.
Ross, D. 1991. Tire origin of American social science. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Singh, Y.K. 2008. Teaching of Social Studies
 \

1
THE STUDY OF POLITICS AND THE
CONCEPT OF GOVERNMEN'f
S.A. Lafe11wa

Introduction
Political Science is one of the disciplines in the field of Social
Sciences. It is the systematic study of man's political behaviour
and political relationship. In this chapter, the origin and
significance of the study of politics is discussed on one hand. On
the other hand, the concept of government is explored as the
administrative apparatus of the state, since the state is the most
important contemporary framework for the conduct of politics.

Political Science and the Study of Politics

Political science is indeed a very old discipline. Aristotle (384 -
322 BC) in his book "Politics" .(1282) described it as the 'Queen'
of sciences in his days or as 'the master science' (see Okunade and
Agbaje 2001 :87). By this he meant that almost everything happens .
in a political context, that the decisions of the polis (the Greek city
state) governed most other things. Politics is intimately connected
to social, economic, geographical, and psychological systems. For
instance, disaster is natural, but its impact on society is controlled
in large part by politics. It is significant to point out that most of
the choices we make either as an individual, or a group or
government are political. This is not unrelated to the fact that these
choices are affected or detennined by the binding decisions made
by·government.
Until the 19'h century, however, political science lacked a
separate identity and was dominated by political philosophers,
theologians, journalists, and seldom engaged in by full-time
professional political analysts. Indeed, it was not until the last
quarter of the l 91h centl~ry that political science emerged as .an
independent or ~istinct fi eld of study or academic discipline.
. 10 S.A. l.<1jc•1111·a

As established in son1c literature, the first Chair in Political

Science wus set up in Sweden in the l 71h century. However, it was
not unti 1 the turn of the twentieth century that 1nost American and
nmny Gcrtnan universities had Chairs and Departments of politics
or political science or gove111ment after a successful but gradual
process of intellectual separation of powers tha.t brought political
science to the forefront as a separate field of study (see Robertson
1985 cited in Okunade and Agbaje 2001: 88).
This chapter discusses political science as the scientific study
of politics. The definitions and significance of our understanding
of politics and the ~istorical development of political science as a
separate discipline in the field of social science are examined. The
second part of the-Chapter deals with the concept of government -
its meaning, distinction_ between it and state and society, and
hi.storical and philos~ical perspectives on the origin of state and
government are diS'CUssed . .

Definition of Political
/
Science and Politics
A convenient starting point at understanding the meaning of
Political Science is a discussion on what politics is all about. This
is because political science is the scientific or systematic study of
politics. Like many other concepts in the social sciences, politics
has no single or universally acceptable definition. In fact, you need
to know that there are as many definitions of politics as there are
. works in Political Science. Many of these definitions are however
mutually contradictory or irreconcilable.
According to the Greek philosopher, Aristotle ( 1282); "Politics
is the essence of social existence and two or more 111en interacting
with one another are invariably involved in a political
relationship." This definition appears to n1ake every man living in
society a politician and therefore too broad. Harold Lasswell
(Rodee et al. 1983) in his own view defines politics ns the
deterrnination of "who get ~ what, when and how." This definition
underlines the significance of power us the major ingredient of
politics. Jn other words, politics, for Lasswell, is co11ce111ed with
which group of individuals in the society gets what resources at
what time and in whut munner. In this sense, politics is equated
.,,.. ..

'/7re Study of l'olltics and tlrt' Co11cept tJf Gcll'emme111 II

\Vitt1 lhe study of power. The problem with this definition is that it
is also too broad. Meanwhile, there is always a question of who
gets what, ~hen and how, or strictly speaking, the central issue of
power, influence and authority, wherever two or more men/women
are involved in a relationship. For instance, in the family, a social
club, cultural organisation, market, or in the university.
An Atnerican political scientist, David Easton (cited in
Lafenwa 2013: 5) at so defines politics as authoritative allocation of
values for a society. Easton's definition appears to be too abstract;
this is because it fails to tell us what the relevant values are, how
the values are produced, who tnakes the authoritative allocation of
values and what rules govern these allocations (Lafenwa 2013:5).
Another definition of politics equates it with the organisation
and operation of governmental institutions. According to this view,
politics involves the functioning of institutions which make law,
enforce it and settle controversy arising from different interests and
various interpretations of the law. The problem with this definition
is that it is too nan-ow and too formalistic. This is because it
ignores the political activities of such non-governmental
institutions as political parties and interest or pressure groups.
Politics can also be perceived as the quest for power, order and
justice, the art of influencing, manipulating and controlling others,
a process of resolution of conflict in society and a struggle among
actors pursuing conflicting desires on public issues.
The definition of politics that is close to what we experience on
a daily basis refers to it as the activities of governmental
institutions in a state as well as any aspect of the -society that
directly or indirectly affects the operation of these institutions. In
short, politic~ involves organisation of govermnent and the
behaviour of groups and individuals in matters that are likely to
affect the course and conduct of government us, for examples, in
voting and in for ming pressure groups.
Furthermore, crucial to any definition of politics is the state,
which is the 1nost important contemporary frmnework for the
conduct of politics. The state is sin1ply defined as a tetTitorial
organisation exercising a lcgitin1atc tnonopoly of force over a
people withi~ the specified geographical boundary. Basically,
 12 S.A. l'!rfc•11wa

. eve1~y 1nodcrn state has rour 1nujor chaructcristics ~amely;

population of people or hun1an population, defined ternto.ry or
geographical boundary, functional ·govermnent, and soveretgnty.
Govem1nenl is regarded as the adrninistrative apparatus or
institution of the state. In other words, it is the government that
petforn1s the duties of the state on its behalf. Also, while there is
no best definition of politics, most political scientists agree t.hat
politics has sotnething to do with power, influence and auth~~ty,
which are the central organising concepts of the study of pohttcs.
These concepts are explained further in the chapter.
There exists some confusion on what political science entails.
Part of the confusion is in respect of politics as an academic
discipline and politics as an art. To some people, students and
teachers of politics and political scientists are 'politicians'. Even to
some people political science offers training for revoluti_onaries or
politicians. However, political science is not necessarily training to
become a practising politician. Political scientists as pointed out
earlier carry out. calm, systematic, objective analysis of politics,
which may or may not aid working politicians. Meanwhile, it is
important to point out that politicians love power, while political
scientists are sceptical of power. While Politicians seek popularity
-· and-think practically, Political scientists seek accuracy and think
abstractly. More=importantJy, Politicians often respond to group
and seek name recognition while political scientists seek the good
of the whole and seek professional prestige. Therefore, it could be
inferred that not all political scientists are politicians and vice-
versa as earlier stated.
BiJJy Dudley in his inaugural lecture titled "Scepticism and
Political Virtues" delivered in 1975 cleared the ground on what
political science is all about. Fr01n his submission, it is evident
that political science is the study of politics. As cited in Okunade
and Agbaje (200 J:91), Dudley established that politics and indeed
political science entails the fallowing activities:
I

:_ "Consciousness Fonnation, thnt is, the evolving of

. awareness amongst a collectivity of the issues and problems
. that confront that collectivity."
' . I
 '/11c Study of l'olllic'.'i and the Concept of G0t•f mme111 13

- "Social Mobilisation, which is the organisation of a

collectivity for joint col htborative action."
- ·'"Contestation": the contesting of the detertnination of ·
national priorities through the process of argumentation and
debate.
- "Institutional Struggle: the conversion of fights into games
and debates" and .,•
"Transcendence: the bringing about of change both at the·
level of the person and at the systemic and sub-systemic
levels."

According to Dudley, Political Science should be seen as an

academic field of study that involves "the systematic study of these
various components of _poli'tics". · Closely related to this is the
definition which describes Political Science as the systematic study
of political life. In . their quest to understand politics; political
scientists seek answers to such questions as, "What reasons justify
the actions of government?" and, "Whose interests are served by
government?" ·

Historical Development of the Study of Politics

Prior to 1950, philosophers, theologians, historians, political
commentators and journalists dominated the study of politics. They
were concerned with the moral end of the state as well as the
fonnal structure of government, that is, the constitution, the origin,
and purpose of the structure. As we shall soon see, this is reflected
in the writings of people like Aristotle, Plato, Thomas Hobbes,
Jeremy Bentham, Machiavelli, John Locke, etc.
Meanwhile, the behaviouralism revolution that swept across
·the disciplines of Sociology and Psychology in the 1950s caught
up with Political Science and shifted the attention of the political
scientists from the formal structure of the state to man's political
behaviour. Behavouralism, which aimed at subjecting hun1an
behaviour lo scientific analysis, laid emphasis on hutnan
behaviour. The approach adopted by the behaviouralists is known
as Scientific Behavioural Approach (SBA). Its 1najor impact on
political science however, has been that by placing emphasis on
human behaviour, it has expanded the scope of political analysis
 . -
--:- 14 ~s.A . IAfl·m1·,,

\
• to ·iilclude man's social, econotnic und psycholo~i~al behavi?urs as
they are related to, and help to expluint his pohucal .beht~v1our. It
has now con1e to be realised, 1nore than ·ever, that society is an all-
indusive entity, a con1posile syste1n, whose component parts (or
subsyste111s) are closely related. It follows then that, to understand
one part, we require an understanding of the others. In sho.rt, .on~ of
the principles of behavioural approach is integration of d1sc1pltn~s
in the fi~ld of social science. In fact, to most political analysts, this
is the basis of the 1nultidisciplinary approach in the field of
political science.

The Significance of Studying Politics

Anytilne we discuss· issues relating to politics; like increase in
pump price of a litre of petrol, scarcity of fertilisers for agricultural
production, incessant strike actions by labour unions, allowing
illegal immigrants to stay _in Nigeria, corruption charges against
our leaders; we are expressing that part of us which makes us an
integral part of society. This is so because we are a political
animals, as Aristotle, one of the founding fathers of political
science, wrote a long time ago. The impJications of this are two.
First, that politics is the essence ·of social existence because our
interactions with others in the society invariably involve politics.
Except one prefers to live in isolation which only very few men
would do, no one can avoid politics (Osaghae 2015:2).
The Second is that every man is a 'politician.' This could
appear strange. Most people probably believe that politicians are
those who belong to political parties, contest elections and canvass
for vote. In short, those who are directly involved in politics.
Indeed, these are the 'conspicuous' politicians, but they are not the
only politicians. To the extent that n1an is a political animal, every
member of society is al one ti1ne or the other a politician for, after
all, a politician is simply a political actor, one who takes active part
in politics in any farm, including ~iscussing politics and contesting
for political offices . All of us are politicians in this sense because
when we talk politics, vote or attend a meeting of parents and
teachers, we, 1nore often than not directly or indirectly hope to
influence decision taken by gove111ment. Nevertheless, it will not
be correct to say tl.1at we are· as much a politiciun as the head of
 '/11r Study vf f'o/itlc.Jmu/ Ille Conc:ept of Govemment · 15

stute or the n1inister is. What is true is that even as we are all
politicians, s~1ne of those at the core of the political process, who
are directlr •.nvolved in . 1na~ing decisions arc ·more political than·
\Ve are. ll ts 1111portnnt lo pomt out here that not all politicians are
political scientists and vice-versa.
Thus, in tenns . of significance of political science to human
endeav~u.rs, it is well established from the definitions given above
that pohttcs 1natters. to every hu1nan being: For instance, if we do
not take an interest and participate in politics, someone else will,
and they will influence the decisions that affect and govern our
Jives. Awareness of what politics is and how it works raises the
consciousness in us to look after ourselves and prevent others from
using us, since the ignorant are usually manipulated. Even when
we find politics distasteful we need to encourage ourselves to study
it. It is true that politics may be inherently immoral and abuse of
power; influence peddling as well as outright corruption are
prominent features of politics. The fact remains that we need not
like the thing we study. For instance, virologists studying viruses
and diseases may observe a disease causing virus under a
microscope. The fact that they do not like the virus does not hinder
them fron1 studying how it grows, how it does its damage, and how
it may be prevented or eradicated. Neither do biologists get angry
at the bacterium and smash the glass slide with stone. They first
understand the forces of nature and then see how they can work
with the1n to improve mankind's existence. What political
scientists try to do with politics is not different.
Many people about do not understand true nature of politics.
But most do not really understand that politics is everywhere, from
the class setting to the local market store. It is important to note
from the various examples above that indeed politics is ubiquitous. ·
Therefore, with politics impacting every component of .our lives,
this will hopefully help us and others become more aware of the
issues that are important to the political arena and, in tum, start a
chain reaction of more citizens becoming involved in the political
process at all levels. It is significant to stress at this point that the
essence of politics is the understanding of our political world and
the impetus on our part to bring desirable changes to it through our
conscious and active involvement in political activities.
..

16 S.A. IAf"emm

The Scope of Polltical Science and Levels of Politics

Political scientists study the various forms of government as well
as political parties, pressure groups, elections, international
relations, public institutions, comparative politics and pubJic
administration. All these deal with the activities of individuals and
groups, both at the national and international levels. More
importantly, PoliticaJ Science also deals with fundamental values
such as equality, freedom, justice and power. These are issues
within and outside formal operations of government (Oyekanmj
2013: 144).

Comparative Politics specifically deals with the aspect of political

science which employs the tool of comparison to draw
generalisations and make valid conclusions. In comparative
political analysis, specific rules and procedures are to be followed.
Countries or political systems can be compared, as well as
institutions and governments.

International Relations (JR) is the branch of political science that

studies the relations between countries. It is the aspect of political
science that concerns itself with foreign affairs and diplomatic
relations (Oyekanmi 2013: 144).

Public· Adnrinistration is another branch of political science that

deal$ with the management of public affairs or the affairs of a
government. Its focus is on how governments and institutions are
better organised, Public affair which is an aspect of public
administration is the study of issues involving the
interrelationships between the public and major institutions such as
government.

Political Theory which is another subdivision of political science

is traditionally concerned with the body of ideas expressed by
political philosophers who have asked not only about how politics
work but how they should work. It is a tool and instrument for
analysis in the field of political inquiry.
 111r S11tdy of l'olitic.r mu/ tlu• Concept of Go•·ernnrent 17

·Regarding the level~ .at whic~ politics takes place, generally

speuking, we have poht1cs at different levels. While Aristotle
posits thut polit~~s ifi both ubiquitous and universal because man by
nature is a poltt1cul Animal, and so politics takes place from the
ind;vidual level to.the state and inter-state level, some contend that
for .a more conventional understanding of politics, it is at three
basic levels. These are: intra-state and inter-state levels of politics
~s the main levels of politics.

Tlie State level is the most important level of politics, which some
scholars even considered to be the only level of politics. This level
enjoys primC\C)' over other levels because the state, apart from
being more or less permanent with a territory that is defined, is
also an institution that exercises the monopoly of the legitimate use
of force over its territory. Put differently, other ,associations,
groups and institutions are ultimately subject to the jurisdiction of
the legal cpntrol of the state. In other words, the state, unlike other
associations, has compulsory jurisdiction. State politics includes
the activlti~s of the national or federal government, the sub-
national or regional govemrnent and those of local governments.
Jn Nigeria, these wlJI ~ mean the federal, state and local
~overnments . Legislative, executive and judicial activities form
part of atRte politics, •
lntra•wt11te level of politics refers to those forms of political
behaviour or conduct which take place within associations or
fiOChtl group~ that form part of the state. Put differently, intra-state
pqlltlcs has to do with the activities, interactions and co-e~istence
of all the groµps within a definite territory. For example, the
relationship between the governed and the governors, two or more
arms of government, the pressure groups and the goven1ment, etc,
constitute intra-state politics. It is however pertinent to note that
such relationships all work towards the smooth running of the state
through policy making and policy feedback. It may not be
govemn1ental at all times, but actions of groups influence
governrnent decisions. Intra-state politics is1limited by such state
rules as exist. In addition, however, associations can participate in
 ...

· 18 S.A: l..nfemwr
. ... .
'

state politics. That is politics thut n1ove beyond the internal affairs
of the associations and involve the activities of.governtnent. For
example, 1ne1nber~ of a church or university· muy catnpaign against
govemn1ental policies or decisions that affect its activities. Such
participation by an association in the politics of the wider state
environment or government can be more conveniently described as
an instance of state politics rather than intrastate politics.

Inter-state politics is also considered as international politics. As

the name suggests, it is the politics that goes on between two or
more states. Scholars like Nicholas Spykman, Federick Dunn,
Joshua Goldstein and of course Hans Mongenthau, among others,
regarded this politics as involving activities that include political
actors and other related ones, carried across state boundaries.
Unlike state and intra-state politics, international politics or inter-
state level of politics does not take place within a definite territory.
There are also no existing institutions of government that enjoy th~
monopoly of the legitimate use of force. What best occurs at the
level of inter-state politics is voluntary association, and
cooperation among states. There is however attempts to create
stability and a world order that will set the tone for a world
government. The United Nations Organisation (UNO) with
independent nations of the world as members is however faced
with ideological conflicts, lack of comtnitment and the inability to
compel obedience because it does not have absolute control over
the member-states. The inter-state politics takes place in a setting
in which no institution is expected · to monopolise superior
authority or jurisdiction.

Basic Concepts in the Study of Politics

Power, influence, authority and legitimacy are common
terminologies in political analysis. Even, most of the definitions of
· politics given by scholars above emphasise these concepts.

Power
Often, we have heard of terms like physical power, military power,
economic power, political power, presidential power, Judicial
power, national power, etc. Power is often seen as the product of
.
I
l

(
I
 Tire• Study of l'olirics tt11d tlie ConcefJI of Gover11111e111 19

hutnan ·t:elationships. In other words, A has power over B to the

extent ~hat ~/he can get B lo do so1nething that s/he would not have
_· otl~erw1sc done. A person n1ay be said to have power to the extent
that s/he influences the behaviour of others in accordance with
h~r/his intentiot~s. There are ~hree major terms that can be
identified
. with the tenn power, and these are force ' domination and
.
1nan1pulatton. ·

Force: This is the physical tnanipulation of the subordinated

individ~al. The exe,rcise of force can be assault, confinement, etc.

Domination: This is an influence on the behaviour of others when

the person exercising it makes it explicit through command,
request, etc. It is often refetTed to as controlling power.

Manipulation: This is another form of power obtained .when an

actor influences the behaviour of others without making explicit
the behaviour which he wants thetn to display. Manipulation may
be exercised by utilising symbols of pe1forming acts. Propaganda
is a major form of manipulation by symbols.

Influence
When a relationship is devoid of sanctions, coercion and physical
force, there is said to be a relationship of influence. The
distinction between power and influence can only be made in terms
of the form of relationship among persons. While it will be correct
to assert that power relationship connotes influence, relationship
based on influence on the other hand does not connote the use of
force which is synonymous with power. However, both concepts
express .relat!onship between two persons, for instance person A
and person- B. Influence can be classified into two broad
categories, though it takes several forms:

(a) Manifest or explicit inj111e11ce is an influence exercised by A

over 8 to the extent that A's action causes a change in B's
behaviour. H is able to anticipate A's wants and B con1plies
accordingly.
20 S.A. IA/<'1111'<1

(b) Potential or implicit influence is ~n indirect or un~nown

influence by the influencer e.g. the NatJonal Assembly trymg to
1nake a law on a subject and putting different groups into
consideration and considering alternatives before they will
eventually make the law that favours a particular group. This
group may be said to have potential or implicit influence on the
decision of the National Assembly.

Authority
Is a form of power. Perhaps, it could be described as a superior
form of power. Authority is the quality of being able to get people
to do things because they think the individual has the right to tell
them what to do. Those in authority are followed because it is
believed that they fulfil a need within the community or political
system. Authority is linked with respect which creates legitimacy
ai:id therefore leads to power.
Authority is a form of power derived from approved procedure
of the political culture which enables the political office holder to
act in certain ways that will affect the behaviour of others. There
are three types of authority, namely:
(i) Traditional Authority: This authority rests on the sanctity
of tradition in conventional usage, in which prevailing
social order is seeri as inviolable or sacred. This takes the
form of respect for the monarch or chief. Traditional
authority is legitimate in the sense that it is in accordance
with the custom an~ tradition of the people.

(ii) Charismatic Autlzbrity: This authority is exercised

bec:mse of the belief in the personal qualities of a
particular person (the charistna of a person). The power
of command may be exercised by a leader when he
possesses extraordinary gifts or personal attributes.
Persons who obey such a leader are called followers or
disciples. Examples of such leaders are Obafemi
Awolowo, Indira Gand:1i, Adolf Hitler, Kwame
Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, Nelson Mandela. etc.
 '/11r St1ttf.\· o.f />ofitks m1tl tlir (''"'""'''of (io.,et11mr111 21

(iii) u,~a/ A11tlrority: This nuthority is legitimated by the

suprenmcy of the lnw, n1cuning thnt the exercise of the
law is ucccpted us lcgitin1atc because all subscribe to
existing rules, regulations, laws and policies of the land.
TI1c laws subscribed lo ure seen us constitutional and in
line with the political culture of the people.

Legitintncy
Legitin1acy denotes the belief in the acceptance of the right of an
individual to tnake authoritative and binding decisions. It is the
belief in the right to govern and to be governed. It refers to an
attitude in people's mind (in some countries strong, in others
weak) that the government rule is rightful. Through it, power is
translated to authority. When the government is perceived as
dishonest and dirty, people feel less obliged to obey laws which
can lead to the erosion of the legitimacy of the government of the
day. Government is seen as legitimate when the rules and decisions
are respected and obeyed. To get citizens' approval of its policies
and. .. programme, government, in most cases, follows public
opm1on.

The Concept of Government

Various meanings of 'Government'
Government as a concept is very crucial to the study of politics.
Even' the State which is an abstract entity manifests itself or carries
out its will through its agent called government. This concept of
government has been defined in various ways. However, either
defined as a process or an art or as a set of activities, it is a
common feature of all modem political systems. For a thorough
understanding of the term 'government,' five usages or meanings
could be identified.
The first denotes the activities or the process of governing,
that is, government as a process or art of governing,
exercising a measure of control over others, e.g. govern-
1nenl policy. governmental laws or programmes.
The second usage defines government as an institution of
the state. This relates to the state of affairs in which this
22 S.A. U1fe111t·<1

activity or process is to be found, e.g., the Nigerian

goven1ment, the American government, the Chinese
goven1ment, etc. ·
The third is a very common usage. In this sense, i~ denotes
those people charged with the duty of governmg, e.g.
Obama's government, Buhari's government, etc.
The fourth usage refers to the manner, or method or system
by which a particular society is governed. Good examples
include; presidential government, colonial government,
military government, etc.
The last usage is that which defines government as a
discipline or subject of study, e.g., Department of
Government at University of Essex in Britain (see .Okunade
2001 :86).

In effect, government refers to a pa11icular. set of activities,

persons and institutions. As a set of activities, government is used
to denote those activities that lead to authoritative decisions on
rules, regulations, resource distribution and conflict resolution that
are binding on all members of society. Regardless of the political
· system being operated in any given society, government in this
sense normally includes executive, legislative and judicial
activities. In the second sense, government refers to a set of
persons holding offices of ·an executive (including its servicing
bureaucracies referred to as the civil service or the public service),
legislative and judicial nature which empower them to make,
enforce and pronounce rules·and regulations for the rest of society.
As a set of institutions, government comprises the institutions of
the executive, the legislative ·and the judicial institutions. To repeat
for emphasis, the primary function of the legislature is to make
laws which every member of the society must obey. The executive
ensures that the laws are enforced while the judiciary interprets the
Jaws and decides how to apply thetn to specific disputes.
Government comprises institutions established for these purposes.
It is clear from the above clarification that none of these three
meanings of government can stund on its own, because
government' properly defined is not only u set of institutions but
 71rr Study of l'olitlc.f mrd 1/1r ( 'unapt nf<im <'mmt 111
1 23

also a nutnbcr of persons that make such institutions work to

produce certain activities thut are indispensable to the proper
running of hmnan society. As a subject of study, therefore,
govenlment is that discipline that exasnines how any or all of these
operate in society and to what effect. Generally, government is
composed of patten1s of human cooperation, the al location and
fonns of authority, and procedure.

Origin of Government
Every society sets up a government for itself for the purpose of
organising and regulating its common affairs. In fact, government
is the most massive and effective of the instruments which men
have constructed to maximise their own power to be what they
want to be, and this constitutes their freedom. However, it has not
always been the case that for every society there has to be a
government. At the beginning .of human existence, when society
was very simple. and had no hierarchical relationship, there was no
need for government. Meanwhile, as society became more
complex, with some people or groups becoming more powerful
than others, and more skills and special resources being identified
more with certain people, groups and·areas, the need arose for an
arrangement that would preside over the common affairs of the
society. It was at this stage that governments emerged in society. ·
In this early stage, governments were simple affairs. Fo~
instance, in the old Greek city states, all male citizens took part
directly in government. It was in this manner that the original idea
of democracy, as direct participation of all in government, was·
born. As society became more complex and bigger in size,
however, the nature, size and business of government also became
more complex and bigger. In the contemporary period for instance,
and even in most democracies, it is no longer fashionable and
possible for every citizen to be directly involved in government.
Democracy and democratic government now allows only indirect
participation of all citizens in government through their elected or
selected representatives. ·
Government in contemporary times has becon~c a big business.
It has also become so technical and complex that it. is now serviced
24 S.I\. .
. . l.nfem,:n

by huge bt!f~~~.sr~~ies. comp~~sing of=m~re or less peqna~ent staff

or trained ef11ployees with special ,skills. •':' such diverse fields .as
administration, banking, medicine, architecture, agriculture, social
~o;~ and engineering among others. It has been affirmed by
diff~rent o~~.efVe~s that "one thing governments do is grow~" Some
argue 'that such growth is unstoppable, because citizens keep
'demanding niore and more that even conservative administrations
cannot reject. It is important to menti'on that the organisation,
structure and types of government existing in our modern age
equally reflect the complexity of modem society.

Distinction between GOvernment and the State

'Government refers to a complex institution by which a sovereign
slate c~rries out its tasks. By implication, government and the state
are very close and it would seem incredible for one to exist without
the other. Yet we can have a governrnent without a state,
particularly in primitive stateless society and, in contemporary
ti"1es, at the intra-state level of politics, e.g. Students Union
Government. However, no state can function effectively without
the instrumentality of government.
1
Government and the state are conceptually and empirically
distinct' in spite of their closeness. As earlier mentioned, they
sometimes exist independent of one another. For instance, the
a
absen~e of recognised government, for a particular period did not
ab~lis~ the Somali state. Also underground government or
''gov~mr:nents-in-exile" struggle to expel occupiers or puppet
'governments. We can distinguish government from the state by
'
consid~ring the following differences:

. (i) A state is a territorial association of people with defined

boundaries, whereas a government is an administrative
..J I institution within a state.
I •(ii) A state is more inclusive and therefore greater than
government i.e. it embraces all the people and
associations within a given area; government 'is only a
1

part of the state.

,1
..
 1'l1t S11ul.\1 of l'olltlrs mul tll<' Concept of <iovernment 25

(iii) A ~late is ·u continuing entity, it is therefore permanent,

unl!ke co~cn1n1ent that is temporary; which only lasts a
period of time. ·
(iv) A .st~~c dep~nds on government for carrying out its
uct1v1lles~ while government is the machinery by which
the. functions of~ st~te ~re performed. It is the means by
wtuch a state 1namtams its existence.
(v) A state has its elements as human population, defined
ten·itory, functional government and sovereignty.
Government, on the other hand, has its main organs as
the legislature, executive and judiciary.

Relationship between State, Government and Other

Societies/Associations
State, government and society are related in following ways:
(a) The state includes both the government and other human
associations;
(b) Membership of a state is obligatory while that of other
associations is voluntary;
(c) The state is permanent, but government and other human
institutions and associations are not permanent;
(d) Government, the state and other societies depend on each
other for the activities designed to realise the needs and
aspirations of the people;
(e) Rules made by the state are generally applicable to, and
binding on all, while the rules guiding other associations
are applicable to merr.bers only;
(f) The state may use force to put its laws and regulations to
effect. Other associations cannot ensure obedience or
compliance to their rules and regulations through the use
of furce;
(g) The state has legal powers to fine, incarcerate or pass
death penalty upon violators of its laws; but other
associations have no such authority over their members.

Philosophical and Historical Accounts of Origin of State

There are diverse views on the origin of the Stnte. Some scholars
have given philosophical, historical and dcscrip.tive accounts of
how state emerged. According to Johari (2012) u(T)hc ·subject of
26 S.A. l.Ltf<'mwt ,

the origin of state is shrouded in mystery; we do not. know exactly

the source and tfme of origin" (Johan 2012:75). Th as may not be
unrelated to the fact that n1odem state is a result of very long
evolution. Several theories have been made on this subject that are
wonhy of .discussion.

Divilre Origin Tlreory . .

This is perhaps the oldest or earliest of the ideas on the or1g1n and
nature of the state as well as nature of political authority. The
divine · theory simply states that God Himself ordained and
established the state. The rulers are therefore regarded as
descendants or agents of God and opposition to them must be
regarded as opposition to God. By implication, the divine right
origin theory treats authority as a creation of God or some
supernatural powers, and as such, it finds expression in the
religious books. This to Divine origin theorists was done to
maintain law and order or to eliminate the condition of absolute
anarchy.

Natural or Organic Theory

This political idea argues that the state arose out of people's
natural desire to interact with their fellow men a.nd achieve moral
p~rfection. The theory contends that the state is best understood
not as a mechanical contrivance of man's inventive ingenuity, but
rather as an evolving organism that develops naturally (Rodee et
al. .1983: 24). Accordingly then, people are human only within the
state and an individual outside of the state was either a god or a
beast. The state is an organism and ·the citizens afe its organs. The
state, in short, was created as a matter of necessity. The
government is the brain of the state and its task is to control other
organs-the citizens-in the interest of the whole organisrn.

The Force Theory

According to the force theory, the state arose out of conquest and
doanination of the weak by the powerful. The in1plication of this is
that the strong people subjugate the weak on the basis of 'might is
right'. Thus, political power is based on physical forcc. There is no
ethical ·or moral justification for the state. Rulers govern because
 1'11e Study of Politics and tire Co11ce111 of. Go11ernment 27

they have the pow~r to do so. Subjects obey because if they did. not
they would be punished heavily. In a word. the subjects are merely
the tools of their rulers. · ·
• I '

Genetic Theory
As divine origin theory is a matter of faith, the genetic theory is
based on sociological facts. The 'theory posits that th.e state is an
eventual extension of the family. The first group of collective
human life is the family or the household and the last is the state. It
is believed that the sociable nature of man creates the union of
males and females. As Johari (2012:77) puts it: 'The family
system comes into being that develops into a tribe or clan and that .
eventually develops into a state. The head of the family comes
under the head of the tribe who eventually' becomes the ruler or
head of the state. Kinship creates society and society at length
creates the state." ~is theo~y is regarded by some political
analysts as the historical account of the state. What is considered as
a modem state passes through different phases: Family -. Group
-. Society-. State. The state as we know it today, in the form of a
country, is only about five hundred years old with its evolution
dating back to the 16th century AD. ·

Social Co11tract Theory

This. theory argues that state is a human creation. The state,
according to the social contract idea postulated by the trio of
Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679) and John Locke (1632- 1704) of
England, and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) of France; was
created by men who once lived i111 a state of nature. The theory
assumed that the existence of political authority was based on the
consent of the people. According to Hobbes, life in a state of
nature was nasty, brutish, poor and soli,tary, and law of nature
informs the people to surrender their all natural rights in favour of
a man (or assembly of men) as the price for living in a
commonwealth that ensures them liberty, property and the entire
kit of a good life. By the contract or agreement made by . the
people, society, state and government (commonwealth) cotne mto
being.
 28 'S.A. Lnfe11\t1n · ·
,. ~
' .

·Major Elements of Modern State

Ir is · important to :note that ·population . of people or human
population and defined ten-itory as elements df the ,,tnte are tQken
--as its 'physical elements'. The last two, functional govemmC!nt Pnd
sovereignty are regarded as its 'spiritual elements'
• : .I (J)' ! Hilman Popt1latio1i.: Si~ce state is a human association,
. . . . . the ·fi~st ' essential element is the people. Every modem
.) - .. staie presid~s over a given population of people mude up
. ~. mainly' of its citizens, but also including aliens or
I • I'\ foreigners' from other countries residing within the
I

·· boundaries of the state at a point in time. The population

· should neither be too large nor too small but numerous so
~ .. that the people may lead a life of peace and security.
' ••
1

i ·.. ' (2) Definite or Defined Territory: Every state occupies a

,,·:: ' sp~cific
and delineated part of the earth, defined by
. internationally recognised boundaries. In fact there can be
. nq 'state without a'territory of its own. The defined territ~ry
' t:·r

-~ ' ' ii of a state includes the land mass, territorial water nnd nlr
1

111
space. It has maritime jurisdiction extending up to ft
'- ~~tance of t.hree nautical miles. It should neither be too
' lai:ge nor t~o small, but so much that the people may lead a
life of self-sufficiency.
'•
.
(3) Functional Government: Government is seen. as the soul
...., · of the state. If state is considered as the first condition of u
··-··, · civilised life, it is due to the existence of a government thut
I·.
I
maintains law and order and advances good life. In
••• essence, ihe modem state is expected to have ft
•
1
'

· ' ''·· government io run its affairs. The state as an abstract entity
·· has· gpvemment to carry out its activities and express.
· · fonnulate arid implement its will. More importantly, n
... · : functional government is needed as an effective
mechanism to pt'otect the life and property of state's
citizens and subjects by preventing external aggression and
internal distui~ances. It is pertinent to establish that there
can be no state without a government but there can be
government without a state.
 Tire S111dy oj 1•,,1111rs n11d 1/1e Co11ap1 of Gm·enmrc•111 29

(4) Sovercig11ty: Sovereignty is the highest power of the st~te

that distinguishes it fro1n all other associations of the
people. It connotes separateness and independence, By
itnplicution. u sovereign state exercises political authority
and control over everything within its jurisdiction. Also
sovereignty implies that the country should be free from
foreign control of any kind. In recent times, due to gross
huma~ rights violations, violent acts in form of terrorism,
ethni.c cleansing and civil wars ·often caused by
gove111ments, the international community has started to
redefine sovereignty. The emerging consensus now, in the
wake of genocides and conflicts in Rwanda, the former
Yugoslavia, Burundi, Sri Lanka, Syria, Libya; Myanmar,
Guatemala, and Egypt, among others, is that sovereignty
should be taken to mean non-interference by other
countries in the internal affairs of any country
experiencing gross human right abuses and genocide as
well as electoral violence, among others.

Conclusion
Political science as the systematic and scientific study of politics is
indeed a very old discipline. The chapter has examined what
political science entails as the study of politics; the scope and
significance of politics were examined. The idea of government in
terms of its meaning, origin and relationship with the state and
other associations has been also discussed within the wider context
of society and particularly the state.

References
Akindele, S.T.A., Sat Obiyan and Jide Owoeye. 1998. The subject matter
of political science. Ibadan: College Press Ltd.
Dudley, BJ. 1975. Scepticism and political virtues. Ibadan: Ibadan
University Press.
Johan, J.C. 2012. Principle of modern political science. New Delhi:
Sterling.
Lafenwa, S.A. 2013. The study nf politi~·"· Ibadan: Distance Learning
Centre.
 •

30 S.A. Lafemm

Okunade Bayo and Adi gun Agbaje. 200 l. "Political Science nod the Idea
• of Government" In Government, Society 011d Economy: An
Introduction to Social Sciences, C.O. Ikporukpo (ed.), Ibadan:
Faculty of the Social Sciences, UI.
Osaghae, E.E. 2015. Reprinted. Political analysis. Ibadan: Distance
Leaming Centre.
Oyekanmi, Babatunde 0. 2013. "Political Science, Its Meaning, Scope
and the Organisation of Government" In /11troduction to Basic
Concepts in Govenu11ent, Society and Economy, Ibadan: General
Studies Programme, University of Ibadan
Rodee, C.C., C. Christo!, J.T. Anderson and H.T. Greene. 1983.
. lntrod11ction to political science. Japan: McGraw-Hill Books.

I I
 2
. ()RGANISATION AND CLASSIFICATION
. . OF GOVERNMENT .
S.A. La/enwa

....
·Introduction
In the last chapter, a functional government is said to be one of the
major characteristics of the state; which is the contemporary
formal fr~mework for c~nd~cting politics. This chapter explains
and descnbes the organisation and various ways of classifying
systems or forms of government. It is well established that modem
states have two p·rimary purposes-maintenance of order and
promotion of citizens' welfare within the context stipulated by
national and international prescriptions. In order to perform these
basic and other important functions, government, which is the
institution and one of the essential characteristics of the state,
employs its instrumentalities. This is because the , state is an
abstract construct whose impact is only felt through an established
government.
There are structures established to perform government's basic
responsibilities of rule making or law making, rule application
(involving implementation of policies and programmes and
enforcement of rules and regulations) and rule adjudication
(involving in~erpretation of laws and legal settlement of disputes).
These structures are known as arms or branches or organs of
government. The way the institutional arrangements are organised
varies Ftcross countries and political systems. One of the variations
is determined by the extent to which the organs are separated or
fused to one another. In other words, the application of doctrine of
separation of powers affects the organisation and performance of
government. .
The essence of this chapter is to discuss the mam roles of the
organs of government and how they are organised in modem
tirnes. Moreover, the various fonns or systems of government are
P'

32 S.A. IA/entt·a .

identified and explained. To effectively ·achieve this, the basic

comPQnents _of government which distinguish government from
other associations as well as the roles generated for goven1ment to
perform, are discussed.

Basic Components of Government

The conceptualisation of government as the decision n1aking and
enforcing agency in a state that controls a monopoly of legitimate
use of force, highlights three crucial components of governn1ent:

Government exists to niake a11d e1iforce decisio11: Al I hurnan

society need to make a collective decision as to the ends (wants) of
the society and the best means of achieving thcrn. Govemn1ent is
the highest and the most fonnnl level ot which such decisions ure
taken or implemented. For example. the decision on whnt type of
economic strategy Nigeria should ndopt to wipe off urmcd robbery,
to reduce poverty and eliminate corruption.

Gover111ne111 ls tlte ultimate so11rce of coercion i11 social affairs: If

collective decisions n1ust be implcrnemcd or cnfarced, there must
be so1nc forrn of collccti c tlgcncy with a monopoly over the use of
force. TI1is agency is the govemrnent. \Vhile the use of force or
the thren\ of the use of forcc is not always advisable, it may be
unavoidable in instances where groups or individuals resist or
. violute collective decisions.

Go•'er11n11u1t's conduct is nom1ally see11 as /egiti111ate: Legitimacy

refers to an acceptance by the people that it is right for government
to seek and receive the obedience of the citizens. In other words,
the government is popularly accepted and authorised to govern.
Con1pared \\rlth other institutions in the society, the conduct of
governmental institutions is usually seen as legitimate.

Indispensability of Government
According to Finer (1956:5), government is man's unending
adventure because it is his heaviest collective and individual
burden. He also opined that government is man 's supreme hope of
 Orgm1isati011 and Clnsslflcnt/011 of Go<•emme111 33

.Ji~rat!Qn fro~. iticti~i~ual . feebleness. ft= is ·im "u'netiCUng advehture

becau~~ ·man· ~~ . con~1dered deficient hf·wisdom'; virtue, ·strength
and '11f\tl'fial" re~{:nlf~~§=-<iefiQiepf comJ1ar~d With .his · expanding
capacity to irnagin~, to wish, and · to want. Every·;discovery or
invention that c~rrie$ him ne~rer to· the fulfilment ·of his desires
sti.11. l~~ves. hi!"l u~satisfi~~~ for he at one~ spots new horizons and
'3nt1c1ses hts past 1mp~rfect1ons. · .
· Government, al~o, requires er,11ess effort because the rich .
pepths ~nd complexities of human nature have not been fuJly
~omprehended, in spite of thousands of years of conscious
specu)fltion ..Tomorrow always springs some unexpected variatio'n
of human circumstance and environment. In short, man needs
government. In other words government matters to the people.
A ~omplete act of government consists of the conversion of the
desjr~~ Qr will of so111~ incHvidual~ pr groups into the behaviour of
few Qf f41l in the &Qcie~y in which they dwell. The desire or, will
may p~ r~hited to mor~Js, as in the prQhibition of abortion or
divf:lrpe: Or jt may be concern for reJigjqn, requiring that El
partig~Jflr gr~~d. be taughJ in fhe public sphools or be giv~n
privil~~~~ b~ f~e state . .Gr th~ prime object rnay be economic, f~r
~;>UJmpJ~, fh£H m,onopoh~s. be suppressed or left free. or that mas~
yn~mpJgym~nt p~ pr~v~nted. The purpose of govemmf}nt is to
ggnv@rt ·nH §4eh d~sir~ or will into authorise and command
p~hflViPYr of thpse whg Jive in thAt Area of &~ttlemeQt w~ call the
0
§tf!t~/' Th~ p~~ire or will Jllay emflnate frorn one mind or spring
~pflnt~neously from many, or be developeq by a minority. Thus,
ggv~mm~nt falls roughly into two general parts: the proc~~s of
pglitie§ flOQ !h@ pro~~ss of f!4riinistq1ti~n (Finer 1956:5-7). .
· Migfln~I Lff\'~f, in (~gw~ 1969) opmed that contract, coll~ct1ve
FJGtign gn~ ~ ~esire to maximise social well-being all generate
pQ~~jpJe roJ~s fgr gp,vemment. Ttie rgJes are ~xamined below.

CQntnu~t EnfQrcement
W~ mM§~ all deal or enter into contract with people. However, only
very f~w deals can be c9ntracted that do not involve enforcement.
These few deals are those that depend on mutual trust or inyolve
individuals in a small or closely integrated co1nrnunity. In other
34 S.A . Lnfemm . . .

words, the .enforcement· of contract may not be necessary am~ng

individuals who trust each other or live in a small commumty,
where ·members· are no strangers to each other and are expected to
deal with each other from time to time. In this situation, deals may
not need to be enforced. However' most deals or contracts . involve
.
a collection of individuals who are not in continuous interaction or
do not share a sense of community. The temptation to double-cross
or. be dishonest is therefore very high. In this context, contracts
need to be enforced and a role for the government emerges.
I
Collective Action
When there is a need for a project that would benefit all, but no
individual is prepared to contribute towards it, there is a problem
of collective action which creates a role for the government. Basic
elements of problem of collective action are:
(i) Almost all private actions have public consequences
either in the form of social benefit or social cost.
(ii) Some private actions may not produce private benefits
only but also social cost. while other private actions may
entail private cost but produce social benefits.
(iii) Social cost and benefit produced by private action may
hnve an indiscriminate influence on society. In other
words, the cost cannot be suffered by one and the benefit
enjoyed by another.
(iv) Any nttempt to exclude anyone from the cost or benefit
will almost invariably exclude everyone.
(v) Except in very special circumstances, individuals will not
voluntarily continue to incur private cost to produce
social benefit or forgo private benefit to reduce social
cost. ·
(vi} The effect of all these is that social cost will tend to
increase and social benefits tend to decrease.

Thus, government can solve collective action problem by

encouraging, supporting, or even assuming responsibility for
private actions which produce social benefits.
 Orgmri.mtio11 n11d Clnssifiroti01r of Go'·~nrnrent 35

Social Well-being or Welfare

In order to !11a~e. the society a better one, it may be necessary to
help some 1nd1v1duals or groups at the expense of ·others. For
e~a~ple, it may ~e necessary to helpJhe poor at the expense of the
nch tn order to increase the overall social welfare. In the absence
of government action however, the distribution of resources from
the rich to the poor may be resisted by the rich. Indeed the
privileged members of the society usually argue that social
inequality is necessary for economic efficiency and productivity,
and that any attempt to redistribute wealth is bad because it
suppresses competition and creativity. Redistribution that increases
social welfare will tend therefore to depend on the use of
authoritative sanction or legitimate coercion by government.

Modes of Establishing Government

Basically, there are two recognised ways of establishing a
government, namely, (a) Democratic method of forming
government and (b) non-democratic methods of forming
goven1ment. In other words, other than democracies, there are a
variety of ways in which govcmn1cnt systems are organised.

De1nocratic Method
The democratic 1nethod manifests when elections arc carried out
democratically. It involves the use of democratic elections to
influence the c01nposition, conduct and policies of govern.ment.
Democracy is a system of government by t~1e whole population or
all the eligible 111embers of a .state typ1ca!ly through electe.d
representatives. Den1ocratic elections are earned out on the basis
of democratic principles including:
(I) Citizen/popular participation
(2) Political Equality
(3) Political Tolerance
(4) Accountability and Transparency
(5) Political Competition
(6) Free and fair elections
(7) Separation of powers (control of abuse of power)
(8) Respect for Human rights
 .,

36 S.A. Lnfenwn

(9) Rule of Law ,.

( 10) Periodic elections
( 11) Neutrality of-state institutions
( 12) Popular sovereignty
(13) Secret balloting

The fallowing procedures are followed in establishing democratic

govemmen~s: .
(i) Delimitation of constituency areas;
(ii) Registration of voters:
(iii) Registration of political parties and nomination of
candidates;
(iv) Balloting-secret or open;
(v) Counting of votes and declaration of results;
(vi) Going to litigation by those who feel they are being
cheated in the election. Litigations arc referred to as legal
ways of settling electoral disputes among competing
political parties and/or contestants;
(vii) Swearing in of winners;
(viii) Porn1ation of cabinet according to constitutional
..
prov1s1ons.

Non-Democratic l\tethods
Essentially, there are three modes under this method of forming
and carrying out the business of government. These are:

I111pcrialistic A1ode: This is the process by which imperial powers

(impostors) establish quasi governments in their countries of
choice. This is particularly seen in colonial settings. For example,
all the governments established in Nigeria and other colonised
nations prior to independence were undemocratically established.
The colonial governors were unilaterally appointed by the colonial
power, while some powerless councils were formed to help them
in the administration of the colony.

A1ilitary Coups or Coup D'etat: Military govt:rnments are those

where the armed forces rule the country. This form of government

L _
 Organootion ond C/nuificntio11 of Go\'t'm~nl ~1

is established through the barrel of gun. It is usually the fastest and

.shortest route to power and yet the most dangerous and destructive
to the psyche of the people. Military coups are usually stimulated
by several factors such as poor leadership, societal violence,
corruption, and military ambition, among others. Any military
coup is i liegal, because it suspends the constitution which
established the anned forces. Government of this type is usually
formed by an individual or group of coup plotters. The current
Thailand government was established through 2014 Thai coup
d'etat. Recent cases include, Nigeria, 1998-1999; Burkina-Faso,
September 17 to 23, 2015; Central African Republic, 2013-2014;
Egypt, 2011-2012; Mali, 2012; and Guinea Bissau, 2012.

Election Rigging: This is the process by which government is

established through the falsification and manipulation of leadership
selection processes. 111e main purpose of election is to enable the .
citizenry choose, freely. those who will serve as their leaders.
However, for one reason or the other. incunlhcnt governments
(governments in power) are intcre ted in who rake over power
from thcrn; as a result, the favoured p3rtics are 'helped' to tnke
over the mantle of political power and fom1 u new government.
Typicnt cxanlplcs include 1965 western region election of NNDP
nnd the 1983 national election of NPN in Nigeria .
•
Orgnnisotion of Modero Go\'crnn1cnt
Regardless of whether the system is centralised or decentralised
and irrespective of ideological. philosophical or political
persuasion. govcmn1cnt as the agency for formulating and realising
the end or will of the state, is di vided into three (3) branches or
organs. These three branches are the totality of legislative,
e~ecutive and judicial bodies of most political systems. For
exmnple, like many other governments of the world, the United
States and Nigerian governments are divided into three separate
branches-legislative, judicial, and executive-to prevent abuses
of power. The typical three main organs or branches or
departments of government are shown in the diagram below.
38 S.A. Lafenwa

Fig. 2.1: A di3gr.im ~howi n~ the branches of the U.S. government.

So11rr'" Enc.in:a Encyclor>let.lia (2009)

The Executh'e Branch

The Executive is the organ of government empowered within the
constitutional framework to implement or carryout the policies,
laws and decisions of the government As in the United States and
Nigeria, most countries rely upon large executive bureaucracies to
carry out laws and enforce rules.
Broadly speaking, the executive organ embraces the aggregate
or totality of all the functionaries and agencies which are
concerned with the execution of the will of the state as that will has
been formulated and expressed in tenTlS of law. Thus, the term
embraces not only the overall head of the government-President,
as he is called in the United States and Nigeria-but also the
ministers and the whole mass of subordinate executives and
administrative functionaries who constitute what, in Great Britain,
the United States, Nigeria and other democratic countries is known
as·the Civil Service. The President or Head of government and the
cabinet ministers are regarded as temporary executive and the core
of civil service members are categorised as the permanent
executive.
 Orgn11;sntlu11 mu/ Cl<tss/ji<'ntlo11 of Go11ehmrem .19

The executive ·la a very important artn of government ·which

other nnns·of governn1ent cannot do without. This 1s because the
country always looks. up to it for the execution of policies, orders,
roles, decrees and laws an~ to maintain peace and good
goV~1'tl!nent. Apart. f~om le.g1sta.ture and judiciary, all other
insutuuons nnd bodies in pubhc service are under the control of the
executive. It .is extremely rare, if not impossible, to have a
government without the executive branch. Even in sifuations where
other bran~hcs are less visible, the executive is always visible. This
is because of the pivotal roles it plays in the administration of
State. Even in military regimes where legislature (in the real sense
of it) is missing, the executive still exists in which the leader of the
junta is the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed
forces.
Meanwhile there are two main forms of executive. These are
the cabinet or parliamentary system and presidential system. The
parliamentary system exists in a state where the two main
functions of a head of state and a head of government are shared
between the president or monarch and the prime minister. Great
Britain is a good exampJe of a country practising this system.
Regarding the presidential system, "it tends to separate the chief
executive from the legislature and that the chief executive, if he
chooses may in tum isolate himself from the citizens" (Rodee et al.
1983 cited in Oyekanmi 2013:151).
It is· important to note that the executive's functions cover
general administration of the state, including Jaw enforcement. The
responsibilities of the executive also include conduct of external
relations and defence, legislation, control of the 'purse~ and power
to grant reprieve or pardon to the offenders, among others.

The Legislative Branch .

The Legislature is the organ of government charged with the
responsibility of making laws as well as. policy fo:mulation. ~n
short, legislative activities of assembhes are 1111portan~ m
representative democracies. This may be the re.ason why natt?nal
legislatures, called Parliaments in Britain (and 11.1 most count!·1es),
Congress in the United States of America, Diets tn Japan,. National
 \

40 S.I\. / ,<rf<'1111'<1

Assetnbly in Nigeria and Assemblies in other counties, exist in

nearly all contemporary political systems, although they are
particularly associated with democracies (Lafenwa 2006:31 ·32).
According to Garner (cited in Johari 2012: 299):
Of the several organs through which the will of the
state is expressed and carried out, the legjslature
unquestionably occupies the paramount place ... in all
states it exercises a large control over the sources of
supply and its power to create public offices and to
establish new services. Thus, the legislature is, in a
sense, the regulator of administration.

The importance of the legislature is also evident in its ability or

power to change or amend legislation as well as to abolish laws
considered not useful for the 'common g<;>od' of the society.
Despite the importance of this governmental institution, it remains
the arm of government that is most vulnerable and undermined by
political instability. The formal rules and informal conventions in
the conduct of legislative business often look similar from country
to country but with little difference(s). The fact is that virtually all
the existing legislatures in the world usually adopt one of the two
basic models: the Westminster model (British model) or American
model.
There are two types of legislature. The first one is known as
one-chamber or unicameral legislature; which is a representative
form of government with a single legislative chamber. In the
unicameral legislature, there is the existence of only one chamber.
It has most often been established in countries with a centralised or
unitary structure. Countries with unicameral systems include
Uganda, Costa Rica, Portugal, and Sweden. The second type is
known as a bicameral legislature. This is the type of legislature
where there arc two chambers. This forn1 of legislature can be
found in several democracies like Nigeria (House of
Representatives and the Senate), Great Britain (the House of Lords
and the House of Commons), and the United States (the Upper
House and the Lower House). In bicameral legislature, legislative
 Orga11isntio11 nnd Clnssijiratimr nf Go1·enrme111 41

?usiness takes place in the two chambers that often operate

independently of each other. The constitution defines the power
and the boundary of each of the two chambers as regards the
dispensing of their political functions. By and large, the two
chambers often work in hannony to carryout their functions.
Generally, the second (lower) chambers are usually weaker and
less powerful than the upper chambers. Moreover, it is important to
point out that although a bicameral legislature is likely to be more
expensive and may lead to undue delay in the passage of bills, it
a11ows for·checks and balances, thoroughness and informed input
in policy and law making. A unicameral legislature, on the other
hand, is quick, has capacity to meet emergencies and is less
expensive, but it can lead to making of hasty legislation and is
susceptible to manipulation. Thus, the second chamber serves as a
check.
Besides the law making and deliberative responsibilities of the '
legislature, there are other functions of this organ of government
which cover administrative, financial and judicial spheres as well.
Okunade (200 I) opined that "the legislature legitimises policies
and turns political decisions into law .... also acts as the people's
representatives and as conveyor of people's views to the
executive." He added that the legislature provides avenue for
influencing the executive and provides a forum for national
debate" (Okunade 2001 : 105). There are some unique functions
assigned to the Upper House alone in a bicameral system. For
instance, in Nigeria and the United States, the functions of
screening and confirmation of appointment of government officials
like Ambassadors, ~1inisters, Attorney General/Chief Judge and
Advisers are carried out by the Upper chamber.

The Judiciary
The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and administers
the law. It provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.
Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary
generally does not make law (in a plenary fashion, w~ich .is the
responsibility of the legislature) or enforce law (winch 1s the
42 S.A. l .11.f,'t1H'tl

responsibility of the executive), but rather interprets law an..d

applies it to the facts of each cuse. 111is branch of government ts
often tasked ·with ensuring equul justice under the Jaw. It usually
consists of a court of final appeal (called the "Supreme court"),
together with lower courts. Most people consider the judicial
branch to be the least harmful of all the organs of government and
regard it as the arbiter of the last hope of the common man.
In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to
change laws through the process of judicial review. Courts with
judicial review power may annul the laws and rules of the State
when it finds them incompatible with a higher norm, such as
primary legislation, the provisions of the constitution or
international law. Many times, courts are seen only as arbitrators in
disputes between individuals or private parties. Judiciary, however~
performs some key roles in political systems.
Notwithstanding the way the judiciary is composed, this branch
of government is supposed to be independent and impartial.
Independence of judiciary is vital in the administration of the State.
The independence of the judiciary is hinged on the freedom of the
administration of justice, wherein court judges are independent
enough to perform their professional functions. There are certain
safeguards that some countries put in place to guarantee the
freedom of the judiciary from undue interference. These include
guaranteed tenure, appointment of competent judges, respect for
rule of law and charging of salaries of judges on the consolidated
fund, 'among others.

Classification of Systems of Government

Many political thinkers and theorists have made numerous
attempts to present the best model or typology for classifying
systems or forms of government. In ancient times, Plato, Aristotle
and the Romans (particularly Polybius and Cicero) made
significant contributions in this regard. For the sake of
clarification, classification of government is used here to mean
forms of govem1nent. The various forms of government-those
that existed in the past and those that still exist, are classified on
the basis of the following criteria:
 Orgnnisnaon mul Clmsijicnt/011 of Gm·er11mm1 43

( 1) The size of the ruling class and degree of public

involvement:
(a) Polity (Democracy), Aristocracy, and Monarchy
(Good forms).
(b) Democracy (Mobocracy), Oligarchy, and
Tyranny (Perverted forms)

(2) Patterns of power distribution:

(a) Unitary
(b) Federal
(c) Confederal

(3) Institutional structure and relationship among major

organs:
(a) Limited Presidential System of Government
(b) Parliamentary or Cabinet Form of Government
(c) Dual Executive or Mixed Government

(4) State ideological thrust:

(a) Capitalism
(b) Socialism
(c) Communism

(5) Elite behaviour and the structure of society:

(a) Consociational Democracy
(b) Centrifugal Democracy

(6) Other forms of government:

(a) Fascism
(b) Feudalism
(c) Theocracy
(d) Totalitarfanism
(e) Colonialism
(f) Militarism

The earliest and most famous classification of governments

was the typology developed by Aristotle in the fourth century
(Roskin et al. 2008: 48). The classification was based on two
44 S.A. IA/<'1111'(1

criteria-how many people ruled a society (who rules) and

whether they acted in the public interest or in their o":n interest?
(in whose interest?). On the basis of this, Aristotle classified forms
of government into six. He distinguished three legitim~te kinds of
government-where the ruling authority acts in the interests of
all-and three corrupt or perverted forms of government-where
government acts only in the interest of self or few.

The Size of the Ruling Class and Degree of Public Involvement

Aristotle in his book, The Politics, classified the fonns of
government into six using the size of the ruling authority and the
extent to which the people are involved or their interest promoted.
It is important to mention that this classification constructed by
Aristotle lasted for nearly twenty-five centuries and can be
summarised thus:
Who governs Legitimate rorms Degenerate or Corrupt Forms
(Rule In the interest of all) (Rule In the Interest of selves
or few)
One Monarchy Tyranny
A few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Many Polity Democracy

According to this typology, Monarchy, Aristocracy and Polity

were considered to be good or legitimate forms of government,
while Tyranny, Oligarchy and Democracy were regarded as the
perverted or corrupt forms of government.

A monarchy is government of one person ruling in the interest of

all. It is the rule by a king or queen. There are two forms of the
monarchical system of goven1ment, namely, absolute monarchy
and constitution or limited monarchy. Monarchy is practised in
Jordan, England, Morocco and most traditional African societies.
Meanwhile, tnonarchy can degenerate into tyranny, which is the
corrupt form, under which the single ruler exercises power for the
benefit of self. The governments under ldi Amin of Uganda, Sani
Abacha of Nigeria, Mobutu Sesc ,Seko of farmer Zaire, Mom mar
Ghadafi of Libya were dictatorial or tyrannical.
 Orgnniscrtion mid Clnssijicatim1 of Go\•emme11t 45

Aristocracy which originated from the Greek word 'Aristos' means

government of the best. It is a good form of government according
to Aristotle because it involves several persons ruling in the
interest of all. In practice, it is a government of the rich who use
their wealth for the common good of the people or community.
However, this legitimate rule by an elite can decay into oligarcliy,
the corrupt form, in which several persons rule in the interest of
themselves. It is a form of government in which a few. powerful
and privileged people rule for their selfish interests.

Polity is another word for constitutional democracy. Aristotle saw

this as the rule of many in the interests of all and the best form of
government. All citizens have a voice in selecting leaders and
framing the laws, but formal constitutional procedures protect
rights. According to Aristotle, polity can degenerate into
democracy, which he defined as the rule of many in the interests of
themselves, the worst form of government. It is significant to point
out at this juncture that democracy is in contemporary world the
most desirable form of government. The status that democracy
now assumes is different from what it originally was.
Using the Aristctle criterion of classification, Akindele and
others identify Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy as the
'legitimate form of government' and Tyranny, Oligarchy and
Mobocracy as their degenerates or corrupt forms of government,
respectively. Mobocracy is defined as rule or domination by a mob
or 'the mob that rules.' According to Akindele et al. (1998:14), it is
a system of government that is characterised by violence and
disorderliness and predicated on hooliganism. It is important to
note that this form of government could prevail in any political
system including democracies especially the emerging ones in
times of crisis and insurgency.
Besides Aristotle's classification, there have been several
attempts by political scientists to develop typology of systems of
government using different criteria. Although, there is no
consensus on how best to classify the various forms of
government, some criteria for classification are apparent in the
works of Akindele et al. ( 1998), and others (see Okunade (200 I).
 46 S.A . L11fem1·<1

Patterns of Power Sharing and Distribution

Classification of system of governn1ent could also be based on the
· nature of intergovernmental relationship between the central or
national government and other component units of government. In
other words, goven1ments are classified on the basis of extent to
which governmental.powers are decentralised or centralised. Using
the varying degree of centralisation and decentralisation, we have
three forms of . government, namely; Unitary, Federal and
Con federal. These various forms are discussed below.

Unitary
A unitary form of Government is one in which all legislative and
executive authority is vested in a single legislature and a single
government. It has also been described as one in which the habitual
exercise of supreme legislative authority is carried out by one
central power. There is no constitutional division of powers
between the central and the component units-regions or states. In
a unitary government, the units are only deconcentrated bodies like
local administrative units or provincial or divisional units that do
not have legal existence, no power over taxation, and more
importantly, they exist at the mercy of the central or national
government.
Some of the reasons why so1ne countries/states adopt the
unitary system of government include; homogeneity of the
popuJation, sma1I geographicaJ size and the peopJe's ability and
willingness to do away with their differences for common
purposes. Examples of countries with unitary government include
Ghana, Britain, France and Kenya.

Con/ederalis111
This is a state of being a confederation. It is a form of government
invoJving the union of states with a common recognised authority
in certain matters affecting the whole, such as external relations. In
other words, confederalism denotes a group of states that are allied
together to fonn a political unit in which they keep most of their
independence but act together for purposes that include defence in
time of war. It usually has a weak centre where the component
 Organisntio11 a11d Clnssljirntio11 of Government 47

units retnin their sovereignty, and it is prone to secession. The

reasQns for a con federal system may be to foster cooperation-
s~olal, political and economic-among the confederating states; to
give more autonomy to the component units vis-a-vis the central or
national ~pvemment; for even development, to mention just a ·few
(Okunade 2001: 118). Examples include confederation in Canada in
1867; the union of the original 13 states of the United States under
the Articles of Confederation from 1781 to 1789; and the German
confederation from 1815 to 1816.
Although confederalism, like federalism, is a fonn of
gov~mment involving the union of states with a commonly
recolJnised aµthority in certain matters, they differ in some
resp"cts. Conf~deralism differs from federalism in the sense that
the fonner is a league of sovereign states while the latter leads to
the emer~ence of a new state. Component units where federal
~ov~rnment is pr'latised give up their sovereignty in favour of the
new ~tat~, while their counterparts with confederal government
r~tain their sovereignty. The implication of this is that confederal
~ov~mments are less stable and weaker than federalism.

f f!deralis"i
Qen~raJly, a federal sys(em involves sharing of political power
3mgn~ v~rious ppmponent units of any state (country) where the
c~ntrAl governments and regional/local governments are given
Vijfyins pow~r~ by the .constitutio~, and each of the~ has power to
h(lv~ its own laws without relying on other. It ts a system of
govemm~nt in wh~ch several states or regions defer some powers,
e,~, in foreign affairs, to a central government while retaining a
Hrnit~P meas4re of self-government. According to Wheare Cl 953)
h~ define& f~d~r~lism as a constitutional arrangement of division of
pPW6f t:>~tween twp l ~yels of government in such a way that the
iwo J~vels of government are independent and coordinate (Wheare
195~ ;9,J ). To him, the ideal feature of federalism is federal
princlplt!,
Some of the factors that necessitate the establishment of
federations by federating units include but not litnited to; general
fear of insecurity, heterogeneity of population, geographical
48 S.A. IArfemm

contiguity, conunon colonial heritage, even development, and

desire for co1n1non defence and military security, among others.
The major weakness of this fonn of government is that it can lead
to over-centralisation of federal or national government to the
disadvantage of other con1ponent units. Ideally. none of the levels
of government is superior to the other. Some of the examples of
countries practising federal system include Nigeria (where we
presently have a federal government, 36 state governments, 774
local governments and Federal capital territory as the federating
units), United States of America, Brazil, India, Germany, and so
on.

Institutional Structure and Relationship among Major

Organs of Government
With the application of this criterion in respect of institutional
structure within executive branch of government, we ha.ve three
dominant forms of government. These are: ·

limited Presidential Government

This is the most common form of government in the world today.
To be specific, in most new democracies in Africa, this form of
government is prominent. It is a form of government that involves
a large concentration of powers in the presideT)t, most esReciaIJy in
republican states. The president is both the head of ~ta,te , and head
of government. Specifically, the president is usually the
chief executive officer of the government, leader of the executive
branch, and the commander in chief of the armed forces. The
president has the power to make treaties with other states, with the
advice and consent of two-thirds of the legislature. The president
also appoints, with the legislative consent, diplomatic
representatives, Supreme Court judges, and many other officials.
Although the president shares power the national legislative
body and judiciary, he or she is regarded as the most powerful,
important and influential in the United States and Nigeria, for
instance. The president may be elected for a fixed term by the
people either directly as in the case of Nigeria in the Second
republic and in the present Fourth republic, or indirectly through
 Org<111/.mtl011 rttul C:la.u ijicnt/011 of Govcrnmem 49

an e.lecio~·al college, as in the United Stales. Other examples of

pres1d~~h~l. fo~1 ~f gove1111nent include, Belarus, Afghanistan,
Cote D lvo1re and Ghana an1ong others. ·

Parlia1ne11tary or Cabi11et for111 of Govern1ue11t

This is a type of government (also known as Westminster
government) where there is a formal cerernonial head of state (may
be president, or governor-general or monarch - king/queen) and a
prime minister, who as the head of government possesses real
executive powers (Okunade 2001 : 107). This form of government
is believed to have originated from Britain-the mother of
parliamentary democracy. The power is assumed to be
concentrated in the cabinet that is headed by the prime minister.
Parliamentary governments are known for collective
responsibility and fusion of powers among the executive and
parliament members. To illustrate this, for example, after the
representatives might have been elected into parliament, the leader
of the party with majority or a .coalition of parties is invited by the
head of state to form a government. Thus, the person so invited
becomes the Prime Minister. After this process, government is then
formed by the Prime Minister, who chooses members of the
cabinei from the Parliament. Members of cabinet so appointed are
collectjvely responsible to the legislature for all decisions and
policies taken ~nc\. fornutlated in the operation of the entire-_:
government.
It is significant to point out that the Prime Minister as the
leader of government possesses executive power, presides over
cabinet meetings, disciplines his/her ministers and can dismiss any
of them if nec~ssary. Examples of contemporary parliamentary
system of government include Britain, Japan, Netherl and, Nigeria
under the 1960 independence and 1963 Republican constitution,
and Israel, among others.

Dual Executive or Mixed Govern111ent

This form of government is similar to the one being practised in a
parliamentary system. This is beca~1se it .has two separate
executives but differs in the sense that 1t combmes some elements
50 S.A. I .nfrmm

of US presidential and the British executive ~odels ..The. dual

executive form of government is predominant 1n a m1n.o nty of
liberal and emergent democraCies. France is .the mos! notable
example of this type of government. The adoption of this system
was traced to the history of political instability in Fran.ce. Other
countries with dual executive, though with significant differences
when compared with the model in France, include Morocco,
Lebanon, Finland, Sri Lanka and Portugal.
The French dual executive government combines elements of
the United States and British constitutions which manifest in the
establishment of the office of the President and that of the Prime
Minister. The aim is to promote a strong executive and greater
party discipline as well as stability of the polity. Under this model
in France, the constitution gives the President (who is elected by an
electoral college for a seven year term}. . . . col}~.erable powers
including the appointment of the Prime . Minister (who is
responsible to ·the National Assembly), control of the Armed
Forces, the right to preside over cabinet and defence council
meetings, powers to negotiate international treaties, appoint
ambassadors and the right to dissolve the Assembly once a year as
well as countersign legislation approved by the Assembly, among
others. The Prime Minister and his council of Ministers exercise
the u.ltimate authority in the conduct of day-to-day government
businesses which largely exclude the elected President (Okunade
I

2001 : 108).

State Ideological Th..._st

The type of ideology that underpins the state can also be used to
classify the forms of government, Ideology generally is meant to
denote a body of ideas that reflects the beliefs and interests of a
particular nation-state or political system. Using this criterion, we
have Capitalism, Socialism, Communism and Fascism. ·

Capitalis111
Capitalism is un economic syste1n in which privnte individuals and
business firms own the means of and curry on the production and
exchange of goods and services through a complex net work of
 Or8n11isatio11 nnd Clnssijicntio11 of Government 51

pti~es and marke~. SiJ?ply put, it is an economic and political

ideology th~t pe~1ts. pn.~ate individuals and groups to own means
of prod~ct1on, d1~tn~ut10~ a~d e~change. Although rooted in
ancient times, cap1taltsm 1s pnmanly European in its origins; it
evolved through a number of stages, reaching its peak in the 19th
century. From Europe, and especially from England, capitalism
spread throughout the world, largely unchallenged as the dominant
economic and social system until World War I (1914-1918)
ushered in modern communism (or Marxism) as a vigorous and
hostile competing system.
It should be made clear that in political tenns, capitalism
promotes the idea of freedom or liberty and democracy because it
allows a multi-party political system. Although there is no pure
capitalist state, United States of America, Canada, Germany and
Japan are good examples of countries operating th.is form of
government. Britain as a welfare state is said to be operating a
system that is a midway between capitalism and socialism
(Peterson 2008).

Socialis11i
Socialism may be defined as an economic and social system under
which essential industries and social services are publicly and
cooperatively owned and democratically controlled with a view to
equal opportunity and equal benefit for all. The term socialism also
refers to the doctrine behind this system and the political
movement inspired by it. Broadly speaking, it is a political and
economic system in which the means of production, distribution
and exchange within the state are collectively owned · and
controlled by the state for the benefit of the people (Okunade 2001:
120).
The terrns 'socialism' and 'communism' were once used
interchangeably. Communism, however, came to designate those
theories and movements that advocated the abolition of capitalism
and all private profit, by means of violent revolution if necessary.
This doctrine was originaJJy put forth by German theorists Karl
Marx and Ftiedrich Engels. Vladimir Lenin, who headed the
Soviet government after the Russian Revolution of 1917, defined a
socialist society as one in which the workers, free from capitalist
52 S.A. l<rfemm

exploitation, receive the full product ~f their labour. .Most

socialists denied the claim of Communists to have ach1ev~d
socialism in the Soviet Union. They regarded the S~vtet
government as an authoritarian tyranny. . . .
The modern socialist movement, as d1st1ngmshed from
Communism, had its origin largely in the late 19th c~ntury. The
worsening condition of the proletariat, or workers, tn Western
Europe had not brought about the class war pre~icted by M~rx.
Many socialist thinkers began to doubt the necessity of revolution
and to revise other basic tenets of Marxism. They declared that
socialism could best be attained by reformist, parliamentary, and
evolutionary methods, including the support of the.middl~ class.
Prior to the disintegration of the defunct Soviet Union, many
socialist governments had emerged at different times starting with
the former Soviet Union in 1917-the aftermath of Bolshevik
revolution. Others included Albania in 1944, North Vietnam in
1948, North Korea (1948), China (1949), Cuba (1959), Cambodia
(1975) and Laos (1975). It is worthy of mentioning that there are
remnants of socialist states in Cuba, Vietnam and Tanzania, for
example.

Co1nmunis111
Communism remains a theory and system of social and political
organisation that was a major force in world politics for much of
the 20th century. As a political movement, communism sought to
overthrow capitalism through a workers' revolution and establish a
system in which property is owned by the community as a whole
rather than by individuals. Broadly, it refers to the philosophy or
system of political and social organisation in which the state or the
community as a whole, governed by an elite party, controls
production, labour and distribution and largely, the social and
cultural life and thought of the people. It is an advanced stage of
socialism that we have explained above (see Colton 2009).
Theoretically, communism would create a classless society of
abundance and freedom, in which all people enjoy equal social and
economic status. In practice, communist regimes have taken the
fonn of coercive, authoritarian governments that cared little for the
plight of the working class and s~ught above all else to preserve
their own hold on power. There existed communist parties aspiring
 Or.~tmi.tt11/m1 mrd <.'ln.uifirmion <>! Go1·rmmC?11t 53

to f?nl~ con1nnmisl gove~·111.t1ents before and after the collapse of

USSR '.'.' 1991. In the inUJOr~ty of the post ..Sovict states-Armenia,
Azer~uaJnn~ .l~~lurus, Oeorgra, Knzukhstan, Kyrgyzsitan, Moldova,
Russtu, . Tuj1k1st~n, and Ukruine-thc former republic-level
conunumst pnrhes chose to hold onto their communist
tenl~inotogy, heraldry, and aspirations after independence. These
parties becmne known as neo-communist parties.

Elite Behaviour and the Structure of Society

In what is similar to Aristotle's typology, Arend Lijphart also
classified goven1ment vis-a-vis elite behaviour and the structure of
society. According to Lijphart, elite behaviour can be coalescent
and adversarial, while the structure of society can be homogeneous
or heterogeneous (cited in Oyekanmi 2013). Using these criteria he
came up with a consociational democracy, that is, arrangement
which brings different elite groups from different types of society
together; de-politicised democracy, which is based on agreement
on :certain basic things; centripetal democracy in which the centre
wiil constitute a pool, thereby pooling all groups together; and
centrifugal democracy, in which different individual groups will
like to pool the centre to themselves (Oyekanmi 2013: 153).

Other forms of Government

These are forms of government that is based on other criteria
different from those highJighted above. They include:

Fascism
This is a form of government that is based on movemet~t, ideology,
or aititude that favours dictatorial government, centraltsed control
of private enterprise, repression of all opposition, the. use ?f terro!,
state monopoly of means of violence and extren1e nataonahsm. I~ 1s
a type of government in which the rulers ~ssum~ a sovereign
authority which dominates all forccs in the soct~ty w!th. absence of
individualis1n or democracy and at the san1c tln1e ts 111 constant
contact with the 1nasses. Examples of Fascist govemn1ent incl.udc
Italy under Benito Mussolini in 1922, Gern1any under Adolf Hitler
in I930, and Argentina in 1943.
54 S.A. Utfcm1•(f

Fcudallw11 . hi of land f
Feudnlistn is a govcn11nenl thul is bnscd on owners P . d . · n
other words. it is a govcn1111enl whereby political power ~~ e~1 ve~
from control over land, which is land tenure syste~. exis~c
an1ong men1bers of the nobility in Western Europe durang the High
Middle Ages. ,

~~cy .
The word •theocracy' originated from the Greek word theokratia,
translated to mean "government by a g~d." Thus a theocratic
government is government in which God 1s reg~r~ed as the sole
sovereign and the laws of the realm are seen ~s d1v1ne co~ands.
By extension, a theocracy is a country in which contr?l ts t~ ~he
hands of the clergy. Later attempts to found t~eocrat1c soc1et~es
were made by the French theologian John Calvin and the English
soldier-statesman Oliver Cromwell. The caliphate~ in Muslim
communities, was a theocracy. The rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini in Iran is an example of a theocratic government in
contemporary times.

Totalitarianisni
Totalitarianism is a system of government and ideology ·in which
all social, political, econorruc, intellectual, cultural, and spiritual
activities are subordinated to the purposes of the rulers of a state. It
is a higher form of despotism, absolutism, and tyranny. In modern
totalitarianism, people are made utterly dependent on the wishes
and whims of a political party and its leaders. Also, as older
autocracies were ruled by monarchs or other titled aristocrats who
governed by a principle .such as divine right, the modern
totalitarian state is ruled by a leader, or dictator, who controls a
political party.
Examples of countries whose governments are usually
characterised as totalitarian were Germany, under the National
Socialism of Adolf Hitler; the defunct USSR, particularly under
Joseph Stahn; and the People's Republic of China under the
Communist rule of Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tu~g). Other
governments have also b~cn called totalitarian, for example, those
of North Korea under Kim II Sung, Syrin under Hafez al-Assad,
and Iraq under Saddam Hussein.
 Orgnnis<1tio11 n11d C/auijirntio11 of Govemmenl 55

Colo11ialis111
As ea~lier discussed, a colonial government exists where one
country assumes political control over another. This colonial
government is usually achieved through aggressive;;often military,
actions. ·Most of the countries in Africa were under one colonial
government or the other before they were granted independence.
Examples of countries that were not colonised in Africa include
Egypt, Ethiopia ·and Liberia. ·

Militaris1n
Militarism denotes a high level of influence by military personnel
and ideals on the government or policies of a country or state.
Thus; military government is the government by the armed forces,
which derives its powers not from the people but barrels of guns. A
military government usually controls the citizens of a country
through edicts, decrees and other martial laws. The reigns of
military rulers and military governments started in Nigeria on
January 15, 1966 when General Aguiyi Ironsi toppled the civilian
administration led by Tafawa Balewa via 1nilitary coup. Other
military governments in Nigeria include Yakubu Gowon (July 29,
1966 to 1975); Muritala Ramat Mohammed (1975 - February 13,
1976); Olusegun Obasanjo led military government ( 1976 - .
October 1 1979); Mohamadu Buhari led military government
(December 31 1983 - August 27, 1985); Ibrahim Badamasi
Babangida ( 1985- August 27, 1993); Sani Abacha (November
1993 - June 8, 1998) and Abdulsalam Abubakar ( 1998 - May 29,
1999).

Conclusion
In this chapter, the significant role of government as the decision
making and enforcing agency in a state that controls a 1nonopoly of
legitimate use of force was discussed. Three crucial roles identified
are-contract enforcement, resolving problems of collective
action, and 1naximisation of social welfare of the people. It is
impprtant to point out that there are other functions of most
modem govcrntnents such as conduct of foreigi:i policy,
appointment and promotion of certain public and civil servants,
protection of territorial integrity of the state, etc. that may be
56 S.A. lnf-emm
...
difficult to subsmne under any of these universalistic roles of
government. These responsibilities are carried out by th~ three
anns or organs or branches of government namel_Y, t~e· legislature
for rule making, the executive for rule apphcat1on, and the
judiciary for rule .·interpretation and adjudication. The structure,
composition and membership of these three organs vary from one
political system to the other.
Generally speaking, there ~e different criteria t~at we can use
to classify systems or forms of government. In this chapter,. we
were able to discuss some popular typologies on the basis of
different cri_teria including size of the ruling class and degree of
public involvement; patterns of power sharing and distribution,
institutional structure and relationship among the major organs of
government and underpinning political and economic ideology,
among others. Discussion under each category should not be seen
as exhaustive or mutually exclusive. In reality, most countries
adopt a combination of the various organisational structures and
forms depending on their peculiarities. For instance, Nigeria, at
present, is a federal , capitalist, presidential democratic political
system. It should also be noted that, some if not most of the forms
of government are antiquated in their original form. Thus, forms of
goyernment like aristocracy, oligarchy, fascism, totalitarianism,
polity,, mobocracy, feudalism, theocracy, colonialism are irrelevant
to modem trends of governance. They are only significant to our
understanding of the types or forms of government, which is our
concern in this chapter.

References
Akindele, S.T.A., Sat Obiyan and Jide Owoeye. 1998. The subject matter
of political science. Ibadan: College Press Ltd.
Colton, Timothy J. 2008. "Communism" Microsoft®· Encarta® 2009
[DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Finer Herman. 1956. 711e theory and practice of modeni governmellt.
London: Methuen & Co Ltd.
Johari, J.C. 2012. Principle of modeni political science. New Delhi:
Sterling.
 o,.Rnnisntlon u11d Cln.t.tijirnti<m of (lrn·<'mmrnt S1

Lnfcnwn Stephen Akinycmi. 2006. "The Lcgislnturc und Democratic

Governance in Southwcstcn1 Nigeria, 1960 - 2003", PhD Thesis
Submitted lo the Fnculty of the Social Sciences, University of Ibadan
Okunnde Bayo. 200 l. "Organisation nnd Clnssification of Government"
In Govcnmrrnt, Society and Economy: An lutroduction to Social
Scienc<'s, C.O. lkpomkpo (ed.), llmdnn: Faculty of the Social
Sciences. UI.
Oyekanmi, Babatunde 0. 2013. "Political Science, Its meaning Scope
and the Organisation · of Government'' In Introduction to Basic
Concepts in Govenmrent, Society and Economy, Ibadan General
Studies Programme, University of Ibadan.
Peterson, \Vallace C. 2008. "Capitalism" Microsoft® Encarta® 2009
[DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Rodee, C.C., Christal, C. Anderson J.T. and H.T. Greene. 1983.
Introduction to political science. Japan: Mc Graw Hills Books.
Roskin Micahel G., Robert L. Cord, James A. Medeiros and Walter S.
Jones. 2008. Political science: An introduction (Tenth Ed.) (New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Rowe Eric. 1969. Modem politics: An introduction to behaviour and
institutions. Routledge and Kegan Paul: Londpn.
Wheare Kenneth C. 1953. Federal government. Oxford University Press.
"Socialism" Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:
Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
 I
I

..
3 "h i. • ..

POLITICAL SOCIALISATION AND ·

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
..
( I. Johnson and A.I... Alabi
.. ••• t •

I'
. ...
. . ..

Political Socialisation ) ·· '

Socialisation is ·the process whereby an individual learns to adjust ·
to a group (or society) and behaves. in a manner approved by the
group (or society). According to most social scientists,
socialisation essentially represents the whole process of learning
throughout the life course and is a central influence on the
behaviour, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children
(Encyclopredia Britannica 20 l 0). Political' socialisation, therefore,
is the deliberate inculcation of political information, values at:td
practices by instructional agents which have been formally and
infonnally saddled with that responsibility. This includes:
"all political learning, formal and informal, deliberate I·
and unplanned at every stage of the developmental
cycle, including not only explicitly political learning
but also nmninally non-political learning that affects ·.
political behaviour, such as the learning of politically
relevant social attitudes and the acquisition of
politically relevant personality characteristics"
(Ahnond and Powell 1992).

A basic hypothesis in political socialisation is that no political

system can attain or remain in a condition of integration unless it
succeeds in developing among its members a body of shared
knowledge about political matters ·as well as a set of shared
political values and attitudes. The central theme of this hypqthesis
is that political socialisation is a means of building political
cohesion.
 60 /. Jo/11umi n11d A.L. Afabl

Content. of Political Socialisation

The intent of political socialisation is the political culture. In th
words·· of Gabriel. /\ltnond (Almond . and ~ol~man 1960: 27'~
"Political socialisation is the process of 1nduct1on mto the politi ),
. end product ts
cu 1ture. Its ' a se t of att'1tudes·cogmtaons,
'. valCaJ
. · . ue
standards and feelings towards . th~ po Illtca1 system, tts various
roles .and role incumbents. It also .includes knowledge of values
affectmg, and feeling towards the mpu.ts of demands and claim
into the system and its authoritative outputs." Inherent in Oabne~
Almonds statement quoted above is the suggestion that there are a
number of specific parts of the political culture which need to be
spelt out-bot.h the types of psychological orientations and the
types of objects or relationships to which orientation refer.
Expanding the scope further is the argument that political actions
are determined both by the objective situations in which political
actors fi!ld themselves and by the predispositions that citizens itnd
their leaders have acquired through prior experience in relation to
their political goals, expectations about the rules of the game of
politics, conceptions of the legitimacy of men and institutioni,
• group loyalties, assumptions about human nature and orientations
toward~ authority (Almond and Powell 1992). This pre.supposes
• that political socialisation is essential to the persistence of a
political system.
In addition, the whole cycle of personality development of
every individual, from childhood to adulthood, must be brought
within the broad spectrum of the national political socialisation
system. These include shaping the child's image of government,
the child's response to government, acquisition of regime nonns,
discovering of nationality, identification and association with other
personalities, acquisition of democratic orientations, acquisition of
political vocabulary and ideology and elite socialisation or re..
socialisation. Essential to the shaping of the child's image of
government is the monitoring of the transn1ission of political
values frotn parent to child, supervision of family communication
patterns, prescription of comprehensive high school civics
curriculum, regulation and doctoring of contents of mass
communication (mass 1nedia), und deliberate motivation.of people
to participate in democratic processes in schools, clubs.
associations, etc. (Almond and Powell 1992).
 Political Socialisatlo11 n11d /'olitical Participntion 61

Utilities of Political Socialisation

Th~re. ar~ fi~e u.ti.lities of political socialisation. First, political
socaahsatlon ts uttltsed as a major kind of stress-absorber that is a
means by which stress on essential variables is avoided dr reduc~d
if a ~olitical system is .to continue to operate as a system of
behav1.ou~ through which values in the system may be
aut~o~tat.1vely alloc~t.ed. Second, on the output side, through
socrnhsat1on, the poht1cal system may be able to assure itself that
its governance decisions are acceptable and binding on citizens.
Third, on the input side, through socialisation, the volume and
variety of demands on the political system is streamlined and
controlled, thus preventing the communication network from
becoming overburdened to the point of collapse. Fourth,
socialisation processes help prepare members of a political system
to undertake those roles relevant for the conversion of inputs to
binding outputs. Fifth, socialisation acts as a major response by
which a system seeks to generate, at least, a minimal level of
positive support of the citizens for those basic political objects
without which no system could operate at all (Dennis 1973:48).
Essentially, political. socialisation is a tool for national
acculturation by responsible governments. As regards the political
education content of political socialisation, a marked distinction
should be made between politically relevant aspects of personality
development and specifically political learning. The former
includes basic disposition, beliefs and attitudes that affect political
behaviour. The latter involves, first, learning connected with the
citizen role (i.e. partisan attachments, ideology, motivation to
participate, etc); second, learning connected with the subject role
(i.e. national loyalty, orientation toward authority, conceptions of
the legitimacy of institutions, etc); and third, learning connected
with recruitment to and performance of specialised roles, such as
bureaucrat, party functionary, and legislator. Civi~ training ~hich
is a sub-set of national acculturation becomes a deltberate policy of
government when clements of potential instabi.li.ty are pe~~eived or
when there are potential threats to the pohtlc~I stab1h~y of a
system. For instance in the United States of Amenca, considerable
importance is attached to doctored civic training in the educational
62 I. Jolmso't nnd A.I;, Aln/Ji

system, both formally and informally. Also, in R.ussia, character

training and child raising practices as w~ll. ~s specifically political
education are appropriated as.the respons1b1ltty of the state.

Agencies of Political Socialisation

It can .be infened from the above, that the agents and agencies of
political socialisation, formally and informally, include the parents/
family, .the school system, the mass media, ~ol~ntary associations,
the political parties, religious organ1sat1ons_, ~ovemment
institutions, and such other contacts and commun1cat1on that the
individual interacts with from childhood to adulthood. We can
briefly discuss some of these agencies.
(i) The Parents/Family: In every political system, the parents
and the family constitute the primary agencies of political
socialisation, especially at the childhood stage. The child
develops. his first cognitive map of the world through the
parents. He imitates the family, imbibes the family traits
and acquires some basic moral values which later in life
impact on his political attitudes and dispositions.
(ii) The School System: Within the school system, the
individual learns more directly and formally about politics.
In .all c.ountries, the government determines what
individuals· learn in an organised system of political
education. Generally, the school system transmits
information and values which determine political attitudes
and dispositions through certain class subjects, e.g.
Government, Civics, etc., and other activities, e.g. debates,
class leadership functions, student associations and
unionism activities, etc.
(iii) Tlze Peer Group: The peer group comprises persons with
' similar age, income group status, and often similar
interests that relate with and admire each other. These
include close friends, colleagues, neighbours, clubs and
other informa1 associates. Frequent interactions with peer
group bring about exchanges of ideas and values which
help to shape the individuals' views of the outside world.
• I
 Politknl Socialismio11 clnrl l'dllllcal l'articlptt1io11 63

.· (iv) Tile Mass . Me~ia a11cl Social Media: The ~ass media
cotnprise of l~~ p_rint und electronic media, n·a~ety:
!1ewspapers. magazme~;journals, teleyision and radio. The
1nten1,e~world wid~ web provides the social media. These
provide public infonnution and . enlightenment which
en~ble the individuals to form opinions and de~elop
attitudes. Because the mass and social media reflect the
.. basic norms and values of ·society, government, as of
necessity, interferes in the knowledge and information
they disseminate. " ·
(v) Voluntary Associations and Interest Groups: Voluntary
associations like the Boys' Brigade, Girls' Guide, Boys'
Scout, Red Cross, etc., help shape individuals political
attitudes, particularly in the area of civic responsibilities.
Interest groups, professional associations .and political
parties also provide adults with, knowledge about the
political system a~d .the political process.

Political Participation
People participate in the political system by carrying o~t organised
political activities through familiar political structures such as
political parties, elections, legisla~ures, executives, · and
bureaucracies. In addition to being a function of political
socialisation, political participation describes the relationship
between the state arid the society, and addresses such issues.as how
individuals and different groups in society organise to further their
political interests, how citizens get involved in the political
processes and get represented in the political system, and how they
influence policy-making in the state. It also covers how people are
selected to become active members of the mentioned structures
and how long they remain there.
Therefore, the issues of political participation are broadly
discussed within the purview of elections, political parties and the
party sys tern, legislative representation, public bureaucracy,
interest and pressure groups, and public opinion and public
protests. As a consequence .of dearth of space, this discus~jon
briefly introduces each of the above n1cntioned avenues and
64 I. Jolrnson mrd A.l. Alnbi

channels of political participation and,'t~~reaf~er,. focuses on votin

participation in elections as the ~.ost v1s 1b.le _ind.icator of the leve1
and/or extent of citizens' pohucal soctaltsatt~n a.nd political
participation and, most particuJ~rJy, that electi.on ts the rnost
consequential single avenue that 1nvolv~s the ~ction and decision
of the largest popul':l~ion of citizens per um~ penod.

Avenues and Channels for Political Participation

(i) Elections: Elections constitute the foremost avenue for citizens'
political participation. Elec~ions ~~ formal de~isi?n.-making
processes by which a population of c1t1zens chooses 1nd1v1duals to
hold public offices, mostly in the executive and legislative arms of
government. The question of who may vote is a central issue in
elections because the electorate does not generally include the
entire population. Apart from the general requirement of a
minimum age. for voting in all jurisdictions, rnany countries
prohibit foreigners and the mentally incompetent frorn voting,
despite the concept of universal adult suffrage (Kesselman et al.
2007). However, while the organisation and the mobilisation for
elections directly impinge on the subject of political socialisation,
the extent to which an election is free and fair has direct
implication on the political participation of the populace. The
electoral proc,ess and the electoral behaviour of citizens are
therefore cardinal issues central to bringing about changes in the
government.

(ii) Political Parties: Political parties provide opportunities for

mass participation in the political system. Political parties are
political organisations that seek to influence government policy by
nominating their own candidates and trying to seat them in
pol!tical offices .. Such politi.cal parties,- hl-e mostly officially
registered and guided b~ certain rules enunciated by the state. As
part of the efforts to influence government policy, the regular
activities of political parties include electoral campajgos,
educational outreach, alternative voice and protest actions. TheY
also often market an expressed ideology, popuiarise their vision of
good gover:nance and societal development, and form coalitions
 foliticnl Socinlisatio11 n!1d Political Pnrtlcipalion 65

among disparate bttt closely related interests. It is important to note

that the ~ype of elep~ornl system, such ns simple plurality voting
syste~ and pro~o!1ionnl representation voting system, is a major
factor in determtmn.g the t~pe of political party system. Basically,
there are non-pa~1san. single party, and · multiparty electoral
s~stems. Non-partisan electoral systems are very few. And, while
single party electoral systems (one party state) are giving way to
multiparty democracies across climes, the number of registered
political parties differ across multiparty democracies (Almond and
Powell 1992).

(iii) Legislative Representation: Political participation by

legislative representation is adjudged as citizens' direct regular
voice in the governance of the state. However, in most countries,
the legislature functions primarily to represent and provide a forum
for the· political expression of various interests in government,
because the executive usually dominates the policy process even
when it i§ ultimately responsible to the legislature, as in a
parliamentary system. However, an emerging phenomenon is that,
in much 9f t~e policy process in modem day democracies, the
legislature js asserting itself as a co-equal branch of government
with the executive, through its responsibility to pass laws; to
authorise funds through budget approval for government activities,
projects and programmes; a'ld to review and scrutinise public
administration and government policy (Kesselman et al. 2007).·
The structure of the legislature also impinges on the issue of
political participation. In most bicameral systems with two houses,
namely the House of Representatives and the Senate, elections into
the House of Representatives is usually by population while the
elections into the Senate is usually by equal representation of each
state-unit of the federation. This implies political participation of
citizens, averaging between 500,000 to 700,000 constituents across
nation-states, through their elected 'House uf Representatives
Members', and political participation by the designated federating
political units of the nation-state, that is: States, through 'Senators'.
This is the case with Nigeria and the United States of America.
Britain has the House of Commons, through elections; and the
 \ .. . \

66 I. )olmscm nnd A.t. A)nM

House of Lords, an unelected 'body:t11at is c'o1!1.Prised ~~ ~lcreditaty

peers (nobility of ·the rank of duke, m~rqu1~, ~ark viscoun!, or
baron, the archbishops of Canterbury and York and tw.enty-four
other senior bishops of the Church of E~gland), hfe · P~ers
(appointed by the Crown on recommendatton .of the Prn~e
Minister) and law Lords (life peers appointed to assist the ~.rds'm
its judicial duties) (Kesselman ·~t at. 2007). In es~enc~, c1t1~.en~'
political participation by legislative repres~ntat10~ . tn Bnt~m
recognises both the ordinary citizens and their trad1t1onal social
class system carried over from the medieval ages. ·

(iv) Interest and Pressure Groups: Interest and pressure groups,

which are usually formally organised associations ·of individuals
with shared concerns, that attempt to influence public policy to
benefit themselves or their causes, co'nstitute another veritable
avenue for political participation. Such groups attempt to achieve
their objectives by lobbying with sophistical strategies and tactics
and bringing pressure to bear on policy makers to gain policy
outcomes in their favour. Interest and pressure groups are logical
products of communities of interests that exist in all societies, and
these include the organised 1abour movements, trade associations,
the military constituency, and other socio-"economic institutions of
the society (Almond and Powell 1992).
In all types of political systems, interest and pressure groups
can be placed into five broad categories, namely: economic
interests (manufacturing associations, labour congress. trade
unions, farmers associations, professional groups), cause groups
(religious organisations, veterans' groups, people with disabilities,
anti-HIV/AIDS and anti-abortion campaigners, etc.), public
interests (human rights groups, consun1er protection groups,
environmental protection groups, the red cross, amnesty
intematio~al, e.t.c.), ~r!vate and public i~stitutional interests (private
and . pubhc. umver.sataes, students t~nton bodies, the press/news
medaa, Afncan Um on, European Union, United Nations, etc.), and
non-a~sociational group.s and intere~t~ (government departments,
agencies and corporations, the military, etc.) (Encyclopaedia
Britannica·20 J0).
 l'olitical Sm:iali.mtio11 mu/ J>o/itlca/ l'nrticipption 6~

(v) P11blic Opi11io11,a11d Public Protests: .Public opinion an.d public

protests, ns fonns of political participation, c·an .be defined as the
co1nplex colle~tion of attitudes, beliefs, views and behaviours held
and e~presscd by t\1e adult population on given public issues at any
Qne t1n1e. When properly organised, articulated, collected and
i

1neasured, public opinions.and public protests·are sometimes very

viable for influencing government policies and programmes, and
for driving the corrections and directions that are perceived
necessary for public · peace, system persistence, social
transformation and national development. Public opinions are
widely expressed via the mass media while public protests are
mostly organised .by interest and pressure groups. In a sense, it can
be said that public opinions and public protests are logical
extensions of the activities of interest and pressure groups as
vehicles of citizens' political participation (Kesselman et al. 2007).

(vi) Public Bureaucracy: Public bureaucracy affords all

employees of the . civil service the opportunity for direct
participation in the political .system. Although, not all government
. employees are equally significant ira the political proce~s, the most
important are the highly trained expert personnel of the top civil
service. These top civil servants live as an elite corps, moving
about from ministry to ministry, watching governments come and
go, and becoming increasingly important as policy makers,
exerting great influence in the formulation and execution of
policies in their different areas of specialty, as they rise into the top
posts. Although public bureaucracies are supposed to be politically
and ideologically neutral agencies, they are influenced by the
dominant ideologies of the time and tend to have conservative
propensities and institutional interest of their own (Almond and
Powell 1992: 103 ).
In addition, the theory of representative bureaucracy now
widely espoused in contemporary literature to explain the
phenomenon of demographic and prin1ordial interest representation
in large gove1nment organisations lend credence to the ob~i?us
fact of public bureaucracy being a channel for poht1cal
participation. The theory is premised on the thought that the active
68 /. Jolinso11 and A.L Alnbi
...
· . cur because individual
representation of group tntere~ts oc those who share their
bureaucrats mostly reflect the views of k th position that
demographic backgrounds. The the?ry ta es e _ le in terms a
public workforce that is representative of the peop . . ?f
·tn d'1gene1ty,
· ethnicity, 'd . w1.II
· · race an d sex ' and corporate tnterests
help ensure that the interests of all the groups are const ered m
bureaucratic decision-making processes (Bradbury and Kellough
2014). With the notion that broad soda~ .groups should have
spokespersons and officeholders in adtrun.1strat1ve as well as
political positions, Krislov (2012) descnbes the th~ory of
representative bureaucracy as a form of, represen~atto~ that
captures most or all aspects of a society s populatton tn the
governing body of the state.

Voting as an Indicator of Political Socialisation and Political

Participation
Voting participation in elections is the most visible indicator of the
level and/or extent of citizens' political socialisation and political
participation. In new and advanced democracies, the choice and
installation of rulers through the processes of popular elections is
·one of the vital tools that strengthen the legitimacy of government.
As rightly pointed out by Merkl ( 1988:20), democracy has a
natural correction process built into it by which dissatisfied
majorities can replace their rulers midway into the constitutionally
prescribed terms through constitutionally prescribed procedures, or
at next general elections, and even minorities can try to persuade
the majority of the merits of their complaints. Democratic
legitimisation has therefore become a matter of both substance and
procedure in political stability. Central to these is voting
participation by the voting age population of a nation-state and, in
actual fact, elections cann?t be deemed to be popular where a
larger percentage of the votmg age population distances itself from
elections. . .
The difference between voting age population and ehgible
voters i~ a. matter of procedure. The voting age population figure is
the stat1st1cal extract of adult age group from accredited national
census figures or national population estimate, while the eligible
 l'olitim/ Socinlis<r1io11 n11d l'n/iticn/ l'nrticipntion 69

voters: figure i~ the nurnber of the voling age population that has
tna?e ttsclf available for voters' registration and has so been duly
regtst~red thro~gh the ~pproved procedure provided for the
exercise. Voters turnout 1s a fundamental quality of fair elections
and is generally considered to be a necessary factor for a healthy
democracy. Low turnout is usually attributed to disengagement
fro1n the system and, where this is the case, attention and focus is
1nainly shifted on the political socialisation spectrum for necessary
solution.
In discussing voting participation, two figures are of critical
importance. First, the percentage of actual voters to registered
voters; and second, the percentage of actual voters to voting age
population. For the exclusive purpose of this lecture, a voter is a
member of the voting age population that is duly registered to vote
per particular election year. Conversely any member of the voting •
age population that is not duly registered to vote per the particular
election year is not a voter. Therefore, voting participation is
calculated as the percentage of voters ' turnout to the total number
of registered voters, and then the percentage of voters' turnout to
voting age population. In essence, yoting participation is voters'
turnout per election year in relation to voters' registration figures
and voting age population. Nonetheless the percentages of voters'
turnout to voters' registration and to the voting age population are
both critical statistical figures discussed under the broad spectrum
of votzrs' apathy and political participation in this lecture.
In Nigeria, in the 1979 general elections, a military to civilian
political transition, the percentage of voters' participation to
voters' registration for that year's election was 35.25%, translating
to 44.83o/o of the voting age population of Nigeria for that year. In
1983, the general elections of a civilian to civilian political
transition, voters' participation was 38.94% of voters' registration,
amounting to 58.23% of the voting age population of Nigeria for
that year. In December 1983, that democratic experiment collapsed
via a military coup d'etat which brought the military to rule for
another sixteen years (i.e. 1984-1999). There was an attempt at
dernocratisation in 1992/93 via an elongated political transition
programrne which however collapsed midway by virtue of the
70 /. Jol11uo11 mrd A.L.. A/obi

unilateral annultncnl of the l 993 pr~siden~ial election by the

General lbrahin1 Babangida regime ..The election was presumed to
have been won by .Chief M.K.0. A;b~o.1~. ,. ..
By the · 1999 nlilitary to c1v1han poht1cal transtt1on, the
percentage of voters' participation in that rear's general election
was 52.26% of registered voters, translating to 57.36~ of the
voting age population for that year. The 20.0~ ge.neral elections ~ad
higher statistical inclinations. Voters' part1c1pat10.n at that election
was 69.08% of registered eligible voters amounting to 65.33~ of
the voting age population of Nigeria. At the ~007 gen~r~l elections,
the voters' participation was 57.49% of registered ehgible voters,
amounting to 49.65% of the voting age population for that year. By
the 2011 general eiections which was the third civilian to civilian
political transition under the pre.sent democratisation experience,
voters' partici.pation was 53:68% of registered eligible voters,
translating to 48.32% of the voting age population of Nigeria for
that year: Relative to the voting age population as stated above,
voters' participation has. been generally very low as a statistical
comparison with four other countries will show. In the immediate
past five general elections up till 2016, the average voting
participation for the following countries are as follows: (a) Nigeria:
58.13%; (b) Ghana: 74.98%; (c) South Africa: 82.54%; (d) France:
80.93%; and (e) United State of America: 80.04% (International
IDEA 2017). In view of this comparative statistical presentation, it
can be concluded that voting participation is relatively low in
Nigeria.
The above analysis poses at least two major questions relevant
for our purpose. First, what are the factors responsible for the
relatively low voting participation in Nigeria's general elections
between 1999 and 2015? Second, what are the essential or critical
variables in the content or substance of Nigeria's political
socialisation spectrum that need to be udjusted . for the
enhancement of voting participation in Nigeria's general elections?

Factors respo!1sible~Jr.Political Apatliy i11 Nigeria

The comparative statistics presented above have shown that there
is a very high level of political apathy in Nigeria's itnmediate past
 ...
l'ollticnl Soclnlisntio11 nnd /'olltibtl Pnrticipnt/011 71

five elections, thnt is 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011 and 2015. Our focus
is litnited to the scope of political apathy as it concerns · voters'
apathy in Nigeria because this is really the first time that the nation
has had nbout eighteen years of continuous democratic
goven1ance, beginning from 1999. One is particularly concerned
the more because, for now, it appears that one of the most
prominent threats to popular democracy in Nigeria is voters'
apathy. . ·
As noted by Ejue and Ekanem (2011:286 - 287), voters'
apathy is essentially due to three main critical issues. First, the
importance of elections is not fully understood and appreciated by
majority of Nigerians. Second, the voting age population in
Nigeria do not know their rights as source of power and
fundamental decision makers in governance. Third, the rights of
eligible and actual voters are not wel I protected by government.
The above· listed issues are in tum due to some flaws within the .
nation's political socialisation spectrum, a high level of illiteracy
and bad governance, all resulting severally and jointly into the
masses' and elites' disengagement from the democratisation
process. .
The contribution of mass illiteracy to political apathy,
generally, and to voters' apathy, specifically, cannot be over-
emphasised. Nigeria's population is presently estimated to be
about 200 million and, at the moment, about 35% of that
population estimate is said to be illiterate. A proof of this is
Nigeria's ranking among the countries with the highest population
of illiterates in the world. This group, the E-9, comprises of
Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indone·sia, ,Mexico,
Nigeria and Pakistan, in that order of ranking. The combination of
these E-9 nations is said to account for more than 50% of the
world's population of illiterates (Naboli 2013). It is not an
overstatement that the presence of between 60 million and 100
million illiterates in Nigeria has been impacting negatively on all
the facets of her developn1ental efforts and goal~. .
Bad governance, eminently exhibited tn the failure of
succeeding ruling elites to convert Nigeria's oil wealth into the
develop1nent of human capital and critical . sectors such as
72 .. J. Jolmso11 and A.L..Alabi:

transport rural infrastructure, urban renewal, hea!th, e;iuca~ion,

agricuitu~e or investment in foreign assets have con~t~tent y Carried
the image of .political fraud. With this image of pol!tical fraud, t~e
adult age population, who are expected ~o vo!untanly come ou~ tn
their millions to participate in voters reg1~t!at1on a~d actual voting
at elections, have come to see every aspinn~ pubh~ offic~ holder
as a fraud that is not worth' investing their precious time and
comfort in. Hence, the dwindling rates of voting participation in
Nigeria.

Content Adjustment for Co"ective Political Socialisatio11 . .

Political socialisation should be seen as a neeessary poltt1co-
economic. tool of government for national accult~ration, which
should not be left to chance. This makes the deliberate
institutionalisation of a doctored national political socialisation
system a worthwhile approach to political stability and national
development.
. Political apathy, generally and, voters' apathy, specifically, are
indicators of defect in Nigeria's political socialisation system.
Granted the above, there are at least three principal perspectives to
deploying corrective modelling for a defective political
socialisation system. First, there is the good governance
perspective which necessarily impacts on whatever political
socialisation system put in place. The postulation, jn t~is re~pect, is
that people can come to have a sense of strong identificatiGh ·wit~
their particular national system only when it : fun~tiQrrS· 'in a
reasonably distinctive and gratifying manner. Therefore, for any
nat!onal P?Iitical socialisation system to succee~ in Nigeria, the
ruh~g . ehtes must demonstrate its competence, sincerity,
ded1cat1on, fiscal transparency, accountability and · effectiveness in
delivering the expected dividends of democracy. .
.The second perspective is that of agency modeuJng wpich .
dehberately structures and monitors the attitudes ' ctispos'itiOflS,
beli.e.fs, capa?il~tie~ and operational performances pf
all agents of
pohucal soc1ahsat1on; namel~; parents, the schoQl systen1, peer
groups,_ the 1nass and soc_1a~ media, voluntary associations,
professional unions, rehgaous institutions, , government
 .
'

/>ollticnl Socinlisntion nml l'oliticnl l'nrlicipntion 73

establislunents, political pat1ies and such other formal and informal

conta~ts and corllmunications that the individual interacts with
fron1 c!tildhood l? adulthood. !he third perspective to deploying
corrective 1nodelhng for defective political socialisation system is
the "co~tent adjustment" of the political socialisation spectrum.
Suffice tt to s!ate that the three-point proposition of this teaching
for content adjustment for corrective political socialisation system
for Nigeria are in the areas of citizenship education, value re-
orientation and social mobilisation.

Citizenship Education
Roberts (2006) has argued that although democracy may presently
be the most viable and acceptable system of resolving issues of
power, governance and succession in modem times, it can very
often lead to the emergence of bad leaders and unwholesome
tendencies, most especially in situations where most voters are
illiterate, uneducated, uninformed and often coerced or
brainwashed into voting for candidates imposed on them by
godfathers. It is quite very unfortunate nowadays that people pay
lip service to the slogan of free and fair election~ without
·considering the mental ability of the voter in the areas of requisite
education, knowledge, insight and adequate information to elect
good leaders. The resultant effect of low mental ability and
ignorance of the voter is gradual disinterestedness in voting,
leading to low voting participation in elections. Voter apathy is
therefore a function of inherent defects in the nation's citizenship
education system which is a sub-set of the national political
socialisation system.
In view .of the high rate of illiteracy in Nigeria, a larger
segment of the ·voting age population lacks the requisite knowledge
to freely and independently vote for credible leaders. Many people
vote on the basis of party and ethnicity. Majority of the ~oters do
not actually know what constitutes electoral offence. For instance,
there have been several cases of underage voting and
impersonation in different parts of Nigeria. Many cxchan~e their
votes for cash and material gifts out of ignorance (EJue ~nd
Ekanem 2011 ). As it relates to voting participation for credtble
elections, citizenship education is of critical importnnce because
74 /, Jolmso11 and A.L.. Alnbi

de1nocracies reHuire active•. inform~d. and respot~ibl~·~itizens, that

is, citizens \vhh the dogged w1lhngness. an a _1 lty ~o take
i-esponsibility for themselves a~~ their constituencies by
conttibuting meaningfully to the poht~cal process. Through agency
1nodelling, responsible · citizens .f!lusl b.e. 1:11.ade aware of their
~onstitutional rights and moral r~~pons1b1htte~, have up-to-date
information about social and p9ht1cal happen1n~~ around them,
have consideration for the welfare of fellow c1ttz~ns, have the
capability to influence their worl~ ~ound them, having dev~l?ped
high articulate ability in their op1n1ons and .argument, part1c1pate
actively in community activities and are quick and reaso~able in
t~eir response to occurrences and events around them .<EJue and
Ekanem 201 l). All these abilities have to be learnt over time.
Viewed from the perspective of citizenship enhancement, the
concept of citizenship education has the sole mandate to develop
legal · and social citizens to the level that they acquire certain
fundamental and basic knowledge to qualify as responsible
citizens. So, it is one thing for an individual to be a citizen, yet it is
another thing entirely for that individual to be a responsible citizen.
The concern of this chapter in the proposition for corrective
citizenship education is to make Nigerians "responsible citizens."
Klusmeyer (1996:38) has pointed it out that people really need to
be taught that "citizenship is a source of all governmental authority
and the basis of all power," and that "citizenship represents the
popular sovereignty of the people through which the government
derives the consent of the governed." He admonf~hed that people
must know that "citizenship is the social and legal link between
individuals and their democratic political community", and that
"the status of citizenship involves important responsibilities and
duties that have to be fulfilled , and where these are not fulfilled,
~emocracy becomes fundamentally disabled".
In addition to the above, and most especially because practice
makes perfect, Nigerians need to learn and acquire practical
experien~e~, an~ develop part~cipatory skills and civic dispositi~ns
for ex~r~1s1n~ nghts and ca1Ty1ng out the responsibilities and duues
of. ~ c1t1zen 1~ a democracy. Now, as analysed by_the Center for
CiVIc Educat1011 ( 1994) and the National Association of Educarwn
Planner, Civic Co11,\·e11s11s Project (1996) (cited in Ejue and
Ekancrn 20 J I), there are three basic types of participatory skills;
 Poliricnl Socinllsntion nJid'Polit/cn/ Pnrtidpaiioh 75

namely: interacting, monitoring ~nd innuencing. lnteracti.ng is

conce111ed with skills of communication and co-operation in
politica1 and civic life. Mon~toring relates to skills needed to track
the work of political leaders and constitutions of government. And
influencing has to do with the skills employed to affect outcomes
in political and civic life, such as the resolution of public issues. As
regards civic dispositions, this involves such character traits as
civility, honesty, tolerance, sociability, self-restraint, compassion,
trust, a sense of duty, loyalty, respect for the work and dignity of
others, courage, sense of political efficacy, capacity for co-
operation and concern for the common good. The present civics
and citizenship education curricular in Nigeria do not make
provision for "practicals" necessary for these important segments
of citizenship education.
One can see clearly from the above discussion that citizenship
education or education for democratic citizenship implies training,
dissemination, information, ·practices and activities that are capable
of equipping learners with the knowledge, skills and
understanding, and moulding their attitudes and behaviour, to
empower them mentally and psychologically, to be able to exercise
and defend their democratic rights and responsibilities as required
for the progress and development of Nigeria. By so doing, people
will value diversity and play active roles in the democratic process
with a view to protecting democracy and the rule of law. So, the
main focus of citizenship education are: awareness of democratic
rights and responsibilities, and active participation in and defense
of those rights and responsibilities, in relation to the civic,
political, social, economic, legal and cultural spheres of the
Nigerian society. People must be enabled to take part actively in
the political process, make their own political and voting decisions,
and take responsibilities for their own individual lives and
communities. This corrective citizenship education sub-set of
political socialisation is about creating and sustaining responsible
citizenship.

Value Re-orie11tatio11
Political apathy, broadly, and voters' apathy, specifically, are
indicators of peoples' negative attitude toward politics and voting,
76 I. Jr)/ttt.tc>ll ntrd A.I-. Ala/Ji

respectively. Attitude is a function of individual disposition, Which

is in tunt dctcnnincd by the individual value system. yalues are the
goals people work for. They are those cleme~ts in a person's
behaviour that show how a person has decided to use the
individual tintc, energy and life. In essence, value determines
\Yhere people put 1nost of their energy, what they W()rk for, and the
way they go about that which they do (U gwuegbu. 2~04: 12). Most
val~es are conditioned by ~xperience and soc1ahsat1on., They
evolves and 1natures as experience evolve and mature, until they
assume a statue of 'right', 'desir~bility' or 'worthy' and hence
become a person's values. People internalise their ~ost important
values and, once this is done, they no longer need reinforcement by
the individual. It is at the stage of internalisation that a value
becomes consciously or unconsciously a standard, or criterion for
guiding action, for developing and maintaining attitudes towards
relevant objects and situations, for justifying one's own and others'
actions and attitudes, and for morally judging self and others
(Raths et al. 1996).
Finally at this stage, a value becomes a standard that people in
authority, such as parents and teachers, employ to influence the
values, attitudes, and actions of their children and pupils, most
especially through the socialisation process. A value system is a
hierarchical organisation, or a rank-ordering of ideal values in
tenns of importance. A person's values are infe1Ted from what a
person says or does. But the beauty of it is that values are not
static, they are dynamic. So, they can be changed. Psychologically
and practically, values help individuals to organise their cognitive
world. With strong motivational components, value simplifies life
choices and guides people in setting life goals. So, when a society
comes to the realisation that the present human behavioural
tendencies, activities and actions cannot lead the country to a
desirable future, it embarks on national value re-orientation which
is a social movement that involves getting control of cognitive
processes and behavioural dispositions and directing these along
carefully designated lines (Ugwuegbu 2004: 12).
Apat1 fro1n voters' npnthy nnd other negative tendencies
beset~ing Nige~ia's nascent de1nocracy, there are so n1any .ot.her
negative behav1ound tendencies leading the country to a prec1p1ce.
 Politicnl Soclnll.rntio11 mrd Political Pnrlicipntion 11

No~, having r~cognf~ed the !11Y~i~ds of negative values directing

the. utteranc~s an~ actions of 1n~1v1dual Nigerians, and leading the
pohty to an avoidable ~oom, succeeding Nigerian governments
have made efforts at national value re-orientation with the aim of
rep~sitioning the Nigerian state for effective nation-building and
national development. But all such efforts and social movements in
that direction have met with one constraint or inadequacy or the
other. General Olusegun Obasanjo's 1977 Jaji declaration was the
first public acknowledgement of government concern for the
neg.ative values in the polity and an indication of government's
desire to address them. The declaration, which was a dream of a
disciplined, fair, just and humane African society, did not go
beyond mere rhetoric.
A1haji Shehu Shagari's National Ethical Revolution of 1982
was the second indication of government concern and desire for
value re-orientation. That attempt sought to address the qreakdown
of Nigeria's national ethics and discipline by the establishment of a
Ministry of National Guidance. A military coup in 1983 that
terminated the Shagari administration closed that chapter. General
Muhamadu Buhari's regime came up with the War Against
Indiscipline (WAI) under the understanding that indiscipline was
the bane militating against Nigeria's economic, political and social
development. As a value re·orientation mechanism, W.A.I was
prosecuted under five phases which included queue culture, work
ethics, nationalism and patriotism, corruption and economic
sabotage, and e~vironme.n~al sanit~J_io;r. 1:'he ascension of General
Ibrahim Babang1da as truhtary President in 1985 relaxed the war-
like vigour of WAl, and in its place a National Orientation
Movement (NOM) was launched. NOM later metamorphosised
into the Directorate for Social Mobilisation, Self-Reliance,
Economic Recovery and Social Justice (M~MS~R) in 1987, .~ith
emphasis on mass education, value re-one~tat1on and pohtt~al
mobilisation (Alabi 1990). Following t~e exit of the Babang1da
administration the value re-orientation mandate of MAMSER was
' '
handed over to the new National Orientation Agency.
Olusegun Obasanjo's second coming into the state house, this
time as civilian President, saw him picking up the effort at value
re·orientation where his predecessors left off. One of the goals of
 78 /. Jol1nso11 nnd A.t. Alli/JI

his N_ational Econo1nic Empowe~ment and D~velopment Stra~gy

·(NEEDS) was value re-orientation whose aim was to mobilise
Nige1inns to re-emphasise the va~ue.s of honesty,. hard .. w~rk, s~lf.
service, tnoral rectitude, and patriotism. The Na.tional O~e~tat1on
Agency and its states counterparts, and other national soc1ahsation
agencies were to be strengthened to pro~ecute. the NEEDS
campaign. ·However, t~e vigour of the ca~pa1gn died down With
the exit of Olusegun Obasanjo as presid~nt in 20~7 ·. . .
\- · As a corrective model in the national soc1ahsat1on system,
value re-orientation is a very viable instrument if well articulated
and deployed with precision. Go~em!11ent .fixatio~ with value
orientation programmes in Ntgena since independence
corroborates this fact. It will not only correct the negative
tendencies associated with general elections and voting
participation, it will also positively address all unwholesome
behavioural tendencies dogging the wheel of progress of the polity.
However, to move forward appreciably with value re-orientation in
Nigeria, there are five national errors associated with government
handling of the programmes, that need to be corrected.
First, there is the problem of inconsistent assumptions about
·Nigeria's value re-orientation needs. The assumption underlying
the War Against Indiscipline (WAI) of 1984 was that discipline is
the sole requirement for social, economic and political
development, and that indiscipline is inhibitive of development.
The National Orientation Movement of 1985 believed, differently,
-that the development of any nation is a function of the conditioned
orientation of its citizens, as manifested in the citizens' values,
aspirations, and norms as a people. The basic assumption of the
National Orientation Agency of 1993 was that the fundamental
values of Nigerians had weakened over the years and the society
was perceived to be stunted in its economic and social growth, and
has been groping for a way to rnove forward. The assumption
underlying, the National Economic Empowerm~nt and
Development Strategy (NEEDS) of 2004 was that value re·
orientation was a way of resolving the ctisis in the Nigerian body
politic ~nd to. transform the political leadership. The diffe~ing
assumptions dtcl3ted the efforts, and this has made Nigerians
 Political Socinlisn1io11 nnd />oliticnl Participation 19

perceive govenunent as being unserious each time a new value re-

orientation progr:u11me is launched. There is the need for a uniform
set of assumptions for Nigeria's national value re-orientation. ·
. _ !he above leads to the second problem: lack of continuity, both
tn vigour ~nd ~ubsta11ce, of value re-orientation. Each new regime
comes wtth its own value re-orientation programme. Geri.
Obasanjo's 1977 Jaji declaration ended in a mere rhetoric. Shehu
Shagari's Ethical Revolution that came · after it died with that
regime. The vigour of Muhamadu Buhari's WAI became watered
down after the exit of that regime. Ibrahim Babangida's MAMSER
ended with Babangida's regime. Gen. Abacha's National
Orientation Agency's focus became supplanted by President
Olusegun Obasanjo's NEEDS. President Goodluck Jonathan, while
not pµrsuing with vigour his predecessors' value re-orientation, did
not come out with his own acronym for national orientation. There
is need for a programme continuity in national value·re-orientation.
The third problem that needs to be corrected is the absence of
sµbstantiy~ r~cord&~ based on empirical research, of the types of
values thilt Qharacterise Nigerians. Ugwuegbu (2004) has rightly
observed tliflt Nigerian governments have been fixated on ~alue.,. .;-
onentation for over thirty years and nobody has cared tr, ask
Nigerian~ what their values are across ethnic groups, prof..;ssional
HSSocjMipns and religjous denominations. Yet, successive Nigerian
governments continue to throw public funds at whatever each
lea~r perceives as value orientation of the populace. There is the
need for a systematic investigation of the values that each
community group carry in their different ethnic, religious,
pr0,fessional and social-class affiliations for ~ programr_ne~,
~y~tematjc response that would treat each community s case w1th1n
the scope of. Hs .Peculiarity, to avoid misco~ceptions about value
that most Nigerians hold and save the nation fro1n the error of
misappropriation of strategy. Fourthly, in addition to the
misconc~ptions of government about the value that Nigerians hold,
vaJµe r~-prientation progra1nmes in Nigeria, according to
U~wµegbu, are not driven by ~n~ clear. cut ~deol?gy. This has
resulted into the programmes mcons1stenc1es m focus and
implementation. Probably, the absence of a clear cut ideological
80 /. Jo/ouott nnd A.I. Alabi

· s the enduring inconsistencies in the

frame of reference best exp1ain . . d bsence of a substant'
basic assumptions, lack of conunmty an a . N' . •ve
record or database of the values that charactense igen~ns. .
Lastly while successive Nigerian governments ave since
independence' pursued value re-onen· tat'10n• for •the people ' the
government has not pursued any valu~ re-one.ntat!o~ for the state,
its institutions and agencies. The basic question is. What are the
corporate values that the federal, states and local governments,
respectively, are pursuing for themselves, apart fr~m the .ones
being pursued for the people? Every well-estabhshed pnvate
company has corporate vision, mission and value statements boldly
written and displayed for the management, the wor~force.and the
general public to note and appreciate. These pubhcly .displayed
value statements impact positively on manageme~t ef~c_1ency, the
performance of the workforce and customers' d1spos1hon to the
company. With a good value system, every. facet of national life
will begin to display tendencies for peace, progress, justice and
development and voting participation will logically become
enhanced at general elections.

Social Mobilisation
Social Mobilisation is the third sub-set of the content adjustment
for our proposition for corrective political socialisation in Nigeria.
While citizenship education will impact knowledge that will enable
people to be alive to their rights, obligations, responsibilities and
duties as responsible citizens; value re-orientation will make them
internalise such virtues and dispositions conducive to proper
appropriation of priorities to concern for the common good as
against selfish considerations. Social mobilisation will ensure that
old social, economic and psychological commitments are eroded
and people become available for new patterns of socialisation and
behaviour henceforth.
Mobilisation, according to Okafor (2003)t can be understood as
a p~ocess o~ achiev~n.g a. goal thr.ough a properly articulated group
actto~. Social. mob11tsat1on en~ails the commitment of people to
certam collective goals and objectives and to value and behaviour
patterns conducive to the titnely attainment of those goals and
 Politicctl Socia/isation arid Political Participation 81

objectives. It also e~tail.s minimising the commitment of people to

such other goals, objectives, values and behaviour patterns that are
contrary to those collectively preferred and adopted by the society.
To Ake~edolu-A~e ( 1989), to mobilise anything is to commit it to
productive use tn order to ensure that it makes its maximum
cont~bution tow~rds. the attainment of national or collective goals.
In h1s own contnbut1on, Edward Shils analyses two tlistinct stages
of the social mobilisation process. The first ·stage· is that of
withdrawal or disengagement from old negative· settings, habits
and commitments, while the second stage is that of the induction of
the mobilised persons into some relatively stable new patterns of
group membership, organisation and commitment (Shils 1968:
206).
In relation to political activities and political participation, the
character of the second stage of the social mobilisation process, as
analysed by Edward Shils and quoted above, include the
involveni~nt of the people in mass political activities, new
economiq relations, national loyalties, civic and patriotic
commitment. It also includes the development of new leaders at
various lev~ls who are able to read and write, and who are exposed
to the mass media, and who can use these capabilities to bring
together men, materials, ideas, finance and other resources in order
to achieve clearly defi.ned goals. The ideas of social mobilisation
became widely popular in Nigeria during the Ibrahim Babangida
military regime through the instrumentality of the Political Bureau
that r~pommended the establishment of the Directorate for Social
Mobilisation whose popular slogan was 'mass mobilisation for
social justice, self-reliance and ec01~omic recovery' (MAMSER).
The MAMSER agenda had a number of thematic inconsistencies
which perhaps explain why the programme died with the
Babangida regime, and since then, social mobilisation had become
a matter of rhetoric, most especially with the legal and institutional
succession of the Directorate for Social Mobilisation by the more
rhetoric-based National Orientation Agency.
While it existed, MAMSER's social mobilisation theme was
principally hinged on the pillar of political education which, in
tum, was not more than mere political awareness. That political
82 /. Jolrns01r m1<I A.l. Alnbl

education pillar crumbled ~nder .a nu~ber of fau~ty assumpt!ons.

First, MAMSER assumed· tha~ there already . existed a nat10naJ
society in Nigeria. Second, a l.ogio~I ext~ns1on ?f ,,the ~rst, it
assumed that there already existed a "nat10.nal ehte w_htch th~
Directorate could focus on. as a group. Third, and logically, It
assumed that there already existed a "nat~onal masse~" _with
common orientations, perception of life, pains a~d asp1rat1ons.
MAMSER underestimated the strength of the vanous cleavages
entrenched in the Nigerian society; ethnic suspicion, religious
rivalry and fatal competition for survival, power ~nd wealth, and
therefore failed to device differentiated strategies that would
effectively address the differentiated cleavages and the attendant
problems. MAMSER therefore could not position itself as a viable
instrument of re-socialisation. When MAMSER died, the ideas and
the potentialities of social mobilisation sank under the more
rhetorical tides of national orientation (Alabi 1990). .
As part of the proposition for corrective 'content adjustment'
for national socialisation, government should rekindle the ideas of
social mobilisation, annex its strengths and reposition it solidly
within the broad framework of the nation's political socialisation
system. The new social mobilisation system should go beyond
public sensitisation through the mass media. It should adopt the
direct marketing strategy in salesmanship which carries the same
approach with the direct advocacy system in use by virtually aJI
non-government organisations involved in reproductive health,
poverty alleviation and development issues throughout the world.
The direct marketing/direct advocacy strategy is a system that
treats itself as a mobile solution provider that must voluntarily
move out to locate its target community groups and individuals for
the purpose of rescuing them from their problems.
So, rather than treat Nigeria as a national society, it should
break and .segment . the Ni¥erian terrain into related problem
groups, device pecuhar solution for each peculiar problem group,
and embark on the systematic delivery of solutions in such a
manner that would guarantee that whomever is "contacted and
reached'~ is treated and made whole for the benefit of the nation.
For instance, an AIDS/HIV patient, once contacted and reached
 PoUtical Socinlisntion and Political Participation· 83

becom\!s. a regular ~~~b.er of. a clinic and 'social group for regular
counselhng, drug adm1n1strat1on, visitation, participation in anti-
HIV l!dvo~acy,, e~couragement and re-socialisation for a new and
better ap~roach to life in view of their HIV status. If this style is
adopt~d ._1n the new s.ocial mobilisation scheme for political
sociahsat1on, all behavioural tendencies and issues jnimical to
voting participation would be effectively addressed.
•

References
Akeredolu-Ale, E.0. 1989. "Nigeria: Mobilisation Strategies: 1986-
2010"· In Evolving a More Effective Local Government in Nigeria.
. O.J. Adebayo (ed.), Ogun State Directorate for Social Mobilisation.
Alabi, L. Ayodeji. 1990. "Alternative Approaches to Nation-building: A
Critique of Nigeria's MAMSER Programme", an unpublished MSc.
Dissertation, Department of Political Science, University of Ibadan.
Almond, Gabriel and Coleman, James (eds.). 1960. The politics of the
developing areas. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Almond, Gabriel A. and G. Powell, Bingham. (eds.). 1992. Comparative
politics today: A world view. Fifth Edition. New York: Happer
Collins Publishers.
Bradbury, M. and J.E. Kellough. 2014. Representative: assessing the
evidence on active representation. The American Review of Public
Administration. Sage Journals on-line, retrieved on 16th August,
2017.
Dennis, Jack. 1973. Socialisation to politics. New York: John Wiley and
Sons Inc.
Ejue, BJ. and S.A. Ekanem. 2011. Voter rights and credible e~~ction !n
Nigeria: The imperative of rethinking the. ~ontent of ~1t1ze~sh1p
education. Jnten1ational Jo11n10l of Humamt1es and Social Science
1(19); Dec. 2011.
Encyclopredia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopaedia Britannica swdent and
home edition. Chicago: Encyclopredia Britannica. .
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
(International IDEA). Voters' participation statistics .ror Ni~eria,
Ghana, South Africa, France and United States of Amenca. retneved
on-line 26lh June, 2017.
84 /, Jolrnson cmd A.Li.. Alnbi

Kesselman, M., J. Kt·ieger and w.A. Joseph. 2007. lntr,oduction to

con,1pa1·<1tive politics. Fourth edition. Boston and New . York:
Houghton Mifflin Company. · . .
Krislov. Samuel. 2012. Represen.lati~e bureaucracy. Q~1d Pro Books.
Kh1sn1eyer, D. 1996. Benveen consent and clesen!· Conceptions of
democ,.atic citizenship. Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for
lntenmtional Peace.
Merkl, Peter H. 1988. "Comparing Legitimacy and ~alues an:iong
Advanced Democratic Countries" In Companng Pluralist
Democracies. Dogan Matte (ed.) Boulder and London; West View
Press.
Naboli, Sebagen Henry. 2013. "Eradicating Illiteracy in Nigeria" In
Blueprint Newspaper, 29th June, 2013, retrieved on line on 18lh
August 2017.
Okafor, 0 . 2003. "Mobilisation of the Nigerian Masses for Peaceful
Elections: Role of Mass Media and Communication Practitioner" In
Polimedia-media and Politics in Nigeria. I.E. Nwosu (ed.), Enugu:
Prime TargetS Ltd. ·
Raths, L.E., M. Harmin and S.B. Simon. 1996. Value and teaching:
Working with values in classroom. Columbus Olio: Charles E.
Mevrill.
Roberts, S. 2006. "Who needs credible election?" Quick Links, White,
D. (2006) Democracy and voting: Ohio 2004 as lesson in what can
go wrong. US Liberal Politics. About Com. (2011). Retrieved on-line
on 18th August 2017. ·
Shils, Edward. 1968. The Social Science Research Council Conference
on Comparative Politics, as quoted by Karl Deutsh. Social
Mobilisation and Political Development. J.L. Finkle and R. W. Gable
(eds.) (1968). Political Del!elopment and Social Charge. New York;
John Wiley and Sons Inc. '
Ugwuegbu, D.C.E. 2004. The1Shifting Tides of Value Orientation: A
Case for Nationa.1 De~el~pment. Published Valedictory Lecture,
Faculty of the Socaal Science, University of Ibadan. Ibadan: Vantage
Publishers Ltd.
 ...

..

4
LAW, DEMOCRACY AND GOOD
GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA
0.1. Adejunio

Introduction
Law is defined as a body of official rules and regulations, generally
found in constitutions, legislations, judicial opinions, and the like,
that is used to govern a society and to control the behaviour of its
members (U giade 2004). The importance of law at establishing a
people oriented democracy with the goal of ensuring good
governance cannot be over-emphasised in any society. The key
words-law, democracy and good governance are no doubt
interrelated in that, before there can be democracy, people's
participation in every aspect of governance must be ensured. This
starts from the source of law which tries to establish democracy,
i.e. 'the constitution. Does the enactment of the 1999 Constitution
by the military remove the toga of legality from the constitution
hurriedly put together by the Constitution Debate Co-ordinating·
Committee selected for that purpose? Can such a constitution
provide a valid framework for governance of a democratic society?
Do we see the 1999 Constitution as emanating from the people of
Nigeria as claimed in the preamble, "We The People of
. . .. ....?"
N1gena
If answers to all the questions :!hove are negative, then it raises
some doubt to the origin of our democracy in tenns of people's full
participation from the outset. There is the issue of good
gover:nance which is encapsulated in the welfare equation of the
people of Nigeria. t is believed that the Nigerian state has defaulted
in its.fulfilment of the. terms of its s0cial contract with the pe~
hence the legitimacy crisis which has now bedevilled the country.

What is Law?
According to Black's Law Dictionary (2004), law is defined as the
regime that orders human activities and relations through
· ''Wsf. . ,...
86 0 .1. Ade)umo

systematic npplicntion of the force of political~y org~nised 8?Ciety,

or thl'oUgh socinl pressure, backed by, for~e, 1 ~ s~c. . a s~ciety. It
niay also refer to the ·uggrcgute of leg1slatton, JU~Jc~al precedents,
and accepted legnl principles; the body o~ authontative grounds of
judicial and administrative action~ especially. t~e bod.y ?f !Ules,
standards, and principles that the courts of a particular JUnsd1ction
apply in deciding controversies brought before t~em. Austin
( 1832) defines law as "a rule laid ~own f~r the guidance o!
an
intelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him.''
This in essence means that law is the command of the commander
(i.e. the sovereign) to the c9mmanded (the citizens).
Law, in its generic sense, is a body of rules of action or
conduct prescribed by the controlling authority, ~nd having
binding legal .force. Law is therefore seen as that which must be
obeyed and followed by citizens subject to sanctions or legal
consequences. It can be described as a solemn expression of the
will of the supreme power. of the state. The nature and functions of
law vary throughout history and from country to country. In
modem societies laws are made by some authorised bodies such as
legislatures and administrative bodies, and these laws are backed
and enforced by the coercive power of the state in a bid to ensure
compliance by means of appropriate penalties or remedies. Law
could also be seen as the instrument by which society regulates the
conduct and behaviour of members of that society.
Law in any society serves different functions. These functions
range from how a government 1
is formed or how a society deals
with the chalJenges of cri minality and crime commission. For
instance, what would happen if there were no costs associated with
illegal activity? According t~ Philip Cook (1986), if we disbanded
all Jaw enforcement agencies and removed all sanctions from the
penal Jaws, the result would be "a crin1e wave of unprecedented
proportions." Different laws of crime as we have them across the
length and breadth of Nigeria help to maintain a peaceful, orderly,
relatively stable and progr~ssive society. Thus, the very existence
of Jaws serves some functions, ensuring obedience in those who
otherwise would resort to qisobeying lawful order in a society.
Law also helps fo express, maintain and sustain the sovereignty of
 IA11·, Drmoc:rncy and Good Govenr"t111u·1n Nigeria 81

states~ and by extension rights and duties of citizehs. For ,instance,

the Constitu~ion s~ys that ",it shall be the duty· an~ responsi~ility of
all organs of goven1ment, and of ·all authorities and persons,
exercising legisl~tive, executive or judjcial powers, to conform to,
observe and apply the provisions of this Chapter of this
Constitution." The Constitution states further that;
(a) Sovereignty belongs to the people of Nigeria from
whom government· through this Constitution
derives all its powers and authority;
·.
(b) the security and welfare of the people shall be the
primary responsibility of government; and
(c) the participation by the people in their government
shall be ensured in accordance with the provisions.--
. of this Consti tution.

Again, the duties of. the citizens are clearly slated in· the
Constitution when it says that;
It shall be the duty of.every citizens to-
' .
(a) abide by this Constitution, respect its ideals and its
iristitutions, the National Flag, the National
Anthem, the N~tional Pledge, and legitimate
authorities; .
(b) help to enhance1the power, prestige and good
name of Nigeria,'. defend Nigeria and render such
as
national service may be required;
(c) respect the dignity of other citizens and the rights
and legitimate interests of others and live in unity
and harmony and I
in the spirit of common
brotherhood; '
(d) make the positive and useful contribution to the
advancement, progress and well-being of the
community where he resides;
(e) render assistance to appropriate and lawful
agencies in the ma~ntenance of law and order; and
(f) declare his income honestly to appropriate and
lawful agencies and pay his tax pron1gtly,
Other functions of law include but not limited to the following:
(l) Mai11tenance of Public Or~er: Accordi~g to Lord Donalds,
without the rule of law and ·courts to enforce tt, each of us would
be free to push and bully our fellow ~itize~s, and vice-versa. We
need law to protect us from the antt·so~1al conduc.ts from bad
elements in the society. If we had no laws regulating people's
behaviour and no sanctions associated with them, how many
hannless and defenceless people would be victims of robbery,
murder, kidnapping, rape, abduction, stealing, .or. terrorism?
Maintaining public order in this sense means estabhsh1ng the rule
of law to preserve life and protect property.

(2) Law Facilitates Co-operative Actions: This is useful

especially in relation to business transactions based on the law of
contract. We can also see this point in bodies such as a students'
union or other associations. Students in ·a college might come
together in a union to pursue certain objectives ~nd this will only
be after they have agreed on a law that will guide them in the way
they relate with one another. This is also helpful particularly in a
federation where there is co-operation between two tiers of
government in the way they come together to handle certain
matters if the matters are beyond what one tier can handle
financially.

(3) Law Confers Legiti1nacy: According to Malcolm N. Shaw

(2010), legitimacy is defined as a property of a rule or rule-making
institution which itself exerts a pull towards compliance on those
addressed normatively because those addressed believe that the
rule or institution has come into being and operates in accordance
:"'ith gener~lly accepted pri~ciples ?fright process. Legitimacy is
important tn the sense that 1t constitutes a standard for the testing
in the wider political environment of the Televance and
acceptability of legal norms and practices. A rule which is seen as
!egi~im~te will bcn?fit fro~ a.double dose of approval while a rul.e,
1nsu~ut1on or practice which ts .seen as illegal and illegitimate will
be disapproved of. Ernst 0. Ugrngbe (2004) is of the view that law
moderates the struggle for power by providing criteria of
 law, Vemocrnc:y nnd Good Govenumce 111 Nigeria 89

legitim~te succession and by sayiug who has a tight to 'exercise

what .kt~d of power. This is evi~ent in the way the 1999
Const1tut1oh (as amended) has prescribed the conditions for
electing people into political offices in Nigeria whether at the
federal level or at the state level.

(4) Law. Uplaolds. Right and Duties: Black's i.aw Dictionary

(2004) optnN~ that nght may be defined as something that is due to
a person by just claim, legal guarantee, or moral principle, a legally
enforceable claim that another will do or will not do_a given act; a
recognised and protected interest the violation of which is a wrong.
Duty on the other hand can refer to a legal obligation that is owed
or due to another and that needs to be satisfied; an obligation for
which somebody else has a corresponding right. Right is a
correlative to duty because where there is no duty there can be no
right. It is worthy of note that some expectations are formally
recognised and can be the basis of claims of right. Such a right
may stem from a. person's status as a human being, e.g. right of
every adult to participate in an electoral process in Nigeria, or it
may be a constitutional right, e.g. right of every person to associate
freely with other people or right to fair hearing in civil or criminal ·
proceedings. Other rights and duties may relate to a particular role ·
or status, such as the duty of ·a manufacturer to avoid harmful
negligence or the rights of parents to provide necessaries of life for
their children. Once there is a right and duty recognisable in law it
then becomes the duty of law to enforce them.

(5) Law Co1nmunicates Standards in a Society: When the law

defines rights and responsibilities and supports its definition with
the threat of sanction or coercion, it becomes a powerful agency of
communication. Section 36 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria contains certain standards that must be
foil owed pertaining to right to fair hearing.
It is noted that laws of a State arc to be found in the statutes,
decrees, edicts, and constitutional enactment as interpreted by the
courts. Law varies with society and with the cultural traits and
heritage of the people. Law also differs considerably fron1 n1oral
90 0.1. Adej11mo

. . . -. . . I w and morality is germane i

l11Junctions. D1st1.nctt~n ~tween a be visited with sanctio n
the sense that while v1olat1on of law may ·f . ns,
· . . . · · · not necessan y sanctioned n0
v1olat1on of"moral tnJUOCllOOS ·~ . . . b M r1
matter how reprehensible the v1olat1on may e. ora ty can
"
thereaore be de ti1ned as kind of behaviour basedd'on· the· notion of
what is good or bad in the circu~tanc.es. Th~ tstinction. here ~s
the ability to enforce Jaw for its infr.actton while no sanctioned 1s
imposed for violation of moral behav1pu~. .
Suffice to note that there is a thin l,1ne between law and
morality in the sense that som~ acts no matter ho~. bad a~d
repul~ive they may appear to be, are not usua11.Y v.1s1ted With
sanctions. For example, in the southern parts of N1gena, adultery
apd fornication are regarded by the people as moral.ly wrong, yet
they are not punishable under the law, whereas tn the North,
adultery, fornication and drinking of alcohol are offences
punishable under the Penal Code and the Sharia Law.

Classification of Law
Law is often classified according to the subject areas and the
functions . they perform. These include substantive and procedural
law. Substantive, law tries to define the rights and duties
. of persons
as well as prohibiting wrongs. For instance _n:iurder, stealing,
robbery, gratification, rape, conspiracy kidnapping, terrorism,
apduction, examination malpractice, etc. are prohibited by the
substantive laws like the Criminal and Penal Codes. Substantive
law determines a wide range of matters, e.g. what is required for
parties .to enter into a binding contractual relationship, what intent
must a person have formed before he can commit the offence of
corruption, and what must happen before a person is entitled to
compensation, and so on. All the above are matters covered by the
substantive Jaw.
'Procedural law consists of all the rules or mechanisms for
pro~ssing civil and criminal ' cases through the fe-deral and state
Judicial systems. 1:1~ rul~s of procedure and jurisdiction determine
t~e court or admm1strat~ve agency that may handle a claim or
?•.sputc; the form of tnal, hearing. or appeal; the time limits
involved. Rules of procedure n1ust be strictly adhered to and are
 L.m\·, l>tmnrrnc.v mrd Good Governmrct In NIKtrin 91

generally thought to be i~dispensabte to the efficiency and f aimess

of law. Procedural lnw is so important that · it receives basic
constitutional pr~tection under the 1999 Constitution particularly
Chapter IV. Section 33 of the 1999 Constitution (as ·amended)
requires that government should provide every defendant with
procedural due process in criminal proceedings, including the right
to have free legal representation if the defendant could not afford
the services of a legal practitioner, the right to defend his case in a
speedy and public trial by an impartial judge; and the right to be
heard. Federal and state procedural rules are 'c reated by statutes
and by the courts themselves in a publication called rules of courts.
One important thing about procedural law is that failure to comply
with the procedures laid down may result in a trial being a nullity.
Law may further be classified into public and private. Public
law concerns the relationships within government and those
., between governments and individuals. Public law covers. areas
such as criminal law, constitutional law, administrative law, etc.
Public law deals with the entire society and everyone is affected by
its application. They are more con.cemed with public rights and
obligations, and govern the relationship of the individual 3f!d the
state. Criminal law, for example, is of public concern because
every member of the society is a potential victim and could be
affected one way or other by the conduct of another. That is why
criminal offences are enacted with the appropriate sanctions with
the aim of deterring would-be criminals or criminally minded
elements in the society.
Private law on the other hand involves the various retationships
that people have with one another and the rules established that
determine their legal rights and obligations. The area is concerned
with rules and principles pertaining to private ownership and the
use of property, contracts between individuals, family
relationships, matters relating to land acquisition, and redress by
way of compensation for hann·inflicted OIJ one person by another
or for breach of contractual agreement. Person here is a term which
includes corporations or corporate bodies, e.g. companies,
government institutions or other bodies duly registered under
relevant laws. These corporate entities nre regarded as persons in
 · 92 0 .1. Adej1m10

law because having been duty registered, they ca~ sue and be suCd
Jn their personal capacity. They are not human beings so to say, but
·are referred. t~ as juris~ic p~rsons. It sho~Jd be note~. that
government involvement in pnvate concerns is usually nununat.
- The private sphere includes individ~als an~ a vast arra.Y. of groups,
associations, organisations as well as special legal ent1t1e.s such as
corporations. They must however have agreed to relate in certain
ways and should any one of them fail to perform .his. or her
_ obligations in line with what they have agreed as binding, the
aggrieved party can seek redress in a court of law for non.
performance of duty by the other party. .
They compete with one another and with government control
_ of resources, wealth, power, job creation, communication of ideas
and values and manufacturing of goods and products that meet the
needs of people. It is worthy of note that special fields of law such
as labour law now help to facilitate and control this competition,
thus creating an avenue for . government to wade into labour
matters even among private organisa~ions. What was formerly
. regarded as purely private law of property and contracts is now
subject of legislation, regulations, and judicial decisions. Again,
the public law of taxation has significant impact on the whole of
private sphere in a bid to ensure private organisations pay their
. taxes as and when due. The increasingly involvement of courts in
resolving seemingly private disputes could be seen as vehicles for
response to changing social conditions and values by way of
making manufacturers liable for injuries caused to consumers
arising from defects inherent in the manufacture of their products.
Private law covers such areas as law of contract, family law,
equity and trusts, law of torts, labour law, land law, business law.
commercial transactions, etc. Public law deals with the rights and
duties of individuals towards each other rather than towards the
state.
Distinction could also be made between civil and criminal law.
Civil law is the body of Jaw, both Federal and State, that pertains
to civil or private rights enforced by civil actions. Civil law is a
term applied to a legal tradition originating in ancient Rome and to
the contemporary legal systems based on this tradition. The tenn
-
L(lw, Dmtocmcy nnd Good Governnnct In Nigeria 93

applies to all legal proceedings whether taking place in a civil law

court or a comtnon law system that are not criminal in nature and
no punitive tneasure in terms of penal sanction could be imposed.
For example, the laws governing contract are civil actions. A
breach of a contract may result in a ci vii action or litigation for
money damages ~o compensate the plaintiff for any financial lo~s
suffered or occasioned by the action of the defendant. Criminal Jaw
on the other hand is that branch of law that defines, establishes,
punishments, and regulates the investigation and prosecution of
people accused of committing crimes. Criminal law usually
declares what conduct is criminal and prescribes penalties for its
commission. This clarification is very important because of the
constitutional provision which says that:
Subject as otherwise provided by this Constitution, a
person shall not be convicted of a criminal offence
unless that offence is defined and the penalty therefore
is prescribed in a written law; and in this subsection, a
written law refers to an Act of the National Assembly
or a law of a State, any subsidiary legislation or
instrument under the provisions of a law.

Criminal law includes both substantive law and the criminal

procedure which regulates the implementation and enforcement of
substantive criminal law. Substantive criminal law defines crime
and prescribes penalty, e.g. what act constitutes stealing or what
punishment a person found stealing another person's property
should receive. Criminal procedure on the other hand deals with
the legal rules to be followed and the steps to be taken in
investigating, apprehending, charging, prosecuting, convicting and
sentencing of the offender for a particular infraction of law. For the
purpose of clarity, criminal procedure describes how a murder trial
must be conducted and this must follow strictly laid down
procedures.

Law and Customary Law

Customary law is the traditional law of the people in a given
community. It is the unwritten law of the people recognised as
 94 0.1. Adcj11mo

birtding among t11em. It regulates the affairs of the. people in their

relationship with one another. Customary law 18 a so.urce of
Nigerian law. One characteristic feature of customary law is that it
· is neither uniforni nor universally applicable as such.
- Customary law is largely unwritten. It varie~ from culture to
culture ·and with communities. For example, in places where
customary laws are observed in the di~tribution of th.e estate. o~ the
deceased who c;ii!:s intestate (not having made a w11l), vanat1ons
still exist within ethnic groups as to the type of customary laws
- applicable. The two methods prevalent among the Yoruba are idi-
igi (distribution through mothers) and ori-ojori (distribution per
head). Other ethnic groups have their own different methods of
distributing the estate of a person who dies intestate, e.g. Benin
- customary law recognises the oldest son to inherit the estate of his
late father upon his death.
Cu~tomary laws are entrenched in the customs of .the people.
They possess certain characteristics which uniquely distinguish
thein from other forms of contemporary modem written laws.
First; customary law derives its v~lidity from acceptability by the
community as binding on them. This quality of acceptability is
very fundamental to its validity and enforceability. This is well
- captured is the case of Esugbayi Eleko v. Government of Nigeria
--w11ere- it was held that, "it is the assent of the native community
that_gives acustom its validity." Also, in Owonyin v. Omotosho,
- - where the court described customary law as a "mirror of accepted
· usage."
Secondly, customary law is unwritten. Arising from its
· unwritten nature is anther characteristic, which is its flexibility.
This makes the customary law dynamic and it possesses a
changing nature in response to circumstances. In Lewis v. Bankole,
Osborne C.J. said that "one of the most striking features of West
African native custom is its flexibility. It appears to have been
always subject to motives of expediency, . and it sijows
unquestionable adaptability to altered circumstance without
entirely losing its character."
It is worthy of note that Nigerian courts are enjoined to observe
and enforce customary law, ·which is applicable and is not
repugnant to natural justice, equity and good conscience and not
 L<rw, /Jemocrncy mrd Good Govenrnnce In Nigeria 9S

incon1pntib1e either directly or by implication with any law for the

thne being in force. Accordingly, nobody shall be deprived of the
benefit of customary law. Customary Jaw shall be deemed
applicable in causes and matters where parties thereto are natives
and also in causes and matters between natives and non·natives,
where it may appear to the court that substantial injustice would be
done to either party by a strict adherence of any rules of law which
would otherwise be applicable. .
But it should be noted that no party shall be entitled to claim
the benefit of any customary law if it shall appear either from
express contract or from the nature of the transactions out of which
any suit or questions may have arisen that such a party agreed that
his obligations in connection with such transactions should be
exclusively regulated otherwise than by customary law or that such
transactions are unknown to customary law. In Nigeria there are
.different branches of law but for the purpose of this paper, our
focus .shall be on ·constitutional law and criminal law in the sense
that they come under public law and they affect the citizens
directly or indirectly.

Constitutional Law •
Constitutional law is part of what is known as public law, which is
the law regulating the relationship between the citizen and the
State. It might be appropriate to say that constitutional law is the
body of law which is concerned with government. Suffice to say
that the idea of a constitution is not new and is as old as
government itself. Constitution is de~ned . as the frame ~r
composition of a government, to the way 1n which a government 1s
· actuaUy structured in terms of its organs, the distribution of powers
within it, the relations of the organs inter se, and the procedures for
exercising powers. Hood Philips and Jackson define the word
constitution in two different senses, i.e. the abstract and the
concr~te. •
The constitution of n state in the abstract sense is the systen1 of
laws. customs and conventions, which define the composition and
powers of organs of the state, and regulate the. relatio!1~ of the
various organs to one another and to the pnvate c1t1zen. A
 96 0.1. Adejwrro "
" .
constitution in the concrete sense is t.he .document in w~ic~ the
most in1portant laws of- the constitution are authon~at1ve1y
ordained. · · .
This definition hinges on the fact .that since the .United
Kingdom has a system of .rules upon which gov~m~ent ts built
and regulated, then this is just as much a consttt~tton as t~ose
documents In Nigeria or any other country with a wntten
. constitution. ·
Basically, the constitution of any given state, whether ~ritten
or unwritten is expected to set out the framework and functions of
organs of s~ch a state and the way t?ey r~late with on~ another.
What a constitution seeks out to achieve ts the regulation of the
activities of the government and the safeguarding and protection of
the interest of the governed. A good constitution must, therefore,
set out in unambiguous terms the structure of the organs of
government, i.e. the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.
The functions arid machinery of these organs are also expected to
be well stated in the constitution to avoid encroachment by one
organ on the functions of another. This could best be described as
the concept of separation of powers so that each organ is
acquainted with the functions allocated to it without necessarily
interfering with the functions of another.
The provisions of a written constitution are usually entrenched
so they may only be amended or repealed if special procedures are
followed. The rationale behind this is that, since the constitution is
higher law which is made by the constituent power and is over and
above any other laws, modification should only be done by the
approval of the constituent power. In liberal democratic societies
the people are normally the constituent power. And it means that a
constitution can only become effective after it has been dully
approved by the people.

Classification of Constitutions
Written and Unwritten Co11stiJutions
·A constitution may be classified into either written as is the case in
Nigeria, United States of America, India or South Africa, or
unwritten like that of Britain and New Zealand. A constitution is
 lnw, /Jemacmcy nnd Good Oovernntrce in Nigeria 91

unwritten when there is no cotnprohensive document called the

constitution. Instend of having a document called the constitution,
rules stipulating · the structure of government may be found in
statutes, law reports, case law, works of authority and conventions.,
It has been argued that a written constitution is thus an act oC
deliberate creation of a code or c.harter of government, whereas an
unwritten ·constitution is an inheritance, an organic growth from
the nature and life of a people; a product of their habits, of th~ir
national character and usages.
A constitution is written when it is possible to point to one
document or a combination of documents as the constitution. A
good example of a combination of documents is the experience
Nigeria had at independence when each· Region in the country
functioned based on its constitution while there was another one
constitution for the Federation. Written constitutions are now a
common feature in most countries of the world.
Whenever a written constitution is mentioned, it is something
which is · separate from and antecedent to government. It is a
document consciously framed as an act of deliberate choice and
creation by the people who have the right and the power to frame
and approve it. The constitution must therefore be seen as the
f;Ource from which government derives its existence and power.
This point captures the provision of section 14(2) when it says: "It
is hereby, accordingly, declared that sovereignty belongs to t~e
people of Nigeria from whom _government through this
Constitution derives all its powers and authority."
Going by the preamble to the 1999 Constitution and the general
notion that a written constitution should be a document created and
approved by the people, one wonders whether this can be said to
be true of the way and manner the 1999 Constitution was made. It
is submitted that the level of participation of the people of Nigeria
in the formulation of the l999 Constitution is greatly in doubt if
one looks at the composition of the Constitutional Debate Co-
ordinating Committee charged with the responsibility for making a
new constitution for Nigeria.
98 0 . I. Adcjumo

An unwritten constitution on the other hand points to a

situation where it is difficult to refer to a single document that
could be called the constitutio·n. The example of an unwritten
constitution is the United Kingdom. It is true that the United
Kingdom has no single document we c~n refer to as its
documentary constitution, but the fact JS that t~ere are
constitutional law statutes existing on the statute book in Britain
and these are used to regulate the Legislature, Executive and the
Judiciary. Some of these statutes include the Magna Carta of 1215,
Petition of Rights 1628, the Bill . of Rights 1688, the Act of
1

· Settlement of 1700, Act of Union with Scotland of 1906, the

Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Supreme Court Judicature
Act of 1925, the Status of Westminster of 1931, the Ministers of
the Crown Acts of 1948 and 1981, the laying.of Document before
Parliament Act 1967-alJ are landmark constitutional law statutes
of the United Kingdom that could have formed a comer stone of
the British constitution in the areas of the Legislature, Executive
and Judiciary if the United Kingdom has cared to have a written
constitution in a formal sense. G

Rigid and Flexible Constitutions

The classification of constitution into either rigid or flexible refers
to the procedures for amending the constitution. A constitution is
rigid if the procedure for . amending it is special, i.e. certain
procedures are required before such a constitution can be amended
or altered. We have the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic
of Nigeria (as amended), and the Constitution of the United States
of America as examples of a rigid constitution. Section 9(2) of the
1999 Constitution provides that "an Act of the National Assembly
for the alteration of this Constitution, not being an Act to which
section 8 of this Constitution applies, shall not be passed in either
House of the National Assembly unless the proposal is supported
by the votes of not Jes~ than two-thirds n1ajotity of all the members
of that House und approved by resolution of the I-louses of
Assembly of not Jess than two-thirds of all the States." Subsection
(2) deals with all nmendments except the provision on creation of
States which section 8 of the Constitution denls with. lt is required
 lnw, Democracy nnd Good Governance in Niguia 99

that two-thirds of all the members of the National Assembly as

well as two-thirds of all the States support the proposal for
amendment before such amendment exercise can become valid.
A constitution is flexible where the mode of amending it can be
done by the ordinary legislative enactment. 'In other words, a
flexible constitution is one where the mode of altering it does not
require rigorous procedures. All the constitutions Nigeria
experimented before independence, e.g. Clifford's Constitution o(
1922, Richard's Constitution of 1946, and Macpherson's
Constitution of 1951 were all written but flexible.

Monarchical and Republican Constitutions

A monarchical government is one that has a monarch as its head
while a republican one has a president instead. The distinction
between the two is of little importance because it is not indicative
of the substance of the constitution governing the operation of the
government. A monarch or president may be ceremonial as was the
case under the 1960 Independence Constitution and the 1963
Republican Constitution respectively. Monarchs in Europe are no
longer politically powerful because as heads of state their role is
ceremonial and symbolic while the real executive functions are
performed by the prime minister.

Presidential/Parliamentary Constitution
The distinction between the two lies in the relationship that exists
between the executive and the legislative arms of government.
Under a presidential constitution, the people are given the mandate
to elect both the executive head and the members of legislature.
Authority to govern is given to both the executive and the
legislative arms of government after elections might have been
conducted and winners declared by an independent electoral
umpire. Where a member of the legislature is appointed either as
minister or commissioner, he automatically forfeits his
membership of the legislative ann. This is the nature of the United
States of America's constitution as well as the various
constitutions of Nigeria since 1979 to date and this is to guarantee
the concept of separation of powers entrenched in the constitution
to avoid one person performing the functions of two arms of
government.
I00 OJ. Arlrjrmrn

In n pnrlintncntnry systcn1 of gov~rnmer1t, the right to gov~rn

flows fro111 nn elected logislnture, which. the~ c!ects an. executive
hcnd. called the prirno 111inister who ord1nanly. is appo1nte.d from
the party that produces rnajority members. in the par!tament.
Mernbers of the legislature can at the same .ume be a~po1nted as
ministers of government, nnd thos~ appointed outside of the
legislature n1ust, within a stipulated time, become ~embers of. the
legislature. TI1is form of government operates in the United
Kingdom and operated in Nigeria under .the 1960 and the 1963
Constitutions respectively. It is interesting to note t~at many
Nigerians have been canvassing for a return to parhamentary
system of government because they consider it as best for Nigeria
in a bid to reduce cost of running government.

Federal/Unitary Constitution
In a federal constitution, the allocation of powers between the
federal or national government and the regions, states or federating
units is akin to sharing of powers amongst equals. Each will have
its own sphere of influence and certain matters can only be done in
partnership. In other words, there is division of powers between the
central and other regional or state governments to the effect that
each enjoys some degree of autonomy in the areas constitutionally
allocated to it. Examples of countries with federal constitution are
the United States of America, Nigeria, India, etc.
In a unitary system, there is a hierarchical arrangement, which
may permit control of the. other tiers of government. Even where
other tiers of government are put in place, they are there for
administrative purposes without real autonomy. Examples of
countries operating unitary system are Britain and the Gambia.

Co11/ederatio11
There is little difference between a federation and a confederation.
The major difference between the two lies in the sharing of powers
betwee~ the central gove1111nent and the cornponent units. In a
federat1on, the central govcm1nent sccn1s to exercise stronger
powers than the co~ponent units. In a confederation however, the
ce~tral government 1s weaker and subordinate to the coniponent
um ts.
 Lnw, /)C'mncrncy mtd Good Go1•rrnnnu In Nlgtrfn 101

llistorlcot Dcvelopntclll of Nigerian Constltutlonol Low

The general ~otion of constitutionul law in Nigeria actually
cotnmenccd .wtth the colonial constitutions bcfore independence
was granted n~ 1960 ~~tn th~ British rule. Before independence, it
was the colomal adnumstratton that held sway with the enactment
of ~iffcrent. co~stit~tions with which the country was governed.
TI1ese constttut1ons included the 1914 Lord Lugard's Constitution,
Hugh Clifford's Constitution of 1922, Arthur Richard's
Constitution of 1946, John Macpherson's Constitution of 1951,
and the Federal Constitution of 1954, popularly known as the
Oliver Lyttelton Constitution. It was the Lyttleton Constitution of
1954 that made Nigeria a federation of 3 regions with the federal
territory of Lagos as its capital. The three regions were the
Northern Region, Eastern Region and the Western Region. We
also talk of the 1960 Independence Constitution which was enacted
and given force of law by the colonial suzerain's Parliament. There
was also the 1963 Republican Constitution, which like its
predecessor, was mostly a re-enactment of the 1960 Constitution.
It is worthy of note that another region (Mid-Western Region) was
created under the 1963 Republican Constitution thus, making
Nigeria to be a federation of four regions.
Following the 1966 military takeover of the government of the
federation, the 1963 Republican Constitution was suspended and in
its place were promulgated various military decrees and edicts for
the purpose of governance in Nigeria. The military regime in line
with the promise of returning Nigeria to a democratically elected
government enacted the 1979 Constitution. The process leading to
the enactment of the 1979 Constitution could be described as
involving a five-stage programme of planned transition to civil
rule.
The first stage involved the setting up of a Constitution
Drafting Committee in September 1975 with the task ~f producing
a Draft Constitution for Nigeria. Joye E. Michael and lgweike
Kingsley (1982) report that members of the Committee were
selected first, on the basis of two per slate, and secondly f!om
among learned Nigerians in disciplines considered to have direct
relevance to constitution.making; namely, history, law, economics,
and other social sciences, especially political science. Frorn the
102 0.1. Adtjumo ·

.· Government appeared to favour a

onset, the Federal M1htary . clear from the address of
federal. system of government as this was . . .
the Head of State to the Constitution .Drafting Co~tte~ when he
said that the Supreme Military Counc1I was comrrutte to,
(a) a federal system of government based on democracy and
rule of law and which guarantees fundamental human
rights; · . ..
(b) the establishment of genuine and tru1Y natlona1 po1lttcal
parties; .
(c) an Executive Presidential system of government,
(d) an independent judiciary; . . . .
(e) the provision of such corre~uve 1nsttt~t1ons as the Corrupt
Practices Tribunal and Pubhc Complaint Bureau, and
(f) constitutional restriction on the number of states to be
created.
The second stage of the transition programme to civil rule
involved the creation of new states in April, 1976, with the
increase in the number of states from twelve to nineteen. They
provided a common national framework for local government in
the country which were aimed at; ·
(a) making appropriate services and development activities
responsive to local wishes and initiatives;
(b) facilitating the exercise of democratic sel f-govemment
close·to the local levels of the society;
(c) mobilising human and material resources through the
involvement of the public in their local development; and
(d) providing a two-way channel of communication between
·local communities an'd the government.

The third stage dealt with the establishment of a Constituent

Assembly in August 1977 and the selection of its membership. The
Assembly was formally established by the Constituent Assembly
Decree No. 50 of 1977 with full power to deliberate on the Draft
Constitution drawn up by the Constitution Drafting Committee.
The Con~titucnt Assembly comprised three categories of
membership; namely, the elected, nominated and Constitution
Drafting Committee elements,
 /,,(th•, /Jemocrncy nnd Gnnd Gn\lenrnnce In Nigeria. l 03

The Inst two stngcs of the planned programme of transition to

civil 111le involved the establishment of the Federal Electoral
Co~1!1~issiot1 (~DE~O), the lifting of the ban on political
octt.vtlte~, the reg1strat1011 of the newly formed political parties, the
reg1stnll1on of voters and the compilation of the list' of the
registered voters and the supervision of elections to fill the newly
established federal and slate public offices. Lastly, there was the
handing ov~r of political power by the military government to the
newly elected public officers at the central and the state levels on
1st October, 1979.
The 1979 Constitution produced some unique features in the
history of constitution making in Nigeria. First, it introduced a
federal system of government modelled after the United States of
America's system of government. In line with this system, the
Constitution established three tiers of government, i.e. federal
government, state government and local government. There existed
two legislative lists in the Constitution and each tier of government
had its own respective sphere aIJocated to it based on the matters
listed on the Exclusive Legislative List reserved exclusively for the
Federal government, and matters on the Concurrent Legislative
List which were meant for both the Federal and State governments.
In the words of Akande 0. Jadesola (1982), State governments had
exclusive jurisdiction on matters which were neither listed in the
Exclusive nor Concurrent Legislative Lists normally referred to as
"residual matters", but nothing stops the Federal Government from
performing acts in relation to such matters subject however to and
in accordance with the rules and regulations of the States. The
effect of the provisions of sub-sections 6 and 7 of the 1979
Constitution was that each House of Asse1nbly had exclusive
legislative jurisdiction on any matters which are neither on the
Exclusive List nor the ConcurTent List as set out in Parts I and II of
the Second Schedule to the Constitution.
The National Asse1nbly was saddled with the responsibility of
making Jaws for the peace, order and good govc1111nent of the
Federation and any part thereof with respect to any tnatters
included in the Exclusive Legislative List set out in Part I of the
Second Schedule to the Consti tut ion.
104 0./. Adejumo
\
. .
· . I A mbly to make laws for
The power of the Nutaona sse t f h
d govemmen o t e
the peace order an d goo . · d d·
Federatton, ' wit. -11 tespe
. ct to any matters 1nclu e 1n the
. . 'd d · ·
. L.. .
E xc Ius1ve 1st s1m , JI save as otherwise
. prov1 He 1n this
. .
Const1tuuon, e b to the exclusion of the ouses of
Assetnbly of States.
The Houses of Assembly of a State shall have
power to inake laws for the peace, order and go?d
.. goven1ment of the State or any part thereof wtth
respect to; (a) any m~tters in the Concurrent
Legislative List set out 1n P~ I of the. Second
Schedule to this Constitution, (b) any matter included
in the Concurrent Legislative List set out in the first
column of Part I of the Second Schedule to this
Constitution to the extent prescribed in the second
column opposite thereto, and (c) any other matters wi~h
respect to . which it is empowered to make laws tn
accordance with the provisions of this Constitution.

The Constitution established for the first time Chapter II titled

"Fundamental Objectives and Directives Principles of State
Policy" which was regarded as novel in the history of constitution
making in Nigeria. There was no effort sequel to that at spelling
out some of the philosophical or ideological justification of the
state of Nigeria or the principles, ideals, goals and objectives of the
social and economic order. The Constitution Drafting Committee
of the 1979 Constitution advanced six basic reasons to justify the
inclusion of the Fundamental Objectives and Directives Principles
of State Policy in the Constitution.
First, it stated that these objectives and principles prescribed on
the s~te ?efinite duties towards its subjects. It einphasised that the
Const1lut1on bestows power upon the organs and institutions of
government, not for the personal aggrandisement of the politicians
and others who n1ay hold power fron1 titne to tiine, but for the
welfare. and advancement of the society as n whole. Secondly, they
are designed as targets towards which the country 01 ust ainl in its
development. They stnte thnt:
 lnw, Democmcy mrd Good Go vemnnct In Nigeria I05

spellit~g thetn out in the Constitution provides a

yardstick for j~tdging the performance of any
govenunent. It invests them with the quality of
~onstitutional ~irective to the organs of the state to
inform and gut de their actions by referencc to the
declared principles.
Thirdly, they define the goals for the nation without
wh!ch . it would continue . to drift aimlessly. They
ma1nta1n that:
unless the goals and fundamental attitudes and
values ... are clearly stated and accepted, a new nat'ion
is likely to find itself rudderless, with no sense of
purpose and direction. However, by defining the goals
of society and prescribing the institutional forms and
procedures for pursuing them, it paves the way for the
people to · unite into one nation bound together by
common attitudes and values, common institutions and
procedures and above all an acceptance of common
objectives and destiny.

Fourthly, in a country as vast as Nigeria, where the people still

give priority to local interests, the objectives and principles serve
as a constant reminder and guide to successive governments to
maintain a sense of unity. Fifthly, spelling out the objectives and
principles in the Constitution removes them from the province of
political controversy, leaving future debates to centre on the
practical implementation and timing of policies and the ability of
the government to shoulder their responsibility.
Lastly, the Constitution Drafting Committee admitted that the
aspirations, goals and values of the society arc not stagnant and
often not a true reflection of the cun·ent values. The Constitution
then listed the following as objectives and principles of state
policies; political objectives, econo1nic objectives, social
objectives, educational objectives, foreign policy objectives,
environrnental objectives, directive on Nigerian cultures,
obligation of the n1ass media, national ethics, and duties of the
citizens.
 106 0.1. Ad<'}11mo

. ntal objectives and directive of state

As laudable us the ~undnme . t' ·iable in the sense that failu
• I \ wevcr not JUS 1c . re
po1tcy are, t ley are ll 0 r ffice holders to give effect t
on the part .of the elected pub ic ~;court in Nigeria. This is th~
them ca~1not be challenged. 10 any( ) f the 1979 Constitution wh
effect of section 6 sub section 6 c o . . en
·1s sat'd: ,.,,., · di ·
111e JU eta .I powers. vested 1n accordance with the
foregoing provisions of this section-
' (d) shall not, except as otherwise provide? by this
Constitution, extend to any issue or qu~stton as to
o:
whether any act or omission by any ~u~honty. pe~s~n
or as to whether any law or any jud1c1al ~ec1~1on ts in
conformity with the Fundamental ObJe~t1ves and
Directive Principles of State Policy set out 1n Chapter
II of this Constitution.

Executive and ·11ie Judiciary - Section 4 established the

Legislature and it divided the 'legislative powers of the federation
between the National Assembly comprising of t}Je Senate and the
House of Representatives and the Houses of Assembly of the
States of the federation. Section 5 provided for the executive
p<;>wers and these powers ~ere shared between tpe President and
the State Governors, while section 6 provided '. for the judicial
powers between the federal courts and the state courts.
The 1979 Constitution also provided for Fundamental Human
Rights in Chapter IV. Fundamental rights are a common feature in
constitutions of many countries today to promote ,liberty, freedom
and equality of the citizens as their guiding principles. In some
c~untries, f~n~ame~tal _rights are also referred t9 as the Bill of
Rights. Their 1nclus1on 1n some constitutions of some countries of
the world is to ensure that due regards are given tp basic freedom
and fundamental rights of the citizenry. ·
.Ajomo (2003~ states ~he nature of human rights as those rights
which hur:nan beings enjoy by virtue of their humanity, whether
black! white, yellow, grey or red, the deprivation of
which would
constitute a grave afrront to o~e's. natural sense of justice. Th?t
God crea~ed 1nen w1~h some inaltennble and inherent rights is
captured an the A1ncncan Declaration of Independence from the
 /.n11·, Venwrrncy mrd Good Go,•trnnnce in Nigtrin 107

British Govcnnnent where it was declared: "We hold these truths

to be self-evident that all men arc created equal, that they are
endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, that
atnong them are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."
Fundamental rights were not a creation of a state, but are
cxten1al and universal institutions, common to all mankind and
antedating the state and founded upon natural Jaw. Natural law has
been regarded as the higher law, which in accordance with nature,
applies to all men, and is unchangeable and eternal. Natural rights
are rights of human beings that exist regardless of any other law.
TI1ey are personal rights in the sense that they accrue to the
individuals and they cannot be waived by the individuals. They are
also rights which are regarded as personal by human beings prior
to their recognition by a legal system. Formulation of natural rights
dates back from the second half of the eighteen century, the
revolutionary periods in .America and France. These rights are
contained in Chapter IV of the 1979 and 1999 Constitutions of
Nigeria respectively and they include:
(i) Right to life;
(ii) Right to dignity of human person;
(iii) Right to personal liberty;
(iv) Right to fair hearing;
(v) Right to private and family life;
(vi) Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion;
(vii) Right to freedom of expression and the press;
(viii) Right tc.> peaceful assembly and association;
(ix) Right to freedom of movement;
(x) Right to freedom from discrimination;
(xi) Right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere
in Nigeria;
(xii) Compulsory acquisition of property.

Right to Life ·
Section 33 of the 1999 Constitution provides for right to life when
it says: "Every person has a right to life and no one shall be
deprived intentionally of his life, save in execution of the sentence
of a court in respect of a crin1inal offence of which he has been
I08 0.1. Adejumo

found guilty in Nigeria." This right is ~he ~rst. basic right of any
individual and the one that secures to him hts ftfe. Note however
that right to life in this section and indeed u~der our le~al .system is
not absolute. Thus a per.son may be depnv:d ?f his hfe under
certain exceptions as contained in the Const1tut1on. Ther~fore, a
person may be deprived of his life, if a cou!1 of l~w has tn~d ~im
and sentenced him to death having found htm guilty of a cnminal
offence which offence itself attracts capital punishment.
Here distinction is usually made between offences that carry
death penalty and offences that do not carry death penalty. In
Nigeria, all offences are three kinds for the purpose of punishment.
The first category is felony which is regarded as a serious crime
and, under many statutes, is declared by law to be a felony, or is
punishable, without a proof of previous conviction, with death or
with imprisonment for a term of three years or more. For example,
murder, treason, armed robbery, terrorism, and kidnapping in some
States in Nigeria are all offences of felony. The second category is
the offence of misdemeanour which is declared by law to be a
misdemeanour, or is punishable by imprisonment for not less six
months but less than three years. All other offences other than
felonies and misdemeanours are simple offences.
A person shall not be regarded as having been deprived
of his life, if he dies as a result of the use, to such
extent and in such circumstances as are permitted by
law, of such force as is reasonably necessary-
{a) f~r the defence of any person from unlawful
~1olence or for the defence of property;
(b) 1n order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the
escape of a person lawfully detained; or
(c) for the. purpose of suppressing a riot, insurrection
or mutiny.

Right to Dig11ity of ll11111a11 Person

~e~ti?n 3~ of . the I999 C~nstitution provides that; "every
1nd1v1~ual as entllled to respect for the dignit 0 f t · on and
accordingly; Y us pers '
 Law, /)emocm cy and Good Governance in Nig~~in 109

(a) !10 person shall be subjected · to torture, cir to

1nhu.r~1an or degrading treatment;
or
(b) no.p~rson shall be held in slavery servitude, and
(c) no person shall be required to perform' forced or
co1npulsory labour.

This section forbids the use of torture, inhuman or degrading

tr~atment, slavery a~~ servitude, forced or compulsory Jabour.
With. regai:d to sectton 34 (2) of the Constitution, the right
contained in section 34 (1) is not derogated from where the
compulsory labour required is in the Anned Forces, the Police
Force or any service scheme such as NYSC or that forms part of
normal communal or other civil obligation such as monthly
sanitation exercise.

Right to Personal Liberty

Section 35 ( 1) provides that every person shall be entitled to his
personal liberty and no person shall be deprived of such liberty
save in the following cases and in accordance with a procedure
permitted by law. This is an important fundamental human right
designed to ensure that no citizen is unduly detained or imprisoned
at the whim of persons in authority. The Constitution provides for
situations when a person may be deprived of hjs liberty. They
constitute exceptions to the right to personal liberty and are:
(a) in the execution of lawful sentence in respect of a criminal
offence of which a person has been found guilty,
(b) by reason of failure to comply with court's order or any
other obligation imposed by Jaw,
(c) for the purpose of facilitating his arrest and arraignment in
court upon reasonable suspicion of his having committed a
criminal offence, or to such extent as may be reasonably
necessary to prevent him frotn committing a criminal
offence,
(d) in the case of a minor for the purpose of his education or
his welfare,
(e) for the purpose of facilitating treatment of persons
suffering from infectious disease, persons of unsound
 ,

110 0./. Adl'jumo

tnind, persons addicted ~o drugs or alcohol or vagrants, and

for 'the purpose of preventing t~e unlawf~I entry of. ~ny
person into Nigeria or of effecting expulsion, extradttion
or oth~r re1noval from Nigeria of any persons.

Under this section, any person who is. arrested ?r detained s~all
haye the right to remain silent or avo1~ ~nswenn~ any quest,1on
until after consultation with a legal practitioner of h1:1 own choice,
Any person who is arrested or detained ~hall be informed in
writing within twenty-four hours and 1n the language he
understands of the ·facts and grounds of his arrest or detention. A
person who is unlawfully arrested and detained shall be entitled to
compensation and public apology from the appropriate authority or
persons specified by law.

Right to Fair Hearing- Section 36 of the 1999 Constitution) as

aitiended)
In the determination of his civil rights and obligations,
including any question or determination by or against
any government or authority, a person shall be entitled
to a fair hearing within a reasonable time by a court or
other tribunal :established by law and constituted in
such manner as to secure its independence and
impartiality.

~ub-sect~o~s .1 to 3 of section 36 deal with fair hearing in

relation to c1v1l nghts and obligations while sub ..sections 4 to 12
deal with criminal rights. .
Right to . fair hearing is the widest and all-embracing
fundament?I ng~t. At ~ommon law, the right to fair hearing is
expressed 1n Latin m.ax1ms,. ''nemo judex in causa sua," meaning,
no ma~. shall .be a judge 1n his own cause, and "audi alteram
partem, meanmg, hear the other side. To satisfy the requirement
under section 36, the foil owing must be fulfilled:
( 1) The trial, whether relating to civil obligation or crin1inal
offence, must be conducted in public.
--
IAw, DtJmocmry mtd Good Gov~mnnce In Nigerln III

(2) The court or tribunal established by law must be

independent und impartial.
(3) A ~erson ohurged with u criminal offence is presumed to
be innocent until the contrary is proved.
(4) A person charged with a criminal offence shall be
entitled to a falr hearing within a reasonable time.
(5) A person charged with a criminal offence shall be
infortned promptly in the language that he understands
and in detnl I of the nature of the offence.
(6) A_person charged with a criminal offence shall be given
adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his
defence. ·
(7} A person charged with a criminal offence is entitled to
defend himself either in person or by legal practitioners
of his own chgjpe,
(8} He is entitled to examine~. in person or by his legal
practitioner~, th~ witn~sses called by the prosecution
b~fore the court or tribunal and obtain the attendance and
QilITY out th~ ~;xamination of witn~sses to testify on his
beh~lf befor~ th~ court or tribunaL
(9) H~ is entitled tg have, without payment, the ·assistance of
fln interpreter~ · if he cannqt una~rstand the language used
fti th~ trial gf ihe offence.
00) No ~f~Ph ~hall be held to be guilty of a criminal offence
on agpount pf qny act or omission that did not, at the time
it tQPk. plfW~, PQO~titute such an Qff~nce, and no penalty
~hflll be irnposeq for any criminal offence heavier than
the p~nfllty in force at the time the offence was
comminep.
(l l) No pcrsQn who shows that he has been tried by a court of
~gmp~ient jurisdiction or tri~unal for a cri~inal ~ffence
and e.ilh~r ~onvicted or acquitted shall agatn be tned for
that offence or for a orlrntnnl offpnce having the same
ingredients a~ that offence save upon the order of a
fiUperior courL
(12) No person who is tried for a criminal offence shall be
compelled to give evidence at the trinl.
I I2 0 .1. Arlrjumo

(13) Subject ns otherwise provided by . th.is Constitution, a

person shnll not be convicted of a cnm1nal offence unless
that offence is defined and the .pcna!ty theref~re is
prescribed in a written law; and 1n ~his subsection, a
written lnw refers to an Act of the National Assembly or
a law of a State, any subsidiary legislation or instrument
under the provisions of a law.

Rigl11 to Private and Family Riglit

Section 37 of the Constitution provides for right to private and
family life. Right to privacy is a recent phenor_nenon in Nigeria. In
the United States of America, right of privacy relates to the
protection of the privacy of persons, their homes, their
correspondence, telephone conversations and telephonic
communications, letters or any other method of communication.

Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion

According to section 38 of the 1999 Constitution, every person
shal 1 be entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion,
including freedom to change his religion or.belief and freedom
(either alone or in community with others, and in public or in
private) to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship,
teaching, practice and observance.
(2) No person attending any place of education shall be
required to receive religious instruction or to take part
in or attend any religious ceremony or observation if
such instruction, ceremony or observance relates to a
religion other than his own or a religion not approved
by his parent or guardian.

(3) No religious co1nmunity or denornination shall be

prevente~ from provi~ing. ins!ruction for pupils of that
cof!lm~mty or denomannt1on m any place of education
mamtamed wholly by that co1nn1unity or
denon1ination.
 l.l1w, Democracy mrd Good Go\'emance in Nigeria 113

(3) Nothing in this section shall entitle any person to

fof!ll, take part in the activity or be a member of a
secret society.

Freedotti of Expression alld the Press

Section 39(1) provides that every person shall be entitled to
freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions and to
receive and impact ideas and information without interference.
This provision accords with the universal belief that freedom of
expression and the press is so fundamental that any Jaw which
tends to obstruct the right will not be regarded as law, so to say.
Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides
for the right of freedom of opinion and expression to everyone. In
sub-section 3 of section 39, it is provided that this freedom can
only be abridged by a law that is reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society. Section 39 of the 1~99 Constitution which
guarantees freedom of the press cannot be used as a license to
spread false news likely to cause fear and alarm to the public.

Right to Peace/ul Assembly and Association

The right of citizens to assemble and ass·ociate themselves together
for the aim of forming or propagating the aims and objectives of
religious, political. and trade union organisations has been
acknowledged long ago before it was made a constitutional right.
The assembly must however be peaceful and the association for a
lawful purpose. The right of peaceful assembly and association
consists in the right of two or more persons to form an association
for a common purpose within the limits allowed by law. If the
object of their association is unlawful or they pursue or intend to
pursue that objective by unlawful means, such persons will be in
breach of the law.

Right to Freedom of Move111e11t

The 1999 Constitution guarantees the right to freely move
throughout the territory of Nigeria and to reside or settle in any
part of it without molestation or harassment. This right is coupled
with a right not to be expelled or refused entry thereto or exit
 ' I,

'114 O.I. Adrjumo

there.fron1. Under sub..:s~ction (2) of this . sec.ti~n, t~is freedom can

be restricted by a law that is 1!en~~nably JUstifiabJe .1" 3 _de1!1oc~atic
society for the purpose of extrnd1t1on .of an~ pe~son from Ntg~n~ to
any other country to be tried outside. Ntg~na .fo~ any cn.m1na1
offence, or undergo imprisonment outside Ntger:ia .•n exec~t1on of
the sentence of a court of law in respect of a crn:ntnal offence for
which he has been found guilty.

Right to Freedo11i f ro1n Discrimination . ..

Section 42 of the 1999 Constitution provides that no c1t1zen of
Nigeria shall be favoured or discriminate~ ~gai~st und~r any la~ in
force in Nigeria or any executive or adrrun1st~~t~v~ actton ~y _v1nue
of his community, ethnic group, place of ongtn, sex, rehgton or
political opinion. Sub-section (2) provides that no citizen of
Nigeria shall be subjected to any disability or deprivation merely
by reason of the circumstances of his birth . .

Right to Acquire and own Immovable Property in Nigeria

This section guarantees the right to acquire and own immovable
property anywhere in Nigeria. However, all necessary:procedures
prescribed by law where the property is situated or is to be
acquired must be fallowed.

Compulsory Acquisition of Property

This section provides for the way and manner in which a moveable
property or any interest in an immovable ·property can be
compulso~ly ~cquire? in Nigeria. To this end, prompt payment of
compensation 1s reqmred where moveable property or any interest
in an imm~vable is to be acquired or where possession of it is to be
.compuJsonJy taken over. Such award of compensation should be
made by a court or an independent tribt.:nal.

Limitations on Fun,la1nental Rights

Secti~n 46 of the 1999 Consti~ution contains a general provision on
the circums~ances under which sorne of the fundamental rights
may be restncted or derogated fron1. Under sub section l of section
45, the qµaliryed. rights prov~ded in sections 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41.
of the Const1tut1on 1nay be restricted for a variety of purposes
 lnw, /)emocrt1ty nnd Good Govemnnce In Nigeri<t f IS ·

including defence,. p~blic order, public morality, or public health.

However, .the restnctton of these rights can only be justified under
the authonty of a law, and the rneasurcs which are taken under -that
law are, in each case, open to questions in the court upon allegation ·
that they are n?t reasonably )ustifiable in a democratic society.
Un~er sub-section 2 of section 45, the rights provided for in
sections 33 and 35 of the Constitution can only be derogated from
in the event of war or during a period of emergency declared under
section 305 of the Constitution. Thus, only in these two
circ~mstances, apart from specific built-in-provisions in some
sections, can a fundamental rights guaranteed under the
Constitution be curtailed or restricted.

What Constitutional Powers belong to· the People?

Under the Constitution, much power is delegated to the federal
government while great power is reserved to the States. However,
it is the people who possess the ultimate power, especially in a fre.e
society where democracy has taken root and has been fully
established. One of the great powers of the people is to be found in
thefr right to · participate in a free election and exercise their
franchise to vote for the candidates of their choice. Every person
wishing to hold any elective position must contest with ·other
political opponents and win the election by receiving a majority of
the people's vote. Those who are entrusted with the law making
responsibility are privileged to do so because they have contested
and won elections against other contestants. It is by popular vote
that law makers and those who govern are chosen.
For the purpose of an election to the office of ~esident, the
whole of the federation shall be regarded as one constituency. And
every person who is registered to vote shall be entitled to vote in
Nigeria in every election. Every person seeking to c?ntest for an
elective position must appeal to the electorate for theu Sl!pport. It
is in this regard that the people's power to vote for candidates of
their choice into available elective · positions cannot be
overemphasised. However, their power is of. great .value where
people' choice is respected and where there ts credible electoral
syste1n.
t 16 0./. Adejumo

· ·After 'election, the people sti 11 res·e rve th~. power ·to re~ove a
person duly elected into any political offi~e, 1f th~.Y ~erce1ve that
the person is ·no longer acting on their interest.. This power to ·
reinove any elected lawmaker either from the National Assembly
or State House of Assembly is called the recall power. Recall
power enables voters to remove from office any elected member of
1

the legislature before the expiration of his or her term. Even

though President, Vice President, Governor an~ Deputy Governor
cannot be recalled under the Constitution, they can be removed
from office by a procedure · known as impeachment. While the
people themselves can exercise their recall power to remove a
member of the legislature either at federal or state level, the power
to remove President, Vice President, Governor or Deputy
Governor is exercised by the legislature on behalf of the people.
Another power the people have is what is known as the
referendum petition which may be used by voters to ve~o unwanted
laws that have already been passed by the legislature and signed by
the President or Governor, as well as the unpopular laws that have
been vetoed by the President or Governor but then have been
enacted into law when the veto was overridden by the legislature.
This method gives a new and added dimension to the sovereignty
of the people in a democratic framework because the Constitution
itself accords sovereignty to the people. This process of
referendum which is popular in the developed democracies is yet
to be utilised in Nigeria and in some of the developing countries of
the world.

Criminal Law
Criminal law is the branch of law that defines crimes and
establishes punishments. It includes - both substantive law and
criminal procedure w~ich regulates the implementation' and
en.forcement o~ substantive law. Substantive criminal law defines
cnme and pumshmcnt, for exan1ple, what act constitutes stealinu
a~d ~hat punishme.nt a thief should receive. On the other hanJ:
cnm1nal procedur~ 1s c~ncemed with the legal rules followed and
the steps taken to mvesttgate,
. h · t and
. arrest, charge , prosecu te, conv1c
sentence to pums nient mdividuals who v· l t b t t ·ve
· · II c · · - 1o a e s u s an 1
cn1n1na aw. n1n111al haw seeks to protect the public from harm
 L<rw, /Jemocracy n11d Good Govemnnce In Nigeria I J7

by infli~ting ~u11ish1n.ent upon those who have done harm and by

threatemng wtth pumshment would-be criminals. The harm that
critninal law seeks t~ pr~~ent varies. It may range from physical
hann to death, or bodily tnJury to human beings, loss of or damage
to property, sexual assault, disturbance of the public peace and
order, or kidnapping, terrorism, etc.
Usually, there are two elements of a crime which must coexist
for a person to be liable to punishment for committing a crime. The
two elements are guilty act (this is referred to as the actus reus),
and guilty mind (this is called mens rea). For a person to be guilty
of a crime he must have done a prohibited act voluntarily or he
must have failed to act when a law has imposed a duty on him to
perform in a certain way. Where a prohibited conduct is either
accidental or involuntary, there is no legal liability, for law does
not punish a conduct which is accidental or involuntary.
A crime .is defined as an act or omission which renders the
person doing the act or making the omission liable to punishment
under the Criminal Code or under any Act, or Law in Nigeria.
Also, to be criminally liable, a person must have committed a
crime with a guilty mind. Thus, many crimes are defined in terms
of intentionally, knowingly~ maliciously, wilfully, recklessly, or
negligently acting or bringing about a particular result, or of
conducting oneself with intent to accomplish a specific
consequence. The mens rea requirement distinguishes between
inadvertent or accidental acts and acts for which a person is
criminally liable. It should be noted that guilty act only is not
enough for a person to be culpable for an offence but must co-exist
with mens rea. The exception to this rule is in relation to offences
of strict liability, e.g. drink driving.

Defences to Crinies .
When a person comrnits a crime and is charged to court for hts
wrongdoing there are certain defences he can raise. When a person
raises a defence, he is not denying the fact that he tnight ha~e done
something wrong or unlawful but that he should not be pumshed as.
a result of his state of rnind at the time of the comn1ission of the
offence. He is in essence saying that his rnind is not guilty, though
I 18 0.1. Adejttmo

his conduct may have brought about a particular prohibited r~sult.

Son1e defences are factual, e.g: an accused person may ra1se a
defence of nlibi that demonstrates he \\las not present at th.e crime
scene at the time the crime was committed.- Defence of insanity
acknowledges that the ·accused conurlitted the o.ffen~e but that he
should not be punished becau~e of the stat~ of ~ts trund as a result
of which he was in such a state of mental disease or natural mental
infirmity .as to· deprive him of capacity to understand ~hat he was
doing, or of.capacity to control his actions, or of capac1ty to know
that he ought not to act or make the omission .
. Intoxication under the Criminal Code does not offer any
defence as a general rule. There are however exceptions to this
general . rule. One exception is that where intoxication is
involuntary and is due to the malicious or negligent act of another
person and the person raising the defence must not have known
that such act or omission.was wrong and also that he did not know
what he was doing at the time of the act or omission. The second
excepti9n in relation to the defence of intoxication is that the
person ch.arged was. by rea.son of intoxication insane, temporarily
or otherwise at the time of such act or omission. Intoxication under
the Penal Code offers a defence provided the intoxic-ation is
involuntary. If the intoxication is voluntary there is no defence for
such a person. · ;

Immature Age ·:
A person under the age of s~ven years is not criminally responsible
for an~ a~t or omission: Al~o, a person under the age of twelve is
not cnminally res~ons1ble jfor an act or omission, unless it is
hproved
d that't at thek time hof doing
1
the act or mak·1ng th e orruss1on
· · he
a . c~paci Y to now t at he ought not to do the act or make the
omission.
· Ablmalef person
h · unqer the age of tw e I ve years 1s
· presumed
to be 1ncapa e o · av1ng carpal knowledge.

Duress
A person who commits a criln b
extreme influence or coin . e ecause another person exerts
the defence of duress.
1 1
pe ~ ltm to do a wrongful act may raise
 Um•, IJtnu>rrncy n11d <iootl Gnvnltfmcr In NIRtrin 119

Defence of Mistake
Mistake of fact constitutes a defence to criminal liability if it can
be proved that due lo the 1nistnkc, the accused person lacked the
n1Cntal fault required to con1mit the crime in question. If a person
takes another person~ coal 1nistakcnly believing that it is own coat,
this n1istake negates the intent lo permanently deprive the owner of
the thing required to co1nmit the offence of stealing. Note that
mistake of law does not offer a defence in criminal Jaw because of
the general rule which says that ignorance or mistake of law is not
a defence to criminal liability.

Self Defence
As a general rule, the law allows for a defence for action that
reasonably appear necessary to· protect oneself from the imminent
or (immediate) use of unlawful force. For example, a person is
justified in the use of deadly force in self-defence if he reasonably
believes that deadly force is necessary to prevent an act that would
cause immediate death or serious bodily harm to himself, his
spouse, child or wards, servants or even his property.
When a person commits an offence and is arrested the first
agency of criminal justice system he comes in contact with is the
police. Section 214 (1) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria (as amended) establishes one Police Force for
Nigeria. Section 4 of the Police Act, CAP 359, Laws of the
Federation of Nigeria, 1990 provides the following as the general
duties of the police.
(a) Prevention of crime;
(b) Detection of crime;
(c) Apprehension of offenders;
(d) Preservation of law and order;
(e) Protection of life and property;
(f) Enforcement of all laws and regulations with which they
are direct Iy charged; and .. . . .
(g) The performance of such other m1htnry duties within or
outside Nigeria as may be required of them by or under the
authority of the Act or nny other Act.
120 0.1. Adejumo

It would be of great importance to consider some of these powers

exercisable by the police.
A t Arr . . the act of taking a person into cus.tody by
n-es • est ts · ht t leave Police
restricting that person's movement or rig 0 · must
have probable cause for a lawful arrest. Proba~le cause amounts to
fact that would lead a reasonable person to beheve that the suspect
had committed .or was committing a crime. The person. arrested
shall not be handcuffed or otherwise bound or be subjected to
unnecessary restraint except by order of the court. However, where
there is a reasonable apprehension of violence or of any attempt to
escape or the restraint is necessary for the safety of the person
arrested, then, such a person can be restrained.

Warratit ofA"est. A warrant of arrest is an ~uthority in writing by

a court.to a police officer or any other person to arrest an offender.
A warrant of arrest is applied for where the allegation against the
offender is a serious one and where summon is disobeyed. A law
creating an offence may provide that an offender cannot be
arrested without a warrant or that he cannot be so arrested unless
he is found committing the offence. The warrant of arrest is issued
upon a complaint. A complaint must be on oa.th. A warrant of
arrest must be in writing and shall bear the date .of issue, contain
necessary particulars and be signed by the judge or a magistrate
issuing it. A warrant of arrest must also state the name of the
person to whom it is. di:ected who shall exec~te it. It may be
executed anywhere w1th1n a state. The warrant will name the
person to be .arrest~d and specify the offence. It may also be issued
?" any date 1nclud1ng a Sunday or public holiday,: at any time and
in ~ny part of .the. s!ate other than within the actual court room in
Wht~h a court IS Slttt~g. ~ Warrant Of arrest may not be executed in
parh.ament or a leg1slat1ve house without the permission of the
President. Warrant of ~rrest must be shown to the person being
arrested before execution unless there are good reasons to the
contrar~. An orficer executing the warrant of arrest need not be in
possession of. It at the tilne of arrest, but it must be produced as
soon as possible after a request to . . .
remains in force unti I it ·18 sec tt. A wan ant of arrest
executed or cancelled by any judge or a
 Lnw, Democmcy mid Good Govn11mrce In Nigeria '21

n1agistrate. The person arrested by warrant must be taken to the

court that issued it except the endorsement at the back of the
warrant authorises that such a person be released upon complying
with certain conditions.

Ar:est willlout a Wa"a11t. A police officer can arrest any person

without ~arrant of arrest where such a person has committed any
offence t!l the presence of the police officer. It is immaterial that
the offence in respect of which such a person is arrested stipulates
that the offender cannot be arrested without warrant. A police
officer can also arrest without warrant of arrest where he
reasonably suspects a person to have committed an indictable
offence. Even where an offence has not been committed, a police
officer who, on reasonable grounds, effects an arrest is not liable
for false imprisonment.
A judge or magistrate can arrest or direct the arrest of any
person who commits an offence in his presence and within the
judicial division or magisterial district to which he is assigned.
Also, a magistrate, within the district to which he is assigned, may
arrest or direct the arrest in his presence of any person whose arrest
upon a .warrant he could have lawfully ordered, if the facts known
to him had been stated before him on oath by some other persons.
A private person has power to arrest without warrant in the
following situations:
(a) If a person in his view commits an indictable offence;
(b) If he reasonably suspects a person to have committed a
felony; or
(c) If he reasonably suspects a person to have committed a
misdemeanour by night.

If a police officer arrests a person without a warran~, he s~all

take such a person with all reasonable dispatch to a pohce station
or other place for the reception of arrested person. S~1ch a person
must be given reasonable facilities to obtain legal advice, and 1nust
also be allowed to take steps to furnish bail. In case of n private
person, he shall without reasonable delay, hand over th~ person so
arrested to a police officer or in the absence of '~ pohce officer,
take such person to the nearest pol ice station.
 122 0 .1. Adejumo .

. fficer to bring the accused to coun

The law enjoins the,pohce 0 'thi·n twenty-four hours If
·
hav1ng · · d. · the · case wt ·
JUns 1ct1on over. h 11 elease the accused on ba·1
however, this is not practicable, l~c s a r .th or without suretie I
. t . into recogn1sance w1 s,
upon his en enng . . ffi . of a serious nature If
except the offence ts a capital o enc.:~ or. . . · ·
. h - d . t the police station, 1nvest1gat1on cannot be
w h11e t e accuse is a d on bai I
completed forthwith, he shall be allowe . to go . upon
. . t recognisance with or without sureties for a
en tenng tn ° a · 1· f and at such f
reasonable amount to appear at such .P~ ice sta ion t~e
as are named in the recognisance. It ts important to ~ote t~at pohce
bail is free but experiences have shown that pohce still coll.ect
rponey for administrative bail before suspects are released on batl.

The Search of the Person. When a police officer makes a lawful

arrest he aiso has power to search the body of the person arrested.
A police officer has power to detain and search a person whom he
reasonably suspects of having in his pos sessio~ a stolen property:
For searching a woman, the search shall be earned out by a woman
police officer.
I

The Search of the Pre111ises. Before a premises is searched there

· must be a search warrant authorising the search:. Any search of
premises without a search warrant will be unJawf;ul. However, by
section 147(1) of the Customs and Excise Management Act, CAP
84, Laws of the Federation of Nigeri a, 1990, ptemises may be
searched by customs officers without a search wa$-ant.. Section 85
of Criminal Procedure Code also authorises a justlce of the peace
to direct a search of premises in his presence. i
It is important to note that only the goods mentioned in the
·, search warrant should be seized. But where the pkrson executing
the warrant comes across goods which he reasonably believes to
have been ~tolen and ·relevant in respect of other offence, he can
lawfully seize such goods. A police officer who bnters a man's
house for the purp~se of J~wfully arres~ing him m~y remove any
document or ~atenals which he finds in his hous~ and which he
reason~bly beI.aeves to be material evidence in relatibn to the crime
for which he ts an·ested or which shows him to be implicated in
some ot~er crime. The police officer must however !act reasonably
and detain the suspect not longer than necessary. : .
--
Lnw, Demncmcy and Good Govemmrce in Nigerin 123

Den1ocrncy
Den1ocracy as a concc1n is one of .the most striking features of
conten1porary govenune11ts. According to Black's Law Dictionary,
de1nocracy is defined ns govenunent by the people, either directly
or through representatives elected by the people. The word
den1ocracy has its orig~n in Greek writings around the fifth century
B.C. Den1os referred to the common people, the masses; kratos
1neant "power." De1nocracy in this way means that power belongs
to the people, the common man. In other words, power belongs to
the electorate in the main, which power when given to elected
representatives, should be used for the good of all.
There are two major schools of thought about what constitutes
democracy. The first school maintains that democracy is a form of
government, and it emphasises the procedures that allow the
people to govern, i.e. meeting to discuss issues, voting in elections,
running for public offices. The second school sees democracy in
the substance of government policies, in freedom of religion and
the provision for human needs. Kenn~th Janda, Jeffrey M. Berry
and Jerry Goldman ( 1999) state that the procedural approach
focuses on how decisions are made, while the substantive approach
is concerned with what government does.
Procedural democratic theory believes that all adults should be
aJlowed to participate in government decision making, that is,
everyone within the boundaries of the political community should
be allowed to vote. As far as this theory is concerned no adult
should be excluded from participating in election and this is
referred to as the principle of universal participation. Again, the
procedural theory, in answer to a question; how much should each
participant's vote count, maintains that all votes should be counted
equally. This is called the principle of political equality. V\'hen it
comes to, how many votes are needed to reach a decision,
procedural theory prescribes that a group should decide to do what
the majority of its participants, i.e. 50 per cent plus one person
wants to do.
IL is believed that the three principles- universal participation,
poliHcal equality and 1najority rule- nrc widely recognised as
necessary for dc1nocratic decision 1naking. This idea of
124 0.1. •Adejumo

participatory detnocracy should not be .misc~~strued t~ mean

participation by every adult in a count~Y since tt is impossible for
all Nigerian adults to gather at the N~ttonal Asse'!1bly complex in
Abuja to cast their votes on every policy formulation. Th~ ~ramers
of our Constitution did not deem it fit to rec?mmend ~art!c1patory
democracy at the national level, and instead, 1nst1tuted a
representative democracy. In a representativ~ dem~c~acy, citizens
participate in government by electing pubhc .officials to make
decisions on their behalf. Elected officials are expected not only to
represent the voters' views and interests but also to serve as the
agents of the citizenry and to act for them.
What happens after the election and it is discovered that the
elected representatives are not making decisions the people would
have made had they themselves gathered for the same purpose.
This is best achieved by what is known as "responsiveness"
whereby elected representatives are made to respond to public
..
op1n1on.
Substantive demqcratic theory focuses on the substance of
government policies rather than the procedures followed in making
those policies. It argues that in a democratic government, certain
principles n:iust be incorporated into government policies,
Substantive theorists would reject a law that requires a state
supporting a particular religion because section 10 of the 1999
Constitution says the Government of the Federation or of a State
shall not adopt any religion as State religion. Most substantive
theorists agree on a basic criterion: government policies should
guarantee civil liberties such as freedom of religion and freedom of
expression. Additionally, the substantive theory should guarantee
civil rights, i.e. powers or privileges· that g~vernment may not
arbitrarily deny to individuals, such as protection against
discrimination enshrined in section 42(1) (2). For example in
s~ti~n. 42(2) N~ ci.tizen of Nigeria ·shall be subjected to any
d1sab1hty or depnvat1on m~rely by reason of the circumstances of
his birth.
Essentially, democracy is a set of institutions that fulfils at least
two requirements. It must be able to elicit as accurately as possible
the opinion of as many people as possible on who shall be their
 ...
r."""'." '·

Lmv. Democracy n11d Good Govenrnnce ;,, Nigeria 125

representatives and on how the country ought to be governed. This

means a tninitnurn universal suffrage, political parties, and the
organisation of fresh voting in acceptable elections at relatively
frequent intervals. The democratic tenet presupposes ways of
ensuring that elected representatives of the people should pursue
the overall interests of the electorate..
Detnocracy is capable of having different concepts, and there
are sotne levels of con1petition, arising from different political
ideologies, especially social and liberal ·democracies. Since
de1nocracy fundatnentally upholds people's will and collective
dignity of mankind, it shows that it is not only desirable to
entrench its principles, but also should be made strong and secured
against all forms of abuse. Sargent, L.T. (1990) lists the following
as elements of democracy:
(a) citizens involvement in political decision making;
(b) some degree of equality among citizens; ·
(c) some degree of liberty, freedom granted or retained by
citizenry;
(d) a system of representation; and
(e) an electoral system of majority rule.

Good Governance
Akinseye-George (2000) defines good governance in terms of
subjecting the whole process of governance to accountability,
transparency and opennes ~. This kind of governance must fulfil the
condition of being legitimate.
Another important factor that ensures good governance is the
.· welfare equation of the people as the desideratum of gove111ance.
According to the report of International Monetary Fund, it is
believed that good governance should include the following; the
transparency of govern1nent business, effectiveness of public
resource manage1nenL, stability and transparency of econon1ic and
regulatory environment for private sector activity.
However, it has been argued that any notion of good
governance rich in technical details of macroeconomic din1ension,
but lacking in social and political content as expressed by people's
welfare, popular cmpowern1ent, responsive and responsible
l 26 0.1. Adejumo

. d b' us conceptualisation. It has been asserted

govern1nent ts a u 10 ake me11ning when it
tliat good governance c~n on 1Y m . is
charactel'ised by the following: . .·
( 1) Policies that bring about happiness and the good life of
·the citizenry; · .
(2) Accountability of government officials;
(3) Transparency in governmental.pro~edu~es;
(4) Predictability in government behaviour,
(5) Expectation of rational decisions .by government:
(6) Openness in government tra.nsacttons;
(7) Free flow of information;
(8) Respect for the rule of law; _
(9) Freedom of the press; ..
(1 O) Decentralisation of power structure and dec1s1on making.

Central to the issue of good governance is people. Thii i§

because it is people who for the· purpose of securing their
individual freedoms and welfare as a commonwealth, which they
were unable to secure in a state of nature where life was solitary,
nasty, brutish and short, that decided to institute the state. The .state
which subsequently assumed the status of an autonomous body
above society only becomes relevant if it can protect the health of
the commonwealth. Any deviation from the terms of the soehll
contract, i.e. terms binding the state and the citizens, amounts to
corruption and violation of the rights of the people. Conversely,
everything which promotes and reinforces the health and stability
of the commonwealth is good governance.
One major problem militating against good governance in
Nigeria is corruption. Corruption is capable of causing a reduction
in quality of goods and services to the public. It allows the
concentration of the state's resources in the hands of few people
while majority of the citizens are denied certain basic necessities of
life such as health care delivery, good road network, potable water,
stab.le. power supply, access to quality education, prompt payment
of hvmg wages and retirement benefits as and when due, etc, A
s~ccessfuJ wa~: on con-upti~n. will not only reduce poverty Ieve~ but
will produce mvaluable d1v1dends of democracy for the society.
 law, Democracy n11d Good Govemn,nce In Nlge;in 127

AccOll11tnbility !s therefore so central to the crusade against

oorr~ption that tt~ procedur~ needs to b.e properly stipulated by
· gov~rnments at all levels. ·t lus procedure includes:
(a) Appropriate s~lf-disclo~ure: This implies that an official is
man~.ated to ·report hi~ activities to his employer or
consttt4ency. . .. . . .
(b) Scrut.iny: The books must be open to verific.ation by ·all
and sundry. .
(c) Ownership of decision by the people: This principle of the
people's sovereignty must be imbibed by all public
officials. · ·
((J) Resoyrces that would have been privatised can be used for
developmental purposes.
(e) Government business and bureaucracy would be run
through due prpcess. This would make the machinery of
· .govem_me11t 111or~ effective and the state more efficient. ·
(f} A succes~ful war on corruption . i~ ind~rect1y a war on
Hgv~rtY b~ause corruption itself promotes inequality in
th@ pistribl;ltipn 9f wealth. - .

fpr CQffµption to b~ reduced to an insignificant level and good

ggv~rn~nG.~ anE! ~emqgra~y enthrqped in Nigeria, there is a need
for ~ ~iate that is responsive, responsible, legitimate and strong
enough to effe9tively 1Jl1pose its rufe and enforce sanctions against
~orriipt person§: · ·

Cpnclusion
hilW, a~JllOCracy and good governance are interrelated in the sense
,, ·thnt h~ving ~h~m would guarantee freeclvm and liberty as well as
divjdends ·of f:l~rnocrftCY to the people. The essence of demqpracy
i§ ~~en in th~ way people are allowed .to participate in the
formation of g{:lyernment througll popular electoral process that
allows th~m tQ cnpose their own government. A government
fQflTitlQ by the p~pple and for the people must strive to fulfil its part
pf H1e sp~i~I contract in tetms of welfare programmes that would
Bll~vjii~ th~ Sl!ffering pf Jhe masses. Not only that, government
must be seen tQ be transparent in the way its business is conducted,
and must also be ready to account for its stewardship if the good
governance we desire to have is to be realised.
 \ ..
128 0.1. Adc}11nio

Further Reading
Adler Freda, Gerhard O.W . .Mueller and .s. William. 1994. Laufer:
Criminal justice. New York: McGraw-H1JI, Inc. . .
Akande, Jadesola O. 1982. Introduction to the Const1tut1on of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979. London: Swe~t a.nd Maxwell.
Akande, Jadesola o. 1999. Introduction to the Constttut1on of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria. · .
Akinseye-George, Yemi. 2000. Legal system, corrnpt1.o n and good
governance in Nigeria. Lagos: New Century Law Publishers Ltd.
Criminal Code, CAP C38, Laws of the Federation, 2004
Dada, T.O. 1998. General principles of law. T.0. Dada and Co.
Emmanuel 0. Ojo (ed.). 2006. in Challenges of sustainable democracy in
Nigeria. Ibadan: John Archers (Publishers) Limited.
Oidado, M.M., C.U. Anyanwu and A.O. Adekunle (eds.). 2004. in
Constitutionql es$ays; Nigeria beyond 1999: Stabilising the polity
.. through constitutional re-engineering. Enugu: Chenglo Limited .
lgbinova, Patrick E., Benjamin A. Okonofua and Omoruyi Osunde
. (eds.). 2003.-in Law and social policy legislation and administration
in Nigeria. Lagos: Ababa Press Ltd.
Janda, Berry and C. Goldman. 1999. The challenges of democracy: The
essentials. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Joye, E. Michael and Kinksley Igweike. Introduction to the 1979
Nigerian Constitution. Lagos: The Macmillan Nig. Ltd.
Kehinde, Mowoe M .. 2008. Constitutional law in Nigeria. Lagos:
Malthouse Press Limited.
Olurode, ~i and Remi Anifowose (eds.). 2005. in Rich but poor:
Corruptzon and good governance in Nigeria. Lagos: Latmos Nig.
Ent. Ltd.
Oluyede, P.A.0. 1992. Constitutional law in Nigeria. Evans Bothers
(Nigeria) Limited.
Yakubu, J.A. 2000. Ad~iinistration of justice in Nigeria: Essays in
honour of Hon. Justzce Mohammed Uwais Lawal Ikeja: Malthouse
Press Ltd.
Yakubu, Ademola. 2003. Constitutional law in Nigeria. Demyaxs Law
.Books.
1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
 .I
I •
.·. 5 • •
I '

DEFINITION, FOCUS AND RELEVANCE

OF SOCIOLOGY .
.. Patricia Taiwo .

Introduction
The term 'sociology' was formed from the Latin word 'socius'
which means 'companion or associate' and the Greek word 'logia'
which refers to 'study of'. So literally it is defined as the study of
associations, but generally, Sociology can be defined as the
scientific study of human society. It can also be defined as the
study of all human interactions and relationships. It can also be
referred to as study of social groups .
. The tenn sociology was coined by the French philosopher
Auguste Cpplte, who referred to sociology as the apex of the
achieveme11t of all sciences. Of course before the philosopher
coined the name, varioys societies at their levels of civilisations
hFtve understudied human relationships and structures through the
interplay of biolcigical abilities, available resources in the
environment, and the agency of time, and have come up with
technologies that assjst in documenting their societal patterns in
for~ of"cultures, arts, music, customs and tri'.\dition, and structures
whjch ar~ th~r~by handed over to generations by their custodians.
And so the cqncept of sociology existed before the name itself.
Alihough not until the crisis attached to industrialisation and the
revolution of the French society, did the term sociology become a
field of study. So historically, sociology was birthed as a result of
the upheaval in the 18th and 19th centuries in Great Britain,
Western Europe, especially in Germany and France.
The major upheavals that gave birth to the emergence of
sociology were the Industrial Revolution which began in Great
Britain, the French Political Revolution of 1789, the Enlightenment
and advances in natural sciences and technology. Sociology as a
discipline was born in the J8th and 19th centuries when the world
. 130 Pntrlcia Taiwo
. kly as industrial production
was changi~g dramatically and ti~u;;publics replaced monarchies,
replaced agriculture, as d~mocra life. All these chang~s brought
and as city life replaced country tradiction in the soc1al systern,
about a·lot of social issues, the ~~n nee misery, war and many
u:
child labour, crime, poverty, l~en to ihe pioneers of th~t time.
more which posed a great ~h~ htsg science had lent regar~mg the
Realising how many great tn~•1 y were constrained to think of a
natural world, pioneers of soc•~ ~g analyse and interpret the
science that can help exp:~~' social phenomena and resolve
fundamental laws tha~ govern t0 use the same method as the
social crises, and decided to try social world. Hence Comte, a
natural sciences to understan~ thde 'ology a discipline birthed
. l h'I her c01ne soc1 '
French soc1a P • osop . . as people began applying
from social crises to solve soc1a1 cnses, . . f
. 'fi th d to human life and behaviour. Pioneers o the
the sc1ent1 tc me 0 (1798 1857)
discipline are French philosopher. Au~ust~ Comte - '
German philosopher and economtc lustonan Karl Max (1818·
1883), British Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) and Herbert Spencer
(1820-1893), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), Max Weber (1864·
1920), amongst several others. . . .
As mentioned, a central theme in understanding soc1ology ts
'human society;' society generally refers to the social world with
all its structures, institutions, organisations, etc, around us, and
specifically to a group of people who live within som~ type ~f
bounded territory and who share a common way of ltfe. This
common way of life shared by a group of people is termed culture
(Stockard 1997), Society is also a large human grouping that
shares a common culture and that possesses comprehensive social
system including all of those social institutions required to meet
basic needs (Hobbs and Blanks 1975), or it could be defined as a
system of interrelationships which connect individuals together
(Giddens 1994), All of these definitions are suitable for referrino to
human societies. t>

Soci~logy is a discipline in the social sciences that uses

systematic methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis
to develop and refine a bod~ of knowledge about human social
structure and activity, so~et1mes with the goal of applying such
knowledge to the pursuit of government • • d. • d to
· welfare (Zerihun po).11c1es es1gne
bene fi1t t he genera. 1social
2005
 lJefinltlnn, Focus mrd Re/evnnct of Sociology 131

. ~O!npare~ to other .social scichccs, sociology is a broad

d1sc~phne \Vh!ch ~overs Vtrl~lally all aspects of social life not just a
particular social hfe. There ts hardly uny aspect of life that has not
~n ~ subject of sociological study-music. relationship,
1n~~ahty, death, health. drug. work life, sexuality, education,
rehgton and a ~ot n1ore h~ve been examined sociologically, and
because the subjects of sociology are numerous, a single definition
for sociology is quite a difficult task but several scholars and
schools have tried to define sociology, as the following.
Con1te defined sociology as the study of social dynamic and
social static, the former signifying the changing, progressing and
developmental dimensions of society, while the latter refers to
social order and those elements of society and social phenomena
which tend to persist and are relatively permanent, defying change.
In 1839, Comte defined sociology as the science of human
association or the study of gregarious life. In 1851, he attempted to
give more flesh and blood to the said definition in his work,
"System of Positive Politics.'~ He conceived of sociology as an
abstract theoretical science of social phenomena. According to him
it is the business of sociology to discover and abstract. social laws
and thereby to explain the social phenomena (Cragun . Cragun and
Poitr 2010).
Anthony Giddens defined Sociology as the scientific study of
society, which is interested in the study of social relationships
between people in the group context. Sociology is interested in
how we as human beings interact with each other (the pattern of
social interacti!)n); the laws and principles that govern social
relationships and interactions; the influence of the social world on
the individuals, and vice versa (Ibid). It deals wi!h a factually
observable subject matter, depends upon empirical research, and
involves attempts to formu~ate theories and generalisations t~at
will make sense of facts (Gidd~ns 1982). Also Soroka (1992) said:
·'Sociology is a debunking science; that is, tt looks for l~vels of
reality other than those presented in official. interpretations .of
society and people's con1n1on sense explanat!ons of t~e social
world. Sociologists arc interested in understanding what 1s and do
not make value judgments."
 132 l'mric:frr fniwo

, considered to be one of the

Max Weber, who. is. ger!crn 11 Y the discipfine: ·
founders of sociolt>gy, smd this about .
. : , • which this highly ambiguous
Soc1ology (111 the sen~e 111 • hich attempts the
. d h re) · is a science w
~vord ts. use e . . ·al action in order to
tnt-crprellve understundmg .of sofc~t course and effect.
ai1·ive at a causal explanatton ° 15 •
In "action" is included all human behaviour.wh~n- ~nd
insofar as the acting individual attaches a _subjective
. t 't Action in this sense maybe either overt
n1ean1ng o t • • • • consist of
or purely inward or subJ~cttv~, it may .
positive intervention in a s1tuat1on, or of dehber~tely
refraining from such interve~tion_ or passively
acquiescing in the situation. Action in so f~ as, by
virtue of the subjective meaning attached to tt by the
acting individual (or individuals), it take~ accou_nt .of
the ·behaviour of others and is thereby onented tn tts
course.

Sociology is a social science which studies the processes and

patterns of human individual and group interaction, the forms of
organisation of social groups, the relationships among them, and
·. group influences on individual behaviour, and vice versa, and the
interaction between one social group and the other (Team of
Experts 2000).
Err,.ile Durkeim defined. sociology as the study of social facts.
By social facts, he meant the patterns of behaviour that
characterise a sc~ial group in a given society that should be studied
objectively. The job of a sociologist, therefore, is to uncover social
I .
facts and then to explain them using other social facts (Macionis
1997; Clahoun et al. 1994). Harry M. Johnson writes: "Sociology
is the science that deals with social groups: their internal forms or
modes of organisation, the processes that tend to maintain or
change these forms of organisation, and the relations between
groups." Wr~ght ~nd Ra~d~tll ( 1978) defined sociology as the study
of the J~ela~1onsh1~s ex1stmg between people living together in
~ro~ps; Jt tnes to d1scer.n p~tterns in those relationships which may
JUSt1fy or refute generahsations about thein.
...............

Deji11irio11, Focus nnd Relevnnce ofSociology 133

1
0gunbatneru opined that sociology is the study of social life
social change and the Socia] causes and consequences of h~ma~
behaviour,' also, that sociologists investigate the structure of
groups, organisat~ons and societies, and how people interact within
these context~; since all human behaviour is social, the subject
tnatter of sociology then ranges from the intimate family to the
hostile mobs; from organised crime to religious cults; from the.
division of race, gender ·and social class to. the shared beJiefs of a
cotnmori culture and from the sociology of work to the sociology
of sports, providing distinctive perspectives on the world,
generating new ideas arid critiquing the old (Ogunbameru 2009).
Henry Fairchi Id defines sociology as the study of man and his
human environment in their relations to each other. Morris
Ginsberg defines sociology in the following way "In the broadest
sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-
relations, their'coriditions and consequences".
It is important to note that the diversities of definitions of
sociology, does not mean the discipline doesn't have coherence as
emphasised by Abraham (1977) that the vagueness of the many
definitions given to sociology must not mislead us into thinking the
subject matter of sociology is uncertain, rather, the various
definitions of sociology are all designed to emphasise a special
way of looking at social behaviour which no other discipline can
do as well. The definitions touched areas such as
•!• Sociology as a science;
•!• The structure and function of society as a system;
•!• The nature, complexity and contents of human social
behaviour;
•!• The fundamentals of human social life;
•!• Interaction of human beings with their external
environment;
•!• The indispensability of social interactions for human
development;
•!• How the social world affects us, etc.

What Sociology is Not . . .

Having exa1nincd the term. history and concept of s?ctology .1t ts
pertinent to make explicit that with the infonnat1on provided
 • . ..
134 Pmridn Taiwo

. . . . . h d not onty as a discipline but

?bove, soc1ology can be d1stmgu1s e .
1nthe following terms too. ' . stand '
Sociology is not a discussion at the vendors ' as ts the
habit of an average Nigerian worker in the early ~ours ~f the
n1oming; people gather in twos a.nd thre~s ~nd begin 10• d!scuss
social issues and concerns: Although social in nature, this ts not
sociology in that a 'discussion about soc~a.l .is~ues alone cannot
suffice . as a cJisdpline firstly because, tnd1v1~uals resp~nd or
discuss from their circumference of understanding and they see
social issues from their self-centred and individualistic perspective.
and secondly, the absence of a system of methodised knowledge;
. .
science

Sociological Imagination
To be able to explain the social world, the best way to achieve this
is to look at our experiences in light of what is going on world
around us; the ability to look beyond individual psychology .to the
many and· varied ,facets of social and cultural forces, and "the
recurring patterns in peoples' attitudes and actions, and how these
patterns vary across time, cultures and social groups" (Henslin and
Nelson 1995). A tool propounded by Wright C. Mills (1916-1962)
called sociological imagination, can help turn mere discussions to
sociological study. Mills called the ability to study 'the structure of
society' at the same time as 'individual lives' the sociological
imagination (Mills 1959). Hy argued that sociological imagination
helps us understand that there is a connection between the
individual problems and soci~l issues, and that individual problems
can only be understood in the context of wider social forces. And
as sociologists the sociologi~al imagination could help individuals
cope with the social world by helping them to step outside of their
personal, self-centred view of: the world.
Sociological imagination js a particular way of looking at the
world .around us th.roug~ sqciolog~cal lenses. This helps us to
appreciate the social and non-biological forces that affect,
j~~uenc~ and shape our livos as individuals, groups, and commu-
n1t1es (Giddens 1982). In em~loying the sociological imagination,
people are able to see the events and social structures that
influence behaviour, attitudes, and culture.
 Drfi11itim1. 1:oc11.t muf Uelevmrce of Sociology 135

Tu pttl in .pcrs!~ecti~c, this c1npha~iscs the combination of

struct.ural thcor.1cs (h!nc~1unal.istt1 an~t Mnrxistn) and intcractionism
theon.es of society. Soc1olog1sts ~hcvc that good sociology must
~x~n11ne both the stn1ctur~ of. society and interaction. They believe
!t 1s only th!-ough a co~nb~n~tton o~ the study of the major changes
tn the soc1ety and 1nd1v1duat laves that we can develop an
understanding of social life (Haralmnbos and Holbom 2008).
The sociological in1agination goes beyond armchair sociology
or common sense. Annchair sociology refers to an attempt to
understand how the social world works without employing
scientific methods. Many people believe they understand the world
and the events taking place within it, even though they have not
actually engaged in a s,ystematic attempt to understanding the
social world, as sociologists do (Durkheim and Lewis 1997).
Sociologists do not just propose theories about how the social
world works. Sociologists get up from their armchairs and enter
the social world by testing their theories about how the world
works using the scientific_method.

What is a Scientific Method?

The idea of engaging scientific method in the study of social life is
referred to as positivism in sociology. Positivism, according to the
founder of the 'positive philosophy' (sociology), Auguste Conite
(1798-1857), came as a result of the rejection of metaphysical
explanation to the happenings in the society, for knowledge based
on systematic observation ·and experiment. T~us, scientific meth~d
is a logical system used to evaluate data denved f~o1n syste1nu~1c
observation (unlike the physical sciences) on society nnd social
phenomena. The end result of the ficicntific n1cthod is thnt it yiel.ds
a law. The positivist uppronch seeks to cxplnin nnd to predict soc1~l
phenomena. Of course, sociologists nrc interested no.t only tn
explaining but also in predicting given ~now.ledge of vnnn?les nnd
the relationships thereof, The sc1cntlf1c 1nctho.d . mch~dcs
observation, hypothesis, deductions nnd theories. Prcd1ctt~~1s ft om
these theories urc tested. Jf u prediction turns out to bo co11 cct, the
theory survjvcs. If not, the theory is modified or discnrdcd.
 The essential elctnents of a scientific method are iterations and
recursions of the following four steps:
. ·
(I) Charactensatton , · 1·isa, tion or quantification '
(operatwna
observation and rneasurement) .
(2) Hypothesis (a theoretical, hypothetical explanation of the
observation and rneasurement) .
(3) Prediction (logical deduction from th~ hypothe~1s) .
(4) Experiment (test of all of the ab?ve; 1~ the social sciences,
experirnents is often replaced w1th a different form of data
analysis)

Sociology as a science employs two very important appr~aches. in

research design and in the overaJJ research framework: inductive
method and deductive method. Inductive method is a method by
which the scientist first makes observation and collects data, on the
basis of. which he or she formulates hypothesis and theories
(Scupin and DeCorse 1995). The researcher tries to build theories
from particular observations and instances. Induction moves from
the particular to the general; whereas deduction moves from the
general to the particular. In deductive approach, the researcher
attempts to derive specific assertions and claims from a general
theoretical principle. In short, deductive approach in research goes
from general theory to particular claims (Dooley 1995 :65-66).
One importance of scientific method in sociology is that the
scientific method helps us in observing the world critically,
empirically and rationally to collect and analyse data
systematically to arrive at a scientific knowledge.

Focus of Sociology
Soc.iology focuses on th~ social interaction that takes place in the
soc1e!Y·. The focal P?mt of .soc.iology is the investigation,
dcscnptJon, and analysis of socrnl interaction (Hobbs and Blunk
J 975). 'Social' indicates that the sociological concern is not with
hun~an s us biol~gicnl beings nor hu1nnns us isolated beings but to
be mvolved with others Lmd by 'intcruction, • Hobbs and Blank
referred to what people do-their behaviour us oriented between or
umong individuals. Social internction refers to behaviour between
two or n1orc people that is given n1eaning.
 lkfl111tlmr. l"or uJ mrd Rflrmnre of.focinloRv 137

Cotnpnrcd lo psychology which deals with individuals

sociology as t1 discipline is less concerned with individuai
behaviours, only when patterns of behaviour is related to the wider
con.text .in which ~ople live can it be an object of study for
soc1olog1sts. So sociology looks beyond individual behaviour but
interactions, an.d through s~ial interaction, people react and
change, depending on the actions and reactions of others. Since
society ch.angcs as new fonns of human behaviour emerge, change
is always an the works.
An example of this is Emile Durkheim's work on Suicide. In
1897, Durkheim did a study on suicide (an individual act) the study
showed that rates of suicide varied between countries and between
social groups. For example, England consistently had a higher rate
of suicide rate than France, and married people had lower suicide
rates than the unmarried. Durkheim concluded that suicide, an
apparently individual act, was actually shaped by social factors,
one factor which Durkheim thought was important to suicide was
the extent to which individuals were integrated into social groups.
For example, married people with children who belonged to a
close knit religious community were much less likely to commit
suicide than childless single people who were not involved in a
religious community (Holborn 2008).
Sociologists are primarily interested in human beings as they
appear in social interaction and the effect of this interaction on
human behaviour. Such interaction can range from the first
physical contacts of the newborn baby with its n1other to a
philosophical discussion at an international conference, from a
casual passing on the street to the most intitnate of human
relationships (World Book Encyclopedia 1994). Sociologists are
interested in the processes of these interactions nnd in what context
such interactions occur. The n1ajor systems or units of interaction
that interest sociologists are sociul groups such us the fumily ?r
peer groups~ social relationships, such ns social roles and dyadic
relationships, and socinl orgnnlsntlons s~tch . us go~ern.ments,
corporations and school syste1ns to such tc1:1t~rtnl orgnm~uuons .us
communities und schools (Broom und Selzmk1 1973). Aside soc1ul
interactions other works recorded thut social relations, social
stratificatio~, culture und deviance ure also the traditional focus of
sociology.

L
 . ~

138 Patricia Tnin>o ~

Sociologists focus on the interactions that happen i!l the society

. · · h also be termed the two bas·
through two .maJOr ~evels, wh1hc. hcanare the macro-level (macrtc
approaches tn sociology, w tc . , . . · o.
sociology) and the micro-level (nncro-soc1ology).
•!• Macro-level looks at the interactions. that ~appen in the
larger society. The goal of ~acro-soc1ology ts to .examine
the large-scale social. phenoi:nena th?~ determ~n~ how
. social groups are organised and pos1ttoned .w1th1~ the
social structure, like social class and the relatlonshtps of
groups to one another, and social structures. Macro-
sociology analyses the social system as a whole and
focuses on population. It deals with statistical analysis and
it also incorporates empirical studies to come into
conclusion. Macro-sociology focuses on broad subjects but
their findings can be applied to small phenomena as well.
•!• Micro-level of analysis · focuses on social interaction. It
analyses interpersonal relationships, and what people do
and how they behave when they interact. This level of
analysis is usuany employed by symbolic interactionist
perspective. Micro-sociology deals with the nature of
human behaviour and human social interaction based on
.. small-scale studies, and it uses interpretation methods to
analyse collected data, and by observing the different
methods of interaction among individuals, it draws its
conclusion on human behaviour.
•!• Som~ scholarly works believe there is a meso level which
analyses human social phenomena in between the micro·
and macro-levels.

Wit.hin ~his fran:ework, so~iology examines social issues in the

society in the l~ght of social order that exists in and between
sys~ems and ~octal clnss us well ns within the stnaller units of the
soc~ety, social ~ontrol, changes that hnve occurred in any revel.
socu1l ~groups being created nnd recrcnted and the social problems
occurring at every level of society;
--

Vefl11il/0111 Foct1s nnd Relevance of Sociology 139

. • ~oc~ul . Orgm~sation und Social Order: Focuses on

1nfs!1tl•tt?ns. an gro~1ps. th~ir formation and changef manner
1
o 1~nct1on1ng, re nt1on to individuals and to each other.
• S~1al c;ontrol: Focuses on the ways in which members of a
soct.ety influence one another so as to maintain social order.
• Social Change:. Focuses on the way society and institutions
c~1an~ over t11ne . through technical inventions, cultural
d·1ffusion and cultural conflict, nnd socia1 movements,
among others.
• Social Processes: Focus on the pattern in which social
cha~ge takes place, and the modes of such processes.
• Social Groups: Focus on ho~ social groups are formed,
structured, and how they function and change.
• Social Problems: Focus on the social conditions which
cause difficulties for a large number of persons and which
the society is seeking to eliminate. Some of the problems
may include:· juvenile delinquency, crime, chronic
alcoholism, suicide, narcotics addiction, racial prejudice,
ethnic conflict, war, industrial conflict, slum, areas, urban
poverty, prostitution, child abuse, problem of older persons,
marital conflicts, etc.

Relevance of Sociology
From these discussions it is evident that sociology is of immense
importance to understanding the society. Perhaps the first
relevance of sociology is that it helps us understand ourselves, the
reason why we think the way we think, behave and act the way we
do, .and why we do the things we do, through understanding of the
concept of 'culture' and 'socialisation'. Sociology helps us to
understand our diversities and commonalities through the
instrument of culture, which covers the totality of our lives, not
only of our present but of course our origin and h~story t~rough
anthropoJogicaJ studies, which is e1nbedded tn sociology.
Ogunbameru opined. that people often speak. of human ~ature as
though deep within us there lies some reservoir of natura.l 1n1pulses
that determine the way that we behave, howe.ver, there ts no such
thing as human nature, for the way that we think, behave •. m~d ~eel
are shaped by what sociologists call the process of socH~!satton
(Ogunbamcru 2009).
140 J>ntricin 1ni1ro

Sociology provides .us with self-enligh_t~~ment because

sociology gives 1nore knowledge about. the .conditions of o~r own
lives, and about the way our society and socrnl system function. As
such knowledge. increases, . we can be more empowered to
influence the direction of forces· and circumstances that affect our
lives. We can also be.1nore responsive to the vru:ious.P?~ici.es set by
governments; and can suggest our own pohcy 1mt1at1ves and
alternatives (Giddens, op cit). .
Secondly, aside from its intellectual relevance, sociology helps
us to understand the society and its workings. Peter Burger in
Invitation to Sociology (1966) argues that sociology can help
people to take charge of their Jives by, making them aware of their
situation in societies and the forces acting upon them-instead of
seeing the way they live as natural or inevitable, they learn that it is
socially constructed. This is essentially important because it
enlightens people about how their lives evolved to what it is now,
not as a result of nature but as a result of the workings of the
society, and that people have the ability to make their lives as well
as the society what they intend them to be. For example, in a
community in Cairo, women believed that some ill health
occurrences were 'fatal '-by fatal they meant that illness is meant
to happen and cannot be avoided by effort or foreknowledge and to
be accepted as an inevitable fact of life. Burger further said that by
understanding the workings' of the society, they gain an
understanding of how this process takes place; sociology then
helps us to explain the world and our lives better.
Also, sociology affords us the luxury of sociological
imagination; a rich understanding of our individual lives in a wider
social context. This is important because viewing our lives from
our individual perspectives limits our horizon to explaining our
Jives outside the social issues, and with social in1agination we can
understand that unemployment, war, and marital breakdown are
experienced by people in terms of the proble1ns they produce in
their personal lives and then their reactions to these as individuals
have consequences for the society as a whole (Haralambos and
Holborn 2008). This imagination helps us look beyond individual
p~ychology to ~ther social forces, for example, very specific
carcumstances might lead to one person becoming unemployed, but
 D<'ji11iti011, Foct1J and T<elnmrce of Sociology 141

when uneniployrncnt rates in society rises, it becomes a public

issue that needs to be explained. An understanding of these helps
us to understand, change and itnprove our lives. Consequentially,
learning sociology helps to cast aside our own biased assumptions,
stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and practices to become
more critical, broad-minded and respectful in our interpersonal and
inter-group relationships.
Sociology helps Us understand the structure and dynamics of
society, and their connections to patterns of human behaviour, it
helps us to see ways in which social structures (class, race,
stratification) and social institutions (family, economy, political or
religious) affect · If attitudes, actions and interactions. We become
more sensitive ~uwards the social issues. It helps us understand
how social forces influence our goals, attitudes, behaviour, and
personality. Furthermore, application of sociological knowledge,
principles, methods, concepts and theories provide the solutions to
the contemporary social pathologies. Sociology plays practical
roles to tackle social pathologies. Sociological knowledge is highly
applicable in dealing with today's most crucial social problems,
and in facilitating developmental activities in socioeconomic
sectors (Zerihun 2005). Sociology helps to understand the root of
problems like poverty, divorce, corruption, crime and
delinquencies, robbery, and the rest.
The study of society contributes to the formulations of social
policies; descriptive sociology provides a great deal of information
that is helpful in making decisions on social policy. For example,
the solution to poverty requires investigation of facts by a
sociologist, and such research undoubtedly influences social
policy. Sociology is also relevant in that it prepares individuals for
careers and fields like conducting social scientific research, doing
social work, personnel work, human relations in industry, public
relations, social services, as well as community planning.
Sociologists, especially those trained in research procedures.
are relevant in government, industry, town planning, socia~ w~rk,
communication administration and other areas of community ltfe,
teaching in colleges and universities. The relevance of sociology .is
further provided by the fact that the subject is inclu?ed m
engineering (industrial sociology), agriculture (rural sociology)
and sorne other di sciplines.
142 Pclllicia Taiwo

Sociology is relevant because of its contribution to sol~ing

inten1ational problems. The progress made by the ph7s1cal
sciences has brought the nations of the world nearer, but !n the
social field the world has been left behind by the revolutionary
progress or' science; politically t~e world is dividing. giving rise to
stress and conflict. Nations fight with each other with ~ore fiery
instruments of modern warfare, countries propagate agatns! ·each
other to acquire narrow goals, and in this context, sociology
becomes important because it helps us understand and proffer
solutions to underlying causes and tensions.
Sociology keeps us updated on modem situations. Th~ study of
social phenomena and the ways and means of promoting what
Giddens called social adequacy, is one of the most urgent needs of
the modem society. Sociology has a strong appeal to all minds
through its bearing upon many of the initial problems of the
present world. Human culture has been made richer by sociology,
because social phenomena are now understood in the light of
scientific knowledge and enquiry. Sociology provides us the
training to have rational approach, by comparative study of
societies and groups other than our existence; culture has become
richer, and fuller than it would have been.
In conclusion, the most significant relevance is that sociology
brought science to the study of society, and lately the importance
of sociology as the science of human relationship is being realised
although the scientific study of the society and the promotion of
human welfare has been neglected for long periods. As a matter of
fact, the study of social phenomena and the promotion of human
welfare are the most logical and reasonable subjects to be made
scientific, and if the society is to make progress, then human and
~ocial. welfare should be developed and of course the best approach
is sociology.

Further Reading
Abraham, J.H. 1977. Origins and grol-vth of sociology. Great Britain:
Penguin books.
Berger, P. 1996. Invitation to sociology. Hnrmondsworth: Penguin.
Broom, ~- an~ P. S_e,lznick. 1973. Sociology: A text with adapted
readmgs. Fifth Edition. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
 IJeflrrit/011, /:nc11J mul Rl'lt'vmrce nf Sociology 143

Calhoun, C., D: Light nnd S. Kelle. 1994. Sociology. 6th Ed. New York:
McGraw H111.
Crog\llt, R.T.. ~· Cragun and K. Piotr. 2010. Introduction to sociology,
Assessed 7 July 20 l 7at http://e11. wikibooks.orglwikil Introduction
to_Sociolog)' -
Dooley, D. 1995. Social research methods, 3rd edition. Irvine.
Durkheim, E. and L.A. Coser. 1.997. The division of labor in society.
Free Press.
Giddens, A. 1996. Sociology. 6th Edition. London: Macmillan.
Haralambos, M. and M. Holbom. 2008. Sociology, themes and
perspectives. Seventh edition. London: Harper Collins Publishers
limited.
Henslin, J.M. and A. Nelson. 1995. Sociology: A down-to-earth
approach. Canadian Edition. Scarborough, Ontario: Allyn and Bacon
Hobbs, D.A. and S.J. Blank 1975. Sociology and the human experience.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
John, S. and M. Gordon. 2005. Oxford dictionary of sociology.3rd edition.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Macionis, J.J. 1997. Sociology. Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Mills, C.W. 1959. The sociological imagination. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Ogunbameru, O.A. 2009. Sociology: A contemporary science of human
interaction. DOP PubGcation (Nig), Oyo State.
Scupin, R. and C. Decorse. 1995. Anthropology: A global perspective.
2°d edition, Eaglewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, Boston.
Soroka, B. 1992. Sociology: Cultural diversity in a changing world. Free
Press.
Stockard, J. 1997. Sociology: Discovering society. Belmont. CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Team of Experts. 2000. Advanced learner's dictionary of sociology. New
Delhi: Animol Publications.
Weber, M. 1997. The theory of social and economic organisation. Free
Press.
World book encyclopedia 1994.Vol 18.Pp 564-567.
www.google.com
Zerihun, D. 2005. /11trod11ctio11 to socioloR>'· Ethiopia Public Health
Training Initiative.
 6
BASIC METHODS IN DATA COLLECTION
AND ANALYSIS IN SOCIOLOGY
Patricia A. Taiwo a11d A.S. Omolawal

Concept of Sociology
It is ideal to first attempt an explanation of the concept of
sociology, whose jurisdiction dictates what shall be discussed on
methods of data collection and analysis. Comte (1798-1857) was
the first to develop the concept of sociology which he called social
physics. This means that Comte likened sociology with the natural
sciences. In his view, this new science was to employ scientific
method of studying natural phenomena to · the study of social
structure of the society. In hard sciences, without the existence of
'nature' , there is nothing for the scientist to do. So, what he or she
does is to observe the way nature works and supply information on
the seeming order found to exist in it (Ritzer 2008). This is clearly
the same way sociology was seen in the study of the nature, though
of society, with a view to arriving at comprehensive explanation of
laws that govern the society as people interact in the social and
physical environment. Therefore, as hard sciences like physics,
chemistry, etc, engage in explaining natural laws, sociology
conce111s itself with investigating social structure-the patterns of
social relationships in the society. In short, it is the science of
society.
There have been many insights to the.meaning of what is called
society in sociological tenns, but in thi s context, the word society
is better defined as an organised group of individuals who occupy
a defined geographical area and who are joined together by
relationships and patterns of behaviour (cu lture) which distinguish
them from other groups or individuals who do not share these
relationships, or who have different patterns of behaviour.
Meanwhile, science refers to the logical, systematic methods by
which knowledge is obtained and to the actual body of knowledge
146 l'mricla A. Taiwo n11d A.S. Omolmvnl

produced by these 1nethods (lgbo 2003). Thus, sociology. is the

·systetnatic study of hun1an social relationship~ together with the
patterns of behaviours and processes under which ~e~be~s relate
and also become distinctive as individual.s, group, institution and
society. , .
Be that as it 1nay, it is important to insert We~er s conceptt?n
of sociology whose alternative view of soc.1ology and Its
occupation is significant. According to W~ber, s~10.10.gy sho~ld be
concerned with understanding social action. of 1nd1v1duals :n !he
society. Accordingly, social action is that action that has subJ~ctt~e
meaning built around the conscious thought of the actor, which ts
oriented towards the action of others. Hence, "sociology··. is a
science concerning its_elf with the interpretive ~nderst~nding of
social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course
and consequences" (192111968:4) cited in Ritzer (2008).
One of the roles performed by sociologists is scientific
researching about different aspects of human interactions in the
society with a view to discovering and organising such systems of
knowledge for the development of social order. Therefore,
sociology as a discipline has methodology in terms of generating
and analysing data from which findings emerge with subsequent
knowledgeable conclusions. Put succinctly, methodology is
concerned with both the detailed research methods through which
data are colJected, and the more general philosophies upon which
the collection and analysis of data are based (Haralambos and
Holbom 2008). Meanwhile, methodology is one of the points of
division among sociologists because, as some scholars in the field
believe that "positivism"-attempt to apply natural sciences
methodology to sociological research-is better, others advocate
humanistic or interpretive method on the notion that studying
human behaviour is fundamentally different from studying the
natural world. Therefore, the two extreme pillars within sociology
are, scientific-usually rcfen-cd to as quantitative methods
(numerical statistical methods), and humanistic often referred to as
qualitative method.
Allho.ugh~ more recent scholars in the field have been applying
the combmat1on of the two methods, this is tenned niethodological
 llnsic M<'tliods ;,, Darn Co//ec:t/011 and At1nlysis in Sociology 147

plural~sn1, in \~hich we have the populur triangulation technique.

The later tneans the use of quantitative and qualitative research
methods to cross-check the findings obtained from both methods in
a study. There is "Complementarity," 'where two research
strategies are e1nployed in order that different aspects of an
investigation can be dovetailed' (Haralambos and Holbom 2008).
Then, there is "facilitation" which suggests exercising one research
1nethod to assist in the use of another method .. For example,
participant observation or interviews might be used to generate
ideas which could be used to produce questions for a
questionnaire. From the above, choosing a particular methodology
or combination depends on the orientation of the researcher and the
peculiarity of the research topic.

What is Data?
Irrespective of methodological dialectics in sociology, data, plural
of datum, as defined in the Oxford dictionary of sociology, mean a
fact or statistic. Hence, data are records of observations. These
might take a number of forms: for example, scores in IQ tests,
interview records, field work diaries, or taped intervjews. All of
these provide data, that is, observations from which inferences may
be drawn, via analysis (Scott and Marshall 2000). Furthermore,
data are the symbols, numbers and or alphabetical characters used
to describe one or more attributes such as age, sex, productivity,
optimism, etc, which are then recorded. From data is possible
infonnation that aid formation of knowledge. This implies that
there is difference between data and information unlike how some
people take the duo for the same thing. Therefore, while data are
the input raw materials from which information arc produced,
infonnation nre data that have been assembled, processed and
interpreted into meaningful wny (Ogundipe ct oJ. 2006).

Data Collection
Data collection is a fundnmcntnl stage in cnn-ying out research
study in sociology. The way ond forrn in which data nre collected
informs the kind of statistical nnulysis to be employed together
with the subsequent reliability und power of findings of n study .•
 ,

148 l'atri cia A. 7cri1m muf A.S. Omo/mw1/

However, the type of research design and research methodology _is

a basic factor of consideration for techniques to be employed m
collecting data. ·

Typologies of Data i11 Sociology . .

(I) Quantitative data/qualitative data: Quant1tattv~ data refer to
information that appears in numerical form, or Jn t~e form_ of
statistics. On the other hand, qualitative data refer to. 1nfor~at1on
that appears in written, visual or audio form, such ~s transcnpts of
interviews, newspapers and web sites. (It is possible to analyse
qualitative data and display features of it numerically).

(2) Primary data/secondary data: Secondary data are data that have
been collected by previous researchers or organisations such as the
government and international agencies such as WHO, ·UN,
ECOWAS, etc. Quantitative sources of secondary data include
official government statistics and qualitative sources are very
numerous including government reports, newspapers, and personal
documents such as diaries as well as the staggering amount of
audio-visual content available online.

Primary Sources of Data

Primary data are data collected first hand by the researcher.
Sociologists conduct unique research which normally has specific
research questions to be answered and thus design method to
acquire targeted data fit for the work. The main methods
sociologists use to generate primary data include social surveys
(using questionnaire), interviews, experirnents and observations.
However, to generate secondary data purposely for research study:
official statistics, historical sources, life documentaries the mass
.
media analysed content and other examples of secondary ' data
mentioned earlier are parts of methods which researchers employ
to accumulate information from which findings are obtained.
Sociologists oft~n use secondary sources for practical reasons.
T,hey .can save lime nnd money and they may provide access to
htstoncal data that cannot be produced using primary research
because the events concerned took place before current members
 /Jw;k Methods i11 /Jnta Collect/011 f/ild l\11nlysl1 ill Sociology 149

of soci~ty. ~re born (H,~rn.lambos and Hui born 2008: p838). Albeit,
the tehabthty and vnltd1ty of secondary sources are sometimes
questionable for they can't provide the absolute information
required by researchers. These methods (data collection; primary
and secondary) will be discussed one after the other as follows .

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a set of questions on variables under study, set
by the researcher and to be answered by sampled respondents. For
a study that requires the use of questionnaire to collect data, those
targeted subjects expected to provide responses to the set questions
are referred to as respondents. The questionnaire is administered
by the researcher on the respondents and in case there are
multitudes of questionnaires to be administered or considering the
sensitivity of the researcher's presence while the responses are
being provided, the researcher might decide to leave the
questionnaires to be self-administered by the respondents
themselves. Questionnaires are always the ·same, i.e. they must
contain the same set of questions in a similar order so that the same
relative data are obtained from all members of the sampled
population. Sometimes, investigators decide to frame questions in
form of items (indicators) that measure specific concepts or
variables under study. In discussing forms in which questions can
be structured in a questionnaire, there are open ended questions
and close or fixed-choice questions, depending on the decision of
the researcher.

Open Ended Qtlestion: This type of question allows the

respondent to compose and provide the mind generated answer
rather than choosing from a set of predisposed number of
alternatives stated in a questionnaire. This style is reliable to some
extent in acquiring valid data from respondents inasmuch as they
can write what they mean in their own words. An example of
open·ended question is given thus: "How did you settle
disagreements between friends in the sn1ne workplace?" However,
questions of this form appearing in a questionnaire ~ug~est that t~e
responses will be classified and recoded in quantttattve form m
 150 Patricin A. Taiwo and A.S. Ontolmval

ers to the same quantitative

order to be able to subject the a~sw in the questionnaire will be
analysis .that the rest of the quesu~n~ interpreted carefully before
analysed statistically. Answers mus . pie that a certain percentage
the researcher is able to s~y, .for ex::ent~ internally/amicably with
of respondents sett!ed th~ir dtsagrhe intervention of management or
mutual understanding without t e
any other third party. . on reclassifying, categorising and
The task of embarking . s are sometimes being
quantifying of open-ended quesbtton se of the extra time and
. td. b lazy researchers ecau
ctrcumven e . Y h ~ r closed or fixed-choice
logic inherent. So, some researc ers pre ~ But open-ended
questions especially student researc ers. . , . .
. ' .
questions are appropna ea t nd cannot be avoided. 1n some situations
.
where the researcher; did not find adequate l~terature o~ prev10us
. d ques t'on
standard1se 1 1·tems to measure a vanable; studiesfi adnew
topical area, and embarks on examini~g a study.further to 1n out
· more on the set of dimensions to a vanable. ·

Closed or Fi.xed-cltoice Question: This is a type of question .that

requires respondents to select a choice between or among a g1ven
set of. answers. In this case, the stated answers may assume the
opinion of respondents on the questions posed. For example, the
following question can be asked:
What prompted you to go for !fa therapy? A. modem health
care failed ( ) B. modem health care is too costly ( ) C. Jack
of trust in the efficiency of modem health care ( ) D. /fa priests
are easily accessible.
From the above, respondents (in this case, the Ifa therapy
patients) are expected to pick their choice of answer from the
options stated either by ticking or underlining as appropriate,
subject to the instruction given, to indicate preferred response.
However, questions may be posed in a different way that requires
the respondents to agree or disagree or any other similar manner
that suggests the employment of Likert scale. Thus the question or
items will inform the subject to select the rated re~ponses relevant
to the itemised statement. For example:
I have the opportunity to develop close friendships at my
workplace.
 lieu le Met/rods ;,, Datn ('ol/ectlo11 and Analysis 111 Sociology IS I

t. Strongly . agreed 2. Disagreed 3. Undecided 4. Disagreed

5. Strongly disagreed .
At titnes. resea~hers adop~ score range starting from 1 to IO to
20 or above while measunng a variable and therefore ask
respondents to indicate their score level. For instance, in measuring
optimism, questions can be asked where the individual respondent
will be rated based on optimism level against a pre-set score
highlighted by the researcher. On the contrary, closed questions do
not allow original answer emanating from the respondents' own
ideas unlike open-ended styled posers. Therefore, it can be
cumbersome for researchers to know exactly what they are
measuring. Regarding the closed question exemplified above, the
respondent may have an answer that is significant but is not
included in the options. In fact such options may not in some cases
cover what the respondents intend absolutely, therefore leaving the
data paralysed. ·

Administering Questionnaire
There are different means through which questionnaires can be
administered or rather ways by which . researchers get
questionnaires across to the sampled population depending on the
spread or distance of the prospective respondents. It can be
administered on respondents by interviewer especially if subjects
include aged people and other sets of people who by any
happenstance not in a better position to fill out questionnaires in
the desired manner. A shortcoming of this is referred to as
interviewer bias. This means that the responses given are
. influenced by the presence of the researcher. In addition, it. can
make research more costly due to recruitment of trained
interviewers in the study field. However, the most comn1on means
is self-administered method where the prospective respondents are
given questionnaires to fill out thcmselve~ at c~nveni7nce. This
self-administered method can be accon1pltshed m vanous ways
while trying to get questionnaires across to the sampled subje~ts.
This can be through face-to-face approach, postal service,
telephone, email, internet, etc.
I 52 J>atricin A 1ai\\·o <111d A.S. Omolnwnl

Face-to-face Approacli: In this way, the researcher meets the

individual sampled subject in person; introduce.s the purpose of the
meeting, hands over the· questionnaire (if there 1s acceptanc~ by the
prospective respondent to give response) and both parties wilt
agree on when the filled-out questionnaire will be r:tumed. In fact,
where ·the would-be .respondents .are clustered tn a P~rti~ular
location, it 1nakes it easy for the researcher to distribute
question~aires 'to them as a group o'nce and for all. .

Postal service: The postal questionnaire is mailed to respondents

with a stamped addressed envelope for return to the researcher. It
provides an inexpensive way of gatheri~g data, especially if the
respondents are dispersed over a wide geographical area. The
return rate though d.o es not often exceed 50% of the sampled
population and iis sometimes below 25 percent (Haralambos and
Hulbom 2008). The fallout of this method affect data, making
them one sided or biased in terms response especially if the set of
respondents that returned the questionnaire are mainly a group
with similar but not diverse characteristics. For example, most of
them may be working population, females, etc.

Telephone: After identifying the individual prospective respondent

and the telephone address is intact, the researcher can put a call to
the respondert in order to accomplish questionnaire administering
exercise. All the questions are asked over the phone while the
responses are recorded. This is often done when doing marketing
research. Meanwhile, a prior agreement would have been made by
I

both parties before the exercise is done. It is important to state that

this method is rarely used by sociologists as such barely satisfies
the _p urpose of the study. Aside this, this cannot be appropriate for
a questionnaire which contains a great number of questions. In a
similar way, it is not time prudent because in a case where fixed
questions are asked, the researcher might have to be repeating
options as respondents forget often, so111e options earlier stated.
Generally, the response rnay be low.
 llruk Mcllrod.f 111 /Jatn C:nllrrtfon and A11rtlysls In Sociology 153

E·mail: Thct'c are sotne sensitive questions which are best

answered without the knowledge of anyone close to the
responde~ts. For instunce, n question that requires a respondent to
declare lus or her HIV/AIDS status needs absolute privacy in order
to get adequate reply. In short, very sensitive questions can best be
e-n1ailed to prospective respondent, without considering the task of
getting the e-mail address of all the samples needed for the study.
Another challenge of this method is that only those that have
access to the internet will be accessible, therefore it is
unrepresentative and there is possibility of low rate of return
because some individuals can decide to ignore or put in abeyance
the e-mailed questionnaire out of indifferent or lackluster attitude.

lnteniet: This seems to be the newest and supposedly easiest way

of reaching out to prospective respondents irrespective of their
distance to the researcher. In this case, the . questionnaire is
designed on a particular website where respondents are asked to
visit and fill-out the information. In fact, there are some famous
vendors rendering the service to any researcher who wants this
method. Most of the time, the respondents are lured to fill-out the
questionnaire while promising them gifts like recharge card.
However, this method also cannot pass the litmus test of adequate
representativeness because a sampled population without internet
access as at when the study is being done is denied of participation.
This automatically leads to possible unevenness of data collected.
In fact, the major problem common to all the methods tnentioned
above is that, a large set of less privileged people are left out in the
study and this can adversely affect the reliability and validity of
data collected on which analysis and subsequent conclusions can
be based.

Adva11tages of Questionnaire
(1) Questionnaire avails of the opportunity to collect a large
quantity of data frotn 1nultiplc sets of people within a
relatively short period of time.
(2) Data obtained fro1n questionnaires can be analysed pronto
and efficiently with the uid of co1nputer software
l 54 l,<11ririn A. Tnfwo nnd A.S. Omo/ml'fll

progran1tnes such as , Stat1st1ca· · I Package

· for. S~c1a1
·
·
Sc1ences (SPSS) which is commonly. used . by
d 1soc1olog1sts '
in analysing large quantities of quantitative . a a:
(3) Questiomaaire data can be analysed more scient1fically and
objectively than qualitative data. . . .
(4) Adequate comparison of qua~t1tat1ve . d~ta obtained
through questionnaire can be ac~1e~~d. This ts done wh~n
.information is compared for rehab1hty te.st, and to. predict
1
certain actions of subjects in a particular case. For
example, several results of electioneering process can be
studied to hypothesise the next voting result.
(5) Statistical data from questionnaires can be analysed so that
new hypotheses and theories can be produced especially
with a meticulously prepared set of questions.
(6) Large samples are very easy to acquire in the use of
questionnaire. This ensures adequate representativeness
and r~liability of results obtained from analysis.

Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire

(1) The wording of questions or items may prevaricate on
meaning of some words or concepts to respondents in
different ways; hence, obstruction to data validity is bound
to occur. For example, "I have the opportunity to get to
know my coworkers." Where respondents are asked to
indicate their level of agreement to this item, 'get to know'
in the sentence, it may convey diffrerent meanings to
different respondents, thus, answers may not be reliable to
that item. This is more reason sociological researchers
always avoid "double head" questions or items, e.g.
Workplace friendship developed because of nearness and shared
e~peri~n~e. In this, nearness and shared experience convey
different ideas because some who agree with nearness may want
to disagree with shared experience.
(2) Because respondents cannot provide infonnation that is
not on request, there is litnitation to the volume of data
that will be available. A spillov.er effect from this is that
new hypotheses and theories which were not stated ab-
initio are difficult to develop.
 Rnslc Metliods in l)f!ln Cc>llectiou nnd A11nlysis in Sociology 155

(3) Ope~atio~nlisution. of concepts it1 questionnaires· can lead

lo d1stort1on of ~uch conc~pts conttary to the real picture
of the conccp~s 1.n the .s?ctal wo~ld. !his is resulting from
the researchet s 11npos1t1on-a s1tllat1on where researchers
itnposc their own assu1nption on research content
(Haralambos and Hulborn 2008: 825).
(4) The ~sponses nnd validity of questionnaire data can also
be hindered due to problem of reactivity-:-when subjects
intentionally give responses that they assume to be target
of the researcher even though that response is not true and
original to them.
(5) The opportunity of reaching out' to far distant subjects with
associated supposed objectivity of study can tum to a
disadvantage because this rules out the possibility of
understanding the meaning and motives of the subjects of
research by respondents. .
(6) The process of reclassifying and recoding of open ended
questions into quantitative data wanes the quality of
responses supplied because some but important
information would have been precluded.

Interview
Interviewing in sociological research involves the engagement of
subjects from whom data or information on a study are acquired, in
questioning and conversation activity. In this case, the interviewer
who could be the main researcher or a mercenary acting in the
capacity of trained research interviewer asks predetermined
research questions to be answ~red by sampled subject(s) -
participant or interviewee - to obtain qualitative infor111ation for
the purpose of arriving at conclusion on a topic of investigation.
Interviews take a number of forms, depending upon how structured
they are:
• Structured interview: A completely structured interview
suggests the use of orderly listed set of questions a~cordi~g
to which the interviewer eanbarks on the exercise with
participant. The questionnaire serves as the guide in such a
situation and no deviation is expected to occur fro1n the
I ~6 l'n111rin A. 1n(wo mrd A.S. Omolnw11l

. . 'd d However the .interviewer is allowed to

questions p1ov1 ~ · • f r clarification pu
probe the participants answers 0 . rpose.
Stlictly open ended questions arc asked durmg any
1ntcrv1cw section.
• ' I

• U11strllctured interview: This takes the fo~ of a

conversation where interviewer has no predetenruned order
of questions about topic of research. But, ~he con~ersation
develops naturally and according to set topics of discussion
throughout, unless the participant fails to ~over .an area in
which the researcher is interested, then, 1nterv1ewer will
direct the discussion back to the areas he/she wishes to
cover. In this method researchers have a schedule of topics
' ..
to cover due for discussion with the part1c1pant and they
manipulate the conversation at some point to ensure that
participants share their ideas on all the themes penned for
the interview.

Most interviews fall somewhere between these two extreme

forms. Meanwhile, there are few tools of interview considering the
number of people involved and purpose. In all, sociologists make
use of in-depth interview (IDI), Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
and key informant interview (KII).

In-depth Interview (ID/): In-depth interviewing is a qualitative

research technique that involves conducting intensive individual
interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their
perspectives on a particular idea, programme, or situation. For
ex.ample, in a particular study about "lfa Therapy System:· Jfa
pnests. a?d other~ associated with the health system participated in
IDI to give detailed accounts about their experiences on topics
raised. during the interview, the thoughts they had concerning
opera~1ons •. processes, and outcon1cs, and about any changes they
perceived an themselves as a result of their subscription to Jfa
health system. In-depth interview is useful when a researcher
wants . detailed information about u person's thoughts and
behaviours or wants to explore new issues in depth. Interviews are
 .
llaslr Metlrutls in /Jma Cnllect/011 mrd A11nlyJ /.f ;,, Sociolnxy 157

often used to provide context to other data (such as outcome data)

offering n tnorc co1nplete picture of what happened in th~
prograntn1c :ind why.

Key b~fo1111a11t Interview (Kil): Key i~formants, as a result of their

personal skills, or position within a group, organisation or society,
are able to provide tnore information and a deeper insight into
what is going on around the1n in terms of forms, meanings and .
functions of their behavioural relationships with which they also
can be identified. As such, key informant interview is intended to
get detailed information on a particular topic of study from a
knowledgeable person especially when such information is hard to
get directly from people who actually have the experience being
investigated. What is being examined may be a very sensitive issue
to a group of people with the experience. For example, a pimp can
-serve as key informant to an investigator who is studying variables
related to prostitution. In this sense, the actual prostitutes may find
it difficult to divulge all necessary information needed by the
interviewer when interviewed because of perceived anticipated
consequence.

Focus Group Discussion FGD: This entails a setting where a

researcher, this time as a moderator/facilitator, engages a group of
individuals carefu11y selected as participants, to air their opinion on
a topic of interest to the researcher. The participants must have
relevant information to supply on each topical issue raised at the
table of discussion. Bryman (200 l) cited in Haralmbous and
Holbom defines FGD as, a form of group interview in which there
are several participants (in addition to the moderator/facilitator):
there is an emphasis in the questioning on a particular fairly tightly
defined topic and the accent is on interaction within the group and
the joint construction of meaning.
Many sociological researchers agree with 12 (twelve)
participants as maximum while the mini1num c~uld b~ 7 (sev~n).
The task of the moderator is to; anchor the session by 1ntroducmg
each topical issue to discuss: time the exercise efficiently an.d
record the points raised and concluded on by the group. In this
. l 58 l1ar,.icitt A. Tni1m nml A.S. Vmolnwnl

regard, a tape recorder 1nay be employed for.complete capturing of

ideas. At thnes, researchers employ the service of ~n assistant that
watches and takes note of gestures or rno.veme~ts that may have
significant meaning in the process of d1scuss1on .. Foc~s group
discussions are more 'natural'-closer to real social hfe-than
face-to-face interviews
.
(Wilkinson
.
2004).

Advantages of l11terview I . .
(1) Compared to observation method, interviews can utilise
larger samples, so generalisations are more justified.
(2) It is versatile because it is possible to produce both
statistical data and qualitative information gennane to the
study. It can discover things that cannot be asked directly.
(3) Misconception of words or expressions as used by the
researcher can be clarified for participant to input relevant
information unlike questionnaire method where there may
not be the opportunfry to demystify cumulous expressions
in. situations where questionnaire is self-administered.
(4) Both researcher and participants come to terms about
meanings of concepts. It extirpates researcher's imposition
against what the concepts inean in real social world. Thus,
data and information become valid and reliable.
(5) Intervi~w allows cooperation between researcher and
participant to bec0"1ne partners in the course of research,
(6) Interview allows the opportunity for critical reflection by
all those involved, so that, th~y can examine and
sometimes change the perspectives through which they see
the world.
(7) The response rate tends to be higher than when
questionnaire is used.

Disadvantages
(1) The responses given in an intervi~w may not be accurate
and may not reflect real behaviour. Participants may lie,
n1ay forget or may lack the information required.
(2) The presence of the interviewer may influence the
responses of pm1icipants, causing decline in the ·
infornmtion validity.
 · Bos/() Mttlrods 111 Dma Collection mu/ AnnlJ.sls {n Sociology 159

(3) There can be interviewer's bias where participants might

. be either consciously or unconsciously Jed to .give certain
response& or lnformatlot\. ' .

Observation .
·ob~ervation is. one of t~1e best ~ata collection method~ used by
s~1ol?gists. It is a t~chntque t~at involves systematically selecting,
watching .and recording beh~viour and characteristics of subjects of
a study in order to accomplish the objectives of the research
exercise by a researcher. The use of observation is not limited to
any polemic research methodological approach in sociology. The
length of the observation period depends on the satisfaction of the
observer about the amount of data and information required to
make a conclusion on the topic of research. It can last.for months
and years. Observation can be participatory and non-participatory.

Non-participatory ·observation: In this method, the observer ·

watches ihe situation, ·openly or · concealed, but does not
participatQ, For ex,&mple, an observer can watch, study and take
d~ta or information of a group of protesters or market women
without joining the group .in their activities. Observation can give
additional, more accurate information on the lifestyle of research
~ubjects, than interviews and questionnaire.

Participant Observatio1i: This is a method of observation where

the observer takes part in the situation being observed. Using the
example stated earlier, the observer will in this regard join the
group of protesters or the market women for a ~eeper
understanding and easier collection of data. In many circum-
stances, sociologists find it necessary for the observer to get
involved 1n the activities of those being studied in order to be
accepted. Participant observation is a main method of data
collection in ethnographic study. Branislaw Malinoski's ~tudy of
the Trobriand Islands is an example of on ethnographic stt~dy
where participant observation was adopted as . data collection
technique. In this rnethod, researchers 1nay .decide .to b~ overt
participant observers where they declare thetr true tdenttty and
purpose, or covert participant observers where the .fa~t that ~hey are
researchers is not revealed. For instance, a cnn1mologist n1ay
160 Pnrricin A. Tniwo nnd A.S. Omolm"'11

pretend to be a criminal and study in prison in order to carry out

research using participant observation method.
This can be done where the awareness of researcher's presence
by those being studied can hinder data standard because people can
decide to stop acting naturally in the presence of an outsider. But,
this idea is contrary to the ethic of informed consent in sociological
research~ To solve this, it is believed that, even though people can
stop to act naturally having known the presence of .an observer, as
time goes on, like within three to six months, people forget about it
and return to their normal way of life. In this case, the observer
will be able to carry out research.

Advantages of Observation
• It provides the researcher with best means of obtaining a
valid picture of social reality in its natural setting.
• It ensures d~ta validity an~ reliabili.ty because it is difficult
for people being studied to lie or mislead the researcher.
• Participant observation allows the researcher to get the
subjective views of the subjects of research.
• It is the best means of studying interaction.
• It promotes objectivity of the research process.
• It is useful for testing and developing new hypothesis and
theory.
• Participant observation has the great advantage of bringing
about a high level'of ecological validity for a study.

Disadvantages
• The method takes a lot of time.
• It can only be employed for the study of a very small
group, therefore untypical form generalisation to be made.
• There is risk in doing it because the researcher may be
prone to physical ·and psychobiological danger depending
on the activities of the group being studied.
• It is difficult to compare the findings of this nature with
other :itudie~ because study cannot be replicated. It is not
scientific.
 Bnsic Met/rods in Dnta Collect/011 nnd Annlys/s ;,, Sociology 161

• The .obsei:ver ~as power of imposition which can lead to

.. m_an1pulat1on in the research process.
• The validit~ of the findings may be faulty especially, where
people decide to change their usual way of life throughout
the course of study.

Secondary Sources
Sociologists often use secondary sources for practical reasons
(Haralambos and Holbom 2008). They are cost effective and can
provide access to historical data that cannot be produced using
primary research data collection method because the event under
investigation took place in the distant past. The following are the
secondary methods of gathering data by sociologists.

(1) QfficiaJ Statistics: This entails the exploration of already

existing statistical data made available by government parastatals
and international agencies. The Nigerian Bureau of Statistics
(NBS), Nig~rian Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) and Nigerian
Population Census (NPC), etc, are examples of data banks in
Nigeria from which sociological researchers can derive secondary
dat(J. Similarly, internatipnal agencies like WHO, UN, UNESCO,
AU, ECOWAS, etc, serve as data sources from which researchers
can derive ready-made data suitable for developing research
findings. Demographers in sociology are more interested in using
statistical data drawn from census data and elsewhere to examine a
wide range of topics, which include birth rate, birth rate and
fertility patterns, and divorce. Criminologists as well sometimes
employ official crime statistics released by government bodies to
help in the process of researching.
Much of the statistical information wouldn't have been
succe"ssfully developed by researchers du9 to the amount of
resources and power needed to be exercised in the process of
gathering data. It is only a large organisation that has the
wh~r~withal that can make such data available. The data are
alw~ys from a very large population ~l~ich can .be. in millions. ~or
instance, Emil~ Durkheim usecl smc1de stat1st1cs to establish
correlation between suicide and other social facts.
 ,
162 /•ntricln A. 1vln:o n11d A.S. Omolnwnl

Adva11tagcs of llsi11g Official Statistics 0 f social Jife and allevi

. (n) They arc unobtrusive measure a1e
problctn of reactivity. . ·
(b) Data arc easily 1nadc ava1lablc. ' ·
(c) It is cost effective. . . .
(d) Findings from such a pool of. data can be generalised.
Inferences can be drawn especially where .data are from
total population of .a group of peop~e. For example,
countries like Nigeria:
.
Disadva11tagcs of using Official Sttf,ti~tfcs.
(a) The statistical data can be lnruted 1n use and scope~ . . .
(b) Many sociological researchers do not accept the reltab1hty
and validity of the data because of possible alteration
either intentional or unintentional by the source body.

(2) Historical Docunient: Where past events are very important to

bring to forth in the course of researching, sociological researchers
find no usefulness in primary method of data collection. The
alternative in such situation is to find and consult historical
documents which are of vital importance from which the needed
data can be obtained. According to Haralambos and Holbom 2008:
"Historical documents are of vital importance to sociologists who
wish to study social change which takes place over an extended
period of time .. .past events may be important in understanding
how contemporary. patterns of social life came about."
Unfortunately, such information is prone to subjective and
itleological imposition (including wrong interpretation) of those
who produced them. Therefore, it is risky to accept the findings
from such, as generalisable. But, without the use of historical
doc~me~ts, sociologi~ts w.ould be restricted to producing a rather
static view of social hfe. Hence, Max Weber's work on
development of capitalism linked to religion would not have
existed.

(3) life Doc11111ent: Any document that details a person's life

experiences an~ devclop1nent through stages can serve as a source
of data collect1on for . the prn11ose of research. Such information
contains qualitative view into the individual's personal state. Such
 Rnsic M~tfl()d.r ;,, Dntn Collecti<m nnd lmn/y.fl.r In Sociology 163

life docu.'nents cnn ~e in fonn of Jetter, diaries, autobiographies,

biogrnpht~s, etc, which can. be ~isto~cal or contemporary. This
source shares advantages Wtth h1stor1cal documents in terms of
method ~\Jt it is more lirnit~d in sample size due to the fact only
few subjects . can ~ studied. Personal document is open to
misinterpretation and ts unrepresentative in nature. Similarly, such
documents are always scarce and difficult to access by researchers.

(4) Tile Mass Media: Although mass media as sources of data

have always been criticised for rolling out distorted or misleading
image of the society they try to project, the reports can also be
useful to sociological researchers on the condition that, thorough
assessment of the content is done before application. The internet
as one of the most useful sources of generating data especially by
student researchers makes a large amount of data available for
research purpose. With access to internet, data for various research
topics can be accessible, including works of other sociological
researchers and other disciplines. While the advantages of using
mass media which includes internet are as the same as using
official statistics discussed above, it is expedient to highlight the
danger of using mass media tools in collecting data for research.
Thus, a major problem of using mass media material results
from little or no scrutiny of contents before being released to the
public. As such, the reliability and validity of research findings are
questionable. Again, there is the problem about the authority of the
authors and conveyor of the materials on the platform of mass
media; whether obsolete or updated and the ideological orientation
of source. All these can erode the authenticity of data and
information accumulated from the mass medi a.

Data Analysis .
Data analysis is a body of n1ethods that help to descnbe racts,
detect patterns, develop explanations, and test hypotheses. It is the
process of lookjng at and su1nmarising data with intent to extra~t
useful information and develop conclusions. There arc two nm1n
categories of data analysis in sociology; these two ~re
predetermined by the nature of data collected from the field which
can be either quantitative or qualitative data. Thus data collected
 164 Pmricin A. 1'1iwo mul A.S. Omofm\'t'tl. •

through questionnaire .and interview. can be analysed statis!ic~lly

w~th the aid of cotnputer programmes. However, t.he qualitative
data gathered by researchers in sociology are sometimes analysed
by content analysis (which is done with different approac~es) and
also, c01nputer assisted programmes which shall be discussed
shortly.

Quantitative Analysis . .
The technique by which data are converted to numencal fo~ ~tth
a view to analyse them statistically is referred to as qua~t1tative
analysis. In other words, it is the numerical represent~t!on and
manipulation of observations for the purpose · of descrtbing a~d
explaining the phenomena that observations reflect. The major
method of analysing quantitative data by sociological researchers
is statistical process instrumented by Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS). This is a computer assisted software programme
that can analyse large data set. This programme is used iri both
descriptive and inferential statistics. Meanwhile, there is a few
preliminary activities that need to be done before going deep into
either descriptive or inferential statistics. These are data coding,
data entry, data cleaning c.nd sometimes data recoding and
tran sformati on.

Data Coding: This is the process of converting the observations

and measurement obtained from the field into the form suitable for
SPSS, to ensure clarity. Smart researchers develop what is called
code book in this regard and such is most times prepared even
before the researcher goes to the field to collect data. In this code
book, for questionnaires, the presumed responses for each variable
or construct being measured are assigned numerical identities
through which they will become easy to enter · into SPSS for
analysis. In other words, code book is the document that describes
the location of variables. It indicates the assigning of codes to all
attributes composing variables. The first thing that the code book
shows is variable identification which can appear in abbreviation,
then, the full definition of the variable. Following this must be the
attributes of the variable with associated nutnerical identification
(see example in ta~Je 6.1 ).

I
\
 llc'rsic Metlivds in D"tn Collectio11 muf Ancr/ysls In Sociology 165

... Tobie 6.1

lD l Label Vnlue . Measure
Sex What is your sex? .' Male 1 Nominal
Female 2
Relg. What is your religious affiliation? AFf 1 Nominal
Christianity 2
Islam 3
Af!.C What is age as at last birthday? ........ Ratio

Data Entry: Statistical software packages used in social research

inc!ud~ Micros?ft Excel, Microsoft Access and the major one,
which is SPSS, 1n case the analyst wants to avoid exporting back to
SPSS for analysis. Once each variable name has been defined and
given value label, data entering into SPSS format can start by
picking the questionnaires one after the other and entering the
information accordingly.

Data Cleaning: Before analysis proper starts, it is expedient .to

check for errors that would have occurred while entering the data
due to mistakes, like entering 22 instead of 2. This will later distort
and mess up analysis, especially some analyses that are very
sensitive to 'ou.tliers'-values that are well below or well above
the other scores. To avoid this, errors must be checked and
corrected before analysis starts. The best means to check errors in
the categorical variable is to run descriptive frequencies.

Univariate Analysis
The analysis exercise in sociology starts with univariate
description of each variable that makes up the study. In other
words, it is the analysis of a single variable, for the purpose of
description. Frequency distributions, averages, and measure of
dispersion constitute univariate analysis and this is sometimes
referred to as descriptive statistics in social research.

Descriptive Statistics
After a thorough screening of data set for errors and correction,
descriptive phase of data analysis can start. This is done to de~c~be
the characteristics of sample. In order to present the descn~ttve
analysis of socio·demographic characteristics of samples in a
manageable 1nethod, sociolo"gists use a particular table, where all
 "

166 · Pat,.icin A. 1'itih10 nud A.S.' Omolnwnl

the variables like sex, age, religious affiliation, etc, with. t~eir
associated counts nnd percentages are presente~. J?escnpttve
analysis also helps ·to check variables for any .violation of the
assumptions underlying the statistical . techniques that .the
researcher intends to employ in addressing research q_uestton.
Univariate aryalysis of variables is done for bot~ c~tegoncal .a~d
continuous variables as well. For the later, descnpt1ve analysis ts
used to provide the summary · statistic.s of mean, mi.~imum/
maximum and standard deviation. In fact, in order to save time, the
descriptive analysis of all continuous variables can be done at a go
once the instruction is given to SPSS to do such. The SPSS will
also, based on request, provide information about the skewness and
· kurtosis of all continuous variables. This information is needed
especially if parametric statistical analysis (e.g. Pearson
correlation, T-test etc) will be done.
For a normal score distribution, the value "O" will be obtained
for both skewness and kurtosis even though this is rare to get from
sociological data. Positive skewness value indicates that scores are
clustered to the left at low values. On the other hand, negative
skewness value indicates that scores are clustered at the high right-
hand end of the graph. But for kurtosis, positive value means that
the distribution is rather peaked (scores clustered to the center)
with a long ttiin tail and kurtosis value below "O" indicating that
distribution of scores is relatively flat (too many cases at the
extremes). With large samples, skewness may not make a
substantive different analysis. Discussion will now be made on
descriptive analysis tools before other techniques.

Descriptive Statistics Tools

freque1~cy Distribution: This i_s a way of displaying the statistical
1I1ustrat1on of the number of times each distinct value occurs, the
percentage, count of the total sample size and cumulative
percentage for every categorical variable. For example;

Table 6.2: Sex of Respondents

Frcouencv Percent Cumulative nercent
Male 152 51.0 51.0
Female 146 49.0 100.0
-

Total 298 100.0

-
 /Jn.tic' M f'tlwd.t 111 l>r11n r'ollrrt/011 ntr1f 1\rwly.f ls /n SoriolnR.v 167

For fm1hcr prcsentntion, the nl>ovc cttn be displuycd using

histogranl. bur churt, pie chart. etc.

A1'1as1u~· <f "Ce11~1«1l te11clc11cy .. : This indicates the "averages"

expressing the typical value of a variable. The n1can median and
mode ~re spcc!ric ex:~n~plcs or averages recognised i~ sociological
analysts. 11lc ttlcan . ts the av~r~~e computed by adding up the
values of all observattons and d1v1dmg the result by the number of
observations. This is called arith1nctic 1ncan. But the "mode" is an
average that represents the 1nost frequently observed value or
attribute. While "1nedian" is an average representing the value in
the middle when all values are rank-ordered. Example: if the ages
of five students are 22, 18, 32, 18, and 25, the mean will be 23, the
mode is 18 and the median is 22.

A1easure of Dispersion: The dispersion refers to the spread of

values or the way in which (for a given variable) values are
disnibuted around some central values (averages) like mean. The
simplest measure of dispersion is "range"-the difference between
the highest and the lowest values in a data set or set of
observations. Therefore, from the above example of data set of
students' ages, it can be indicated that their ages range from 18 to
32. A more sophisticated measure of dispersion is standard
deviation (S.D.). This is a measure of dispersion around the mean,
calculated so that approximately 68% of the cases will lie within
plus or minus one standard deviation from the mean, 95 o/o will lie
within plus or minus two standard deviations and 99.9% will lie
within three standard deviations. Thus, for example, if the nlean
age in a group is 30 and the standard deviation is 10, then 68%
have ages between 20 and 40. The smaller the standard deviation,
the more tightly the values arc clustered around the mean; if the
standard deviation is high, the vulues arc widely spread out
(Babbie 2000).
At this juncture, it important to point out thnt frequency
distribution and other averages arc only used for categorical or
discrete variables while 1neasurcs of dispersion arc conducted on
continuous variables. Thus, in analysing categorical data.
frequency and n1odc should be calculnrcd. For continuous data on
 ·· ~

168 Patricia A. 1'nh1•0 and A.S. Omo/mval

ted for interval data, and means

the other hand, 1nediuns .are compu
for ratio data.

Bivariate Analysis . . e of subgroup comparison

As with univariate analysts, the pudos iptive statistics. Howeve s
of a variable is largely done ~nde~ escr lys.is of two variabl r,
bivariate analysis which 1s t e ana . . " es
· · t d with a view to drawing 1n1erences
snnultaneously is compu e h b' ·
. c · t · t"
( 1n1erentta1 s a11s 1cs ) from a set of data. In s
· d ort, 1vanate
computation · as used by soci"ological
, researchers
. ts . one for the
purpose of determining the empirical relat1onsh1ps bet~een
variables. The construction of simple percentage .Ccross tabulation)
or the computations of simple ·correlation coefficient are examples
of bivariate analysis.

Multivariat~ Analysis ·
This is an extension of bivariate analysis involving the analysis of
more than two variables at a go. 'In other words, the analysis of the
simultaneous relationships among several variables is multivariate
analysis. Example is testing the influence of age, sex and
institution on job satisfaction of academic staff. Contingency
table-a format for presenting the relationships among variables as
percentage distribution-is used to present both bivariate and
multivariate analysis results. Most bivariate and multivariate
analyses are done to make inferences from the data obtained from
field of study..

Inferential Statistics
I~ferentiaJ s~atis.tics . is a form of analysis technique, run with a
view to making Judgi:nent about population parameters on the basis
?fa sampled pop~lat~on (from such population) on which statistics
!s computed. Th1.s involves .hypothesis testing and confidence
1~t~rvals const.ructton. Inferential statistics are categorised into two
viz; Parametric and Non-parametric. Using either of the two
depend~ on the characteristics of data drawn from the sampled
pop~Jatton. Therefore, each category of inferential statistics has
requ1r~me~ts t.hat data mu~t fulfilJ before each is applied to do
analysis (bivariate and multivariate).
 \

lltrsic Melliods i11 Dntn Collrct/011 and l\nnlysls in Sociology 169

Paran1etric statistics: The word parametric comes from the word

"pararne.tcr"-.<hara~teristic of . a population. The underlying
assutnpllon under th1s, for data, ts that the set of data for a given
sample drawn frotn th~ to.tat population being investigated must
have a normal score d1stnbut1on (of a population on a variable
n1easured in either interval or ratio scale). So, the variables are
prefen-ed to be continuous variables like interval and ratio. Hence,
tools like regressions, Pearson correlation, t-test ANOVA etc can
be used to analyse data. . ' ' '

Non-para1netric statistics: In case the distribution of scores on

variables for a given sample drawn from total population is not
nonnal, that is, failing to fulfill the requirement of parametric
technique analysis, any other devised or alternative test in
replacement of parametric statistics analysis, is non-parametric.
This includes tools used for categorical variables like Spearman
Rank order (rho) correlation, Chi-square, kruskal-Wallis, etc.

Checking the Reliability of a Scale

All scales that are being used to measure variables must be reliable
and such should be checked before embarking on data analysis,
especially while preparing for parametric analysis. One of the main
issues concerning the scales is internal consistency. This refers to
the degree to which the items that make up the scale 'hang
together'. Are they all measuring the same underlying construct?
One of the most commonly used indicators of internal consistency
is Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Ideally, the alpha level of a scale
should be above .7. Cronbach alpha values are however, quite
sensitive to the number of items in a scale. With short scales
having fewer than ten items, it is possible to find low ~lpha l.evel
like .5. In this case, it is due to report the mean inter item
correlation for the i terns.

Missing Data .
lt is rare to obtain an absolutely con1plete data f~om
every ca~e in
doing sociological rese~rch that mainly deals with human beings,
especially when questionnaires are use~ to coll.~ct da.ta. Some
respondents omit few questions and fntl to provide answers to
I .

170 />mricin A. Tnlwn n/1(1 AS. Omo/iu1•ai

questions either intentionally or unintenti~n~lly. The empty

space(s) indicates 1nissil1g data. When · descnptt~es are run, the
percentage of the 1nissing data for . each . variable should be
calculated to know its significance. It t~ a.dvtsab]e for. analysts. to
assign a particular value to indicate rn1ssmg data while entenng
data. The nun1ber n1ust be different from all ?ther common
nmnerical values being entered for attributes of vanables. One c~n
pick 9 or O to indicate missing value. It should be ~ nu~be.r that 1s
easily remembered in the process of run~ing analysis. M1ss.1ng data
are sometimes considered in case there ts a pattern about 1t where
some of the respondents ignored a particular question for a
suspicious but significant reason. Then, it becomes important to
report such a case while presenting analysis result.

Assessillg Nonnality
Before parametric statistic techniques can be done, there must be
an assumption that the distribution of scores on all dependent
continuous variables is normal. Normal is used to describe the
symmetrical, bell shaped curve. That is, spread of data derived for
a study. Normality is assessed by obtaining skewness and kurtosis
mentioned earlier. Though, in SPSS, the Explore option of the
Descriptive Statistics menu can be used to do this, graphical
illustrations using histograms, scatter plots, box plots, line graphs
etc most time serve the purpose.

Checking for Outliers

Many statistical techniques, especially parametric are very
sensitive to outliers. These are values standing aloof others which
are well below and above the n1ean score. Outliers can distort the
normality of .data, ~hus, soci~Jogical analysts are obliged to find a
way of ~eahn~ ~1th thern .m order to make data qualified for
par~n:ietnc. sta~1st1cal analys~s . .So1netin1es, they are removed if
their 1nclus1on 1s found to be insignificant.

Manipulation of Data
Researchers cun transfonn raw dutn into any form that will make it
easy to con?uct analysis and to test hypotheses. The inanipulation
of data can mclude;
 lJmic Met/rod.~ i11 lJ<t1n Co!IC'l..'t/cm "'"' t\11aly.fis 111 Sociology 171

(n) ~dding· up scores of the items that make up each scale to

give . nn ?vernll s~ote, such as pcrfonnance score,
perceived J?b co1.n1n1t1nent .score, etc. In calculating total
scale,. the first thn1¥ lo do ts, reverse all (if there is any)
negat~vely wo~ded tletns. Secondly, .the highest scores of
each 1te1n n1ak1ng up the scale are summed up to give total
score. This is easily done by SPSS.
(b) Transforrning skewed variables for analyses that require
normality of score distribution.
(c) C?llapsing continuous variable (e.g. age into young~
1n1ddle age and old).
(d) Reducing or collapsing the number of categories of a
categorical variable (e.g. collapsing rank of academic staff
into just two categories representing junior/senior
lecturers).

Parametric Statistics
Choosing the Right Statistic
A major bugaboo to most sociological research~rs especially
student researchers sets in when it is time to decide the correct
statistical technique to use in analysing the data collected.
Nevertheless, the ·following chronicles the main statistical
techniques most used in sociology to arrive at sensible explanation
about relationships and differences in variables. This can guide
well in choosing a correct statistic technique to analyse data. Thus,
there are two major purposes for which any of the statistical
techniques in sociology are used viz; exploration of relationships
among variables and exploration of differences between groups.

Exploring Relationships: Researchers are n1ost ti1ne keen at

finding the strength of relationship between variables, so they use a
number of different techniques given below.

Pearson correlatio11: This is used when one wants to find out the
strength of the relationship between two continuous variabl.cs. ~he
Pearson correlation v ~1lue denoted as "r" indicates both cl1rect1on
(positive or negative) and strength of the relationship: Be i1~g
positive 1neans that increase on the level of one vanablc 1s
associated with increase on the other. Meanwhile. a negative
 l 72 Pmrida A. 7niwo mrd A.S. Omolti!vnl

. . n the level of one variable leads

·con·elation indicates that·mcr~use 0
to decrease on the.other and vice versa.
·• . . '. 15
. an extension of Pearson correlation
Pama/ correla/1011. Thts fi the possible influence of
analysis. It allows one to contro1 or
another confounding variable.

. depen dent vana

tn
. · · ·d
0
~~~~~~~:~~~o=:~~~~ ~~;1 :;~he predictive abilit~ a set
. bl es on one continuous dependent vanable.
of of
er extension of correlation that

Factor analysis: This allows the condensation of large set of

variables or scale items down to a s~all.er, more man.ageable
number of dimensions or factors. This is !Dade poss1?le by
summarising the underlying patterns of correlatton and looking for
'clumps' or groups of closely related ite~s . It_ is often used w~en
developing scales and measures, to 1dent1fy the underlymg
structure.
Exploring Differences between Groups.· There is another set of
statistics that can be used in sociology for exploring the significant
statistical difference between or among a number of groups. Most
of these analyses involve comparing the mean score for each group
on one or more dependent variables. The statistics are discussed
below.

T-test: This is employed when there are two groups like male and
female or two sets of data collected on two different occasions (on
a particular variable); (before and after the introduction of a
variable the researcher wants to find its influence) and one needs to
compare the mean score on some continuous variable (e.g.
or~anisation cornmi~ment). There are two main types of t-test.
Paired sample t-test 1.e. repeated test measure, used to differentiate
between mean scores for sainples tested at I st time and 2nd time
~often after some in.tervention or event). Independent sainple t-test
JS u~ed to exp!ore d1ffere~1ce in n1ean scores of different groups on
a g1v_en contm~ous varrnble at a tirne. For instance, one can
ex~n1m~ the d1ff~rence of score between Ul and Lead City
Umvers1ty academic staff on perforniance.
 ll<uic Mrt/1ods in be11n CollrclifJn mid !\11nlysis /11 Sncinlox,v 173

One-way analysis of •1ntiance (ANOVA): This is similar to t-test

but more than. 01\e sub-group is involved; one can compare the
mean scores of two or more groups on a continuous varinblc. ft is
~ailed one way ?ecausc it cxnn1ines the influence of only one
independent vannblc on the dependent continuous variable.
Although, it n1ay not indicate where the significant difference
occurs. post hoc cotnparison table that follows it while running it
in SPSS will indicate this. Again, there are two types of ANOV A,
repeated n1easures ANOV A, and between-groups as in t-test, but
ANOVA deals with two or more measures and/or groups.

Two-way ana/yfii... of variance: This is similar to one way

ANOVA, but 1. is more powerful because one can test the
influence of two independent variables on one dependent variable.
One main advantage of two way ANOVA over one-way is that, the
interaction effect of independent variables can be determined. For
example, when one suspects that "turnover intention" increases
with age but only for females. Therefore, it also tests for the main
effects-that is, the overall effect of each independent variable
(e.g. sex, age). Again, there are between-groups and repeated
comparisons of two way ANOV As.

Multivariate analysis of variance: This is used to compare groups

on a number of different but related, dependent variables. For
example, one can compare the influence of rank of academic staff
on job satisfaction, performance, commitment and t~mover
intention. Multivariate analysis (MANOVA) can be used with one-
way, two-way and higher factorial designs involving one, two or
more independent variables.

Analysis of covariance: ANCOV A is used. statisti.cally to c or~tro l

for the likely influence of an extra confoundmg van~ble , especiall y
when one suspects that groups differ on . some variable !lrnt may
influence the influence the effcct of that independent variable ha
on the dependent variable. To ensure certitude that it i the
independent variable that is causing the influen~c , /\NCO \~ A
statistically reinovcs the effect of the covariance. A~1 a m ,
ANCOVA can be used along with one-way, two-way or
multi variate tnodel.
 174 f>n11·idn. A. 1nlwo mid A.S. OmolmMI

Table 6.3: Summnry of Statistics for Exploring Relationships

. Non.
tumpll' Type of
SteUstks of research \'atlnblcs Purpose Assumptions parametric
tl'Chniaue uucstlon needed alternative
Prarson Is there n Two Correlation (a) Interval or ratio Spearmall'S
Com?lation relationship variables: describes the scale of Rank Order
between X both relationship measurement for Correlation
and Y? Or, continuous. between two both variabfes except (rho)
Do people Or, one continuous on~ is categorical
with high continuous variables; its (then the two groups
level of X variable and strength an~ must be equal in
' experience the other direction number)
low level of categorical (b) A set of subjects
B'? (two values) must provide
information on both
• variables
(c) The observation
must have been
I
taken where
. I
respondent did not
agree on giving the
same answers to the
variables.
(d) Score of the
continuous
I
variable(s) must be
normal
(e) The relation
between the two
variables should be
linear on scatter plot
(f) Homoscedasticity
(scores of one
variable should vary
similarly to the other
PartiaJ variable.
AfLer All Lhe three Partial
Correlation controlling The assumptions are None
variables correlation the same as above.
for X, is should be allows one
there still a continuous to examine
significant variables, the
relationship association
between Y between to
andZ varinblt)s
variables'? while
prec I11 ding
the possible
influence of
n variable
that one
suspects to
contribute to
initial
relationship
hctwcen the
first two
variables.
 IJnsic Metllods In Dmn Collection mtd /\nnl)'sis lit Sociology 175
Table 6.3 comd.
Multiple Which is One• It gives the The same as above. None
Regressions the best continuous indication of In nddilion. for
(standard} predictor of dependent relati ve
Z: Xor Y variable i.e. sociological
contribution research, the sample
or W Zand of each
v;iriables? Two or size must be large.
independent Tabilchnick and
more variable; Fidell (200 1. pl 17)
independent how suggest n formula
continuous signi ficant is thus;
'1
variables the level of NIJ SO + 8m (where
(categorical variance mis the number of
variable can explained by independent I
be included each. variables)
here, e.g.;
male=: I,
female=2)
Logistic What One It allows one Though it does not None
Regress ions fac tors categorical to examine specify assumptions
predict the dependent how well a concerning the
likelihood variableZ; set of distribution of scores
that Two or predictor for the set of
respondent more variables predictor variables, it
reported continuous explains is sensitive to
true or categorical multicoliniearity-
perceived categorical dependent high correlations
feeli ng or variables. variable. among the set of
experience predictor variables.
on Z Outliers must also be
• variable? controlled.
Factor What is the · A set of It identifies a a.) Sample size None
Analysis underlying correlated small set of should be large
factor continuous factors lhat enough like 0 150 as
structure of variables. represents suggested by Pallant
the A and B the (2005).
scale? Past underlying b.) Correlation
research relationships matrix of variables
suggests a among a should be .3 and
two factor group of above.
structure. Is related c.) Linearity
the variables. d.) Outliers should
structure of be controlled.
the scale in
this study,
using
community
of ~ampl e,
consistent
with this
previous
research?
l 76 l'atricin A. Taiwo mu/ A.S. Omolnwlll

T nble 6.4: Sunuoory of Statistics to Compare Groups

Statistics
txami•le of
tesr.nrch
Tt1•es of
vnrhtbles l'drposc A ssumptions
-

Non-
-
parametrk
l 'cchnlqut question needed
alternative
Independent This ( I) The Mann- -
ls there a Two variables:
samples 1'· indicates if measure of Whitney
significant ( I) One
test categorical, there is dependent Test
difference In
Independent statistical Iy variable must
the mean X
variable (e.g. significan t be ratio or
scores for Y
male and fe male) difference; interval, i.e.
andZ
groups (e.g. (2) One may be group continuous
male and continuous , Y differs variable.
female) dependent from group Z (2) The scores
variable (e.g. in terms of must have
performance) variable X been obtained
(e.g. through
t
' performance) random
sartjpling.
'
(3) fJbe
" observation
must have
been taken
. I

where
respondent
.. I
did not agree
. on giving the
same answers
to the
variables.
(4) The scores
of continuous
variables must
. be normally
distributed.
I (5) Samples
mu st be
obtained from
population of
equal
variance.
Paired Does the One set of II indicates Same as Wilcoxon
samples T· interven1ion responden1s/par1i statistically above. ln Signed
test of A have cipanls (or significan1 addition. The R:.mk Test
infl uence on ma1ched pnirs) difference in difference
the 1he mean between the
participants' scores for two scores for
experience Time l and each subject
of fl ? Timt: 2. should be
norm..1lly
distribu1ed
and the
surnple size
should be
large enough
likl" 50 above. -
~
~
 Bnsic Mttlrods 111 Vdtn Collection and Annlys/J in Sociology 177
Tnblt 6.4 C'Ontd.
One-way Is there o Two variables: II tells Same at the Kruskal~
betWttn· difference in (a) One whether there general
X variable Wallis
groups . categorical are assumption Test
ANOVA scores for lndepen4ent significant for rests to
groups A. B variable with diffcrences in compare
andC. three or more the mean I
groups.
'
different groups. scores on the I

(b} A continuous dependent

dependent var. variable
across all 1i
grouos.
One-way ls there a One group of It tells . Same as the Friedntm
repeated change in X subjects whether there general Test
measures variable measured on the are assumption
ANOVA scores over a same scale on significant for tests to
spread of three different differences compare
three occasions or among the groups.
periods? under three three sets of
different mean scores.
conditions: One
independent .
categorical
variable (the three
times)
One dependent
continuous
variable X(e.g.
job satisfaction)
Two-way What is the Three variables: hallows one Same as the None
between- i'ntluence of Two categorical to simulta- general
groups X and Yon independent neously test assumption
ANOVA Z? variables (e.g. sex for the for tests to
and religious influence of compare
affiliation); and each groups.
one continuous independent
• dependent variable on
variable the
dependent
variable.
One-way Do groups A (a) One It compares In addition to None
Multivaritae and B differ categorical two or more the general
Analysis in terms of independent groups in assumption,
(MANOVA) asset of variable terms of their justice should
related (b) Two or more means on a be done on the
variables X. continuous set of following
' Y andZ? dependent dependent areas; multi·
variables variables colinearity
and homo·
geneity of
variance-
covariance
-
I matrices
178 Pntricin A. taiwv and A.S. Omolmral

Non•Paran1etrlc Statistics . .
As noted earlier, nonparatnetric sla~i.stics are less stnngent to data
drawn fron1 population about require1nents ~hat have to be ~et.
The techniques are ideal for notninal and ordtn~l d~ta (categorical
variables) and highly useful when sample s1ze 1s very small.
Nevertheless, it is widely accepted that they are used as
alternatives in situations where data fail to meet the assumptions of
parametric statistics. However, nonparametric · statistics are less
powerfuf to detect differences between groups that actually exist.
Therefore, it is always good for sociological researchers to acquire
continuous· data that can meet the assumptions of parametric data.
For understanding, the . following table highlights tools of
nonparametric statistics. All the usefulness of nonparametric tools
can be fathomed from the summary table of parametric statistics
presented above. The only exception 1s chi-square which 1s
.discus.s ed briefly below.

Summary for Chi-square

Example of Research question: Is group A members more likely to
engage in X variable than group B members? OR Is there a
relationship between Variable X and Y. behaviour?

Type of variables needed: Two categorical variables; with two or

more subgroups in each. e.g. Sex (Male/Female) workplace
friendship (Yes/No)

Purpose: To describe the difference between or among groups

Assumptions: The lowest expected frequency in any cell should

not be less than 5.

Parametric Alternative: None

Qualitative Analysis
This i~ a p1:ocess of detennining and interpreting observations
made. in wntteu forn1 for the purpose of developing inherent
meanings and pattern of social relationships among subjects being
 llcuic Metlwcls i11 /)(11,, Co/lutio11 n11d Annlysis ;,, Sociology 179

studied. Qualitative analysis so111eli1ncs cleuls with data that are not
mcant·to be quantified (~utnerical~. It is very dear to sociologists
who e1nbark n1ostly on fteld and historical research. To start with,
qualitative n1ethod of analysing secondary data classified as social
artefacts in written documents (newspapers, audio transliterations,
internet docutnents and other mass media materials) obtained
inostly from secondary source will be discussed. A basic method
co1n1non to so~iological researchers is content analysis.

Content Analysis
Content analysis is the study of individual recorded and printed
communications such as newspaper, book, paintings and drawings,
etc, with a view to discovering their underlying meanings. It is
suitable for answering research questions like "Who" says what, to
whom, why, how and with what effect? (Babbie 2000). For
instance, Nigerian .newspapers (chosen as unit of analysis) can be
content analysed to discover the political sentiments of each, a
feature which some of them always try to hide from the public
though, as they advocate a particular perspective on socio-political
issues. For example, restructuring in Nigeria, is one of the bones of
contention among the elite. It is important to discuss coding under
content analysis because of its pertinence to the content analysis
process.
Coding is the process of transforming raw data into a
standardised form under content analysis of oral and written
contents. Such contents can be classified or coded according to
conceptual framework(s) that are of interest to the researcher. For
example, novels or poems can be coded as co1nedy or tragedy;
newspaper editorials as propagandistic or not, highly politically
sentimental or not; speeches as aggressive or appealing, etc.
Therefore, operationalisation and conceptualisation of important
concepts are very crucial to understanding the analysis of
qualitative data based on content analysis. After coding, as
regarding operationalisation and conceptualisation of conceptual
framework to which observations wi II be based, the researcher can
proceed to the actual observation exercise, i.e. counting and record
keeping. By in1plication, content analysis can be executed in a
180 Patricia A. Taiwo n11d A.S. Omolnwal

quantitative way. Especially when the end product of coding is

nu1ne1ica1, the counting of ~requency ~f words, phra~~s, etc, that
are of interest to the researcher must be tn number. ' ·
As earlier n1entioned, content analysis which. is ~ocu~ed on the
study of. all forms of human recorded commun1cat1on ts used to
analyse materials like books, . web pages, letters, historica]
documents, biographies, newspapers, speeches etc. Content of
document in form of secohdary data can be ana1ysed in
quantitative and qualitative format. Using quantitative method,
coding-a process whereby raw . data are transformed into
standardised form suitable ·for machi~e proc·e ssing and analysis-
involves logic of conceptualisation and operationalisation. Oral
and written materials are classified according to some conceptual
frameworks depending on the themes that the researcher is
interested in. Ray Pawson (1995) cited in Haralambos and Holbom
(2008) identifies four main approaches . to carrying out content
analysis: ·
I. Fonnal Content Analysis: This is .a way of planning to
examine content of data whose end result is numerical. As
sue~~ the count of some frequently appearing themes
denved from the co~tent of materials being studied would
be pr~sented i ~ a systematic form. For example, sample of
matenals studied on Nigeri ':\n gove~·nment accordina to
' • • b
newspapers onentat1on can b! presented as shown in
table 6:5. ·

Table 6.5
NJgerlan Number of EVALUATION Number or Number of
Newspaper editorials 1. Very liberal anti- govemment
ID evaluated 2. Moderately government edltorhlls
liberal edltorlols
3. Moderately
co,nservotlve
4. verv conservntlve
001 2S 1 s 4
002 42 4 1 7
003
- - ·-
22 3 s 3
.
-
Bn.t lr Mrtlmtls in /Jmrt (',,l/ution n1td Annly.1/J In So(iofogy J81

111c sin\t~licity nnd rclinbi lity. of quantitative content analysis make

it nppcahng.

11. !11cmat~c Au~1/ysis.· This is airned at discovering the

tdco.log1cat brnscs ~f the author in the document being
studied when analysing any mass media content.

111. Textual A11alysis: This approach involves examining the

linguistic devices within a document in order to discover
how texts can be influential in developing a particular
interpretation. In other words, it is a systematic
interpretation and assigning of meaning to signs used
(either intentionally or unintentionally). This can be
accomplished through what sociologists refer to as semiotic
i.e. the study of signs. Such meanings are contextually
(culture) accepted and used by every member of a group or
society in which such signs are used. Meanwhile, language
as a structure of sign often falls in this category as some use
of words are restricted to a particular environment. It is the
task of analysts to find the particular meaning of such
words in order to understand the subjective mindset of the
communicator. For example, some registered words within
a cultist group cannot mean the same thing when used in
the mainstream conversation setting. This is applicable to
some texts, documents and other mass media products
which must be subjected to textual analysis before the
intended aim of communication is deciphered.

JV. Audience Analysis: Instead of dwelling on the analysis o t~

mass media content as they appear to researchers, the
responses of the audience to tnnss medin content of interest
can help understand such that evaluation of the content can
be based on audience's reaction. This cnn provide check on
a researcher's interpretation of the tnessage and as well
guide the researcher to stay on course about the 1neaning of
1nessage.
- I 82 l'ot,.icin A 1'ai1ro n11d A.S. Omolnwal

In sociological research; a few qualitative analysis results in

nutnerical way as discussed above, but most. rese~rchers use
qualitative assess1nent on data collected. In domg this, there is
wording of examination and interpretation of ob~erva~ion, in
discovering underlying meanings and patterns of rel~t1onsh1p. This
is most typical of field and historical research (Babbie 2000). Thus,
analysis of data in the non-numerical way suggests that data
collection and subsequent analysis a.re insepa~abl~ from the i~itial
theory providing searchlight on which research 1s. based. TJvs is
unlike quantitative data collection and analysis .which .can
sometimes lose sight of theoretical framework on which study is
based. It takes a researcher high skill and experience (perhaps a
special topic) to ensure this continuity in the qualitative method.

Finding Patterns in Qualitative Analysis

Though it can be more complex to find out pattern in a qualitative
data, a data set without any· pattern is as useless as tom cloth. In
discovering patterns in a particular research topic of this nature,
John and Lofland (1995:127-45), cited in Babbie (2000), suggest
six different ways. Thus:
(1) Frequency: Finding the frequency of a certain variable of
dependence on which relationship status is based is
important. For instance, "How often does quarrel occur
among workplace friends?"
(2) Magnitude: This is a way of looking out for the level or
how critical the quarrels were. ·
(3) Structures: That is, finding out the patterns or forms such
quarrels too~, ~.g., ov ertly or covertly.
1

(4) Process: This 1s a way of discovering the n1etamorphosis

of such quan·els, how they started and how they usually
ended.
(5) Cause~: The p~ssible causes of quarrels must be found out
accordmg to this example and other sin1ilar studies.
(6) Co11seque11ces: How does workplace friendship quarrel
affect work related relationships? Therefore the changes
brought about by the case should be verified. '
 IJnsic Methods in Dain Collectfon and /\nalysis fn Sociology 183

.Meanwhile, there could be different cases under study for

wh1ch a. resear~h~r must look for patterns appearing across all
obse~at1on~; th1s ts refen-ed to as cross case analysis. As cited by
Babbie, Mtle ·.( 1994:435) offer two strategies for cross case
oriented analysis. ·T hus;
(a) Variable oriented analysis: This is an analysis that
describes or explains a particular variable
(b) Case oriented analysis: This aims to understand a
particular case or several cases by looking closely at the
details of each.

At this juncture, it is worthy to note that cross-case analysis as

used by qualitative researchers can lead to establishment of ground
theories when observations are inductively analysed. That is,
quoting Babbie, "The approach begins with observations rather
than hypotheses and seeks· to discover pat~ems and develop
theories from the ground up, with no preconceptions, though some
researchers ·may build and elaborate on earlier grounded theories."
Grounded theory method (GTM) is an inductive approach to
research, introduced by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, in
which theories are generated solely from an examination of data
rather than being derived deductively.

Process of Qualitative Data Analysis

Processes to analysing qualitative data can vary among
sociologists, depending on ideology and preferred method of
arriving at the basics in qualitative analysis. But there s·eems to be
a few common steps that must be taken to bring ·out the be~t out of
qualitative data that is not intended to be analysed numencally as
earlier discussed. Thus, the following steps are well known to
qualitative researchers.

Coding: As noted under discussion on content analys~s, coding,

which is classification or categorisation of each unit of data
collected, is coupled with the retrieval of such. dat~ units from
subsets of data available for analysis. The subset ill' this ~ense may
mean grouping the written or oral data according to topics or any
184 J>mricin A. 1aiwo a11d A.S. Omolmvnl

other way that is appropriate for easy retrieval. ~ence, with ~ view
to finding out the pattern from a set of data, .coding and relat1.ng of
concepts is a key to result oriented analysts. Th~ concept ts the
organising principle for. qualitative coding (Babbie 2000). There
are different ways in which coding can be created.
Open Coding: This is a way of naming or identifying the
major or relevant concepts which a qualitative datum (e.g. a
paragraph, a note, recorded speech, etc) wHJ be subjected to
(analysis). This exercise is subject to artful creativity and
understanding (by the analyst) of the meaning embedded in
the piece of data. So, data can be separated into discrete
parts to be closely examined, in order to compare and
contrast. For example,
"My expectation is that my e1nployer will
consider giving me a pay increase after a year of
· service Just like 1ny co-workers predicted. "

Codes like "employer", "pay increase" and "time of

service" are examples of open codes from the excerpt
above. .

Axial Co~ing: This i~ s~emingly a continuity measure for

open coding. It entails re-coding of open coded data, in
?rder. to look for more. anal~tic~~ concepts. Using the
~nterv1ew excerpt above, ideas hke perceived fairness" (as
tt can be a co1!1111.onplace. expression of many workers)
s~ggests how significant Jt is to understand employees'
v1ew. Also, "pow~r relation" is another possible axial code.
Employer. exercises much power in decidjng the
remuneration system at work.

~elective coding: This is a method of identifying the central

idea (code) a~ound which all other related codes are
focused. Loo~1ng at th~ ~nterview exmnple, the selective
code that can be ongmnted is "empl I '
relation. . oyer-emp oyee
·.
 Onsic M <!tltods in DattJ Collectio11 mid Arrnlysis /11 Sociology 185

Jtlemoing: .As another step to analysing qualitative data. This

indi~ates. the process of forming note about the meaning and
clanficatl(~tl (as they appe~r to researcher) of each code Jabel;
interpretatton and c~nclus1ons understood about relationships
between or among variables under study. The note can also include
explainin~ operational method of context in which findings are
made. It is fro'!l the memo that report of study can be derived as
well ~ su.ggest1ons about subsequent relevant study on the topic of
investigation.
.
Mapping of Concepts: This is optional though very useful
depending on researcher's purpose about a particular study.
According to Babbie (2000:389), concept mapping is the graphical
display of concepts and their interrelations useful in the
formulation of theory. This is closely related to conceptual
framework or model, showing networking relationships among
familiar concepts, derived during the course of analysis, rather put,
a display of path analysis on which concepts are related.
Be that as it may, the discussion on qualitative data analysis is
cross sectional. That is, both quantitative and qualitative data can
be subjected to the process stated above. Invariably, open ended
questions in a questionnaire can be analysed qualitatively. This ~s
how sociological researchers obtain originality about thetr
findings.

C.Omputer Programmes for qualitative Data Analy~is

A fortunate accomplishment in social research, especially one that
concerns qualitative data analysis is. the dev~lo~ment of c?mpu.t:r
programmes, being tools in analysing quahtattve data, JUSt hke
SPSS is applied to analyse numerical data. As at now' the
following is a list of contemporary tools.

• The Ethnograph
• NVIVO
• ATLAS ti.
• HyperQuaJ
• H yperResearch
• HyperSoft
 I '

186 />atricin A. Taiwo n11d A.S. Omo/n\val . ·

:• NUD*IST .. ..•
'·
.. ••• Qualrus ' •'
, ., '
I'
I

QUAtOG
• TextbaseAlpha
.
•.
I ..
• . .,
I

~
• SONAR . , -· • i
... •

The idea of the use . of any of the listed c.o.mputer sof~ware

programrries is not far-fetched. But only a repeated exposure to the
training and application of them will make a researc~er(analyst
become good and confident at employing such for qualttat1ve data
analysis. Atlas ti. and NVIVO as ~he seemingly set of most popular
of all in social research can be learnt by·rote and even through the
understanding of the underlying methodical framework on which
each is programmed. By visiting their website,- one will find a
detailed guide on how to u~e them. .
..
References
Ajewole, O.I. and A. Odaibo. 2009. ''Data Collection Techniques" In
Data Collection; Management and Analysis in Academic Research:
I •

Proceedings of a Workshop. Popoola L. et al. (ed.), The Postgraduate

School,·University of Ibadan. ,
Babbie, Earl. 2000. The practice of social research. Wadsworth, U.S.
Enaike, MD. 2013. "Soci.al Action and Sociological Explanation" In
Sociological Theory for African Students, Olutayo, A.O. and Akanle,
0. (ed.), Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
Haralambos and Holbo~. 2008. Sociology, themes and perspectives.
... London: Happer Collms. .
Huberman, M. and M. Miles. 1994. "Linking Theory and Analysis" In
The Basics of Social Research, Babbie, E. (1979), pg 416.
lgbo, E.M. 2003. Basic sociology. Enugu, Nigeria: CIDJAP Publishing
and Press.
Jegede, A.S. 2006. "Analysis of Qualitative Data" In Methodology of
Basic and Applied Research. Olayinka, A.I. et al. (ed.), Ibadan: The
Postgraduate School, University of Ibadan.
John Lofl~nd and ~· Lofland. 1995. "Qualitative Data Analysis" In The
Practice of Social Research by Babbie, E. ( 1979) pg 378-392. ·
 Bnsic Met/rods in Datn Co/lectio" and Analysis ;,, Sociology 187

Ogundipe, G.A.T. et al. 2006. "Systematic Collection of Data" In

Methodology of Basic and Applied Research. Olayinka, A.I. et al.
(ed.), Ibadan: The Postgraduate School, University of Ibadan.
otuleye, V.0. et al. 2009. "Data Collation and Data Analysis" In Data
Collection, Management and Analysis in Academic Research:
Proceedings of a Workshop. Popoola L. et al. (ed.), Ibadan: The
Postgraduate School, University of Ibadan.
Pallant, J. 2005. SPSS survival manual (Edition): A step by step guide to
data analysis using SPSS for version 21. UK: Open University Press.
Ritzer, G. 2008. Sociological theory (8th ed.). New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
Scott, John and Marshall, Gordon 2000. Oxford dictionary of sociology.
New York: Oxford University Press.
\Vilkinson, S. : )Q4. "Focus Groups" In Doing Social Psychology
Research. The British Psychological Society and Blackwell, London:
United Kingdom, pg 344-376.
 7
CONCEPT OF ECONOMICS AND
DEVELOPMENT
Samuel 0. Orekoyn

Introduction
Disciplines such as tnoral philosophy, law, and religion constitute
the traceable origin of economics as a discipline. The fundamental s
of economics at various levels are found in the writings of scholars
in these disciplines. However, the commencement of the study of
economics as a distinct and accepted discipline or study field
emerged with Adam Smith's book on Wealth of Nations in 1776,
following which attempt at conceptualising economics as a subject
has since generated different points of view.
However, there is a consensus on the concept of scarcity as the
subject matter of economics. The subject matter of economics is
that at any point in time, human wants are unlimited whereas the
means, or available resources with which to satisfy these wants are
limited. The term scarcity rests on the notion that human wants
always exceed the available resources to satisfy these wants.
Hence, there is the need for choice-making. Economic theory relies
on the fundamental assumption of "rationality" as the guide to
individual decision-making process. This axiom is considered to
include, or takes into consideration that, a decision made by
individuals is affected by other factors such as family backgro und
and influence, socio-cultural enviromnent, peer group influence,
etc., with different values and weights attached. The choice of a
particular want or set of wants precludes the possibility o f having
other wants satisfied. This explains the concept of opportunity cost
of any choice made by individuals.
While the umeans" aspect of the subject matter of cconon1ics
relates to production activities having to do with the creatio n of
goods and services, the "wants" aspect relates to human
consumption desires, whi ch have to do with the "use up" of created
l 90 Semmel 0. Orekoya

goods and services.. . serv·tees

Central to the creation. of goods and
. productton
(1.e. . ), are a number of. issues which
h econorrucsd' · attempts
to address. These me · lude·· What are . t e commo
· . lttes?
to be
produced? What quantity of resources 1~ to be cornn:itted · How are
they to be produced? That is, what mixture of .capital an.d labour
should be used in the production process? How 15 production to be
organised? . .
Different levels and forms of consump~ion are given
consideration on the consumption side of the subject matter. Such
include the distinction between consumption of goods and services
for further production purpose, or final. Distinction of consumption
can also be made between durable and non-durable consumptions.
Consumption can also be categorised as a necessity ?r a luxury.
While the consumption of some goods and services lead to the
creation of new goods and services, the consumption of other
goods and services constitutes the end of the existence of the good
and service. For instance, capital goods and other production
inputs used in the process of production are considered to facilitate
further creation of goods and services. Basically, most production
processes involve the "use-up" of some goods and services, such
as capital inputs, material inputs and labour service inputs.
However, consumption that leads to the "ending" of a good and/or
service without creation of new goods and service is considered as
final consumption.
The distinction between durable and non-durable consumption
rel~tes t.o the relative time frame over which a good provides
sat1sfact~on to the consumer. While the consumption of cars and
elect~omcs are dur~ble because they do provide satisfaction over
rcl.at1vely lo~g periods of time, consumption of food and other
daily needs 1te~s are non-durable. Necessary consumptions are
those ~onsumpt1ons that are crucial to human survival and delivery
of basic w~lfare to the consumer. On the other hand, consumptions
whose avoidance m~y not lead to any significant threat to survival
or acces~ to basic welfare are considered to be luxury
consu1npltons.
The
· study
r · d'and· provision of inst'ght ·tn to th e consu mption
b. eI1av1our o m 1v1duals and groups of individuals also constitute
an area of concern of econo1nics · A numb er o f factors ·mfl uence the
 Concept of Economics nnd Development J91

'individ~al consu1nption decision, of ~hich the price of the goods

or service he/s~e wants to c~nsume as central. Economic theories
propoun~ an inverse re~atlonship between the quantity of a
commodity a co~su~er. will consume or demand for, and the price
of the commodity. This is referred to as the "law of demand"
which states that the higher the price, the lower the quantit;
demanded for. Other factors of significant influence on individual
consumption decision include changes in the price of other related
(substitute or complementary) commodities; changes in the income
of the consumer; changes in the taxes of the basket of goods and
services; and changes in the taste or preference of the consumer.
While changes in the price of a good are typified by movement
along the demand curve, other factors cause a shift in the demand
curve.
The concept of distribution and exchange in economics
represents the connecti~g cord between production and
consumption activities. Production and consumption activities are
often separated in terms of geographical location, as well as
timing. The production and consumption locations may be
geographically separated. For instance, the production of recharge
cards by GSM service providers in Nigeria is located in few major
cities in the country, whereas, the use or consumption of the
recharge cards is spread all over Nigeria. Another fonn of
sep:tration between production and consumption may take a time
dimension, in which there could be seasonal separation between
production and consumption. While production of agricult~ral
products is subject to specific periods of the year, the consumption
of the products mostly spans the year round. . .
Given the disparity between production and consumption
cycles, economics is interested in the i.ssu~ of distributi.on and
exchange, so as to facilitate the synchromsat1on ~f production and
consumption. Distribution and excha~ge provides the a~enue
through which what is produced is delivered and .ma.de ~va1lable
for consumption purpose. The problern of d1stn?utton and
exchange entails addressing questions such as: Which part . of
production is to be exchanged? What should be the transaction
terms of the exchange?
;I 92 Snm11el 0. Orekoyn

. . d in the level of demand fo

. Over thne~ vanaltons o occur d Wh . ra
. .
co1nmod1ty relative to · t e h qu·int'ity
' produce . . en demand,
changes it· calls for adiustment in production to. reflect. these
changes.' Expansion/contraction
'J •
of produc t'.' 0 n capacity can ·h
. en er
be through increased/reduced utt·1·1sat'on
1 of installed capacity·'.orb
.y
accumulating addition~) capacit~ to complem.ent the existing
capacity (discarding part of the 1nstaJJe~ capaci~y). The type of
capacity .expansion to adopt at a~y point Jn ~Jme depends on
whether the observed increase Jn demand is temporary or
permanent. For temporary increase in demand, such as the one
associated with festive periods (e.g. increased demand for water or
soft drinks during dry season), production may be expanded by
increasing utilisation of capacity, or running the system over a
longer period of time, with additional man-hours through overtime.
Similarly, if there is a temporary fall · in demand, the rate of
utilisation of installed capacity may be reduced. If increase in
demand is considered permanent in nature (such as increased
demand due to growth in population), production may be expanded
through accumulation of production capacity (capital formation or
additional investment), that is additional capacity installation
through· building of a new plant to allow for production of more
goods and services. Also, production infrastructure may be
relocated or discarded in instances of permanent decrease in
demand.
More striking to economics than the subject matter itself is the
conceptual framework within which economic issues are analysed.
The issue of scarcity of resources and how decisions of individuals
are related in the process of resource allocation are also the
concerns of other social sciences. What economists have in
common is the methodology which is scientific and looks at issues
in terms of. the ?pportunity costs of economic activities. In the light
of recent h1st?ncal developments, the scope of economics has been
~xp?nd~d to include th~ fundamental assuniption and relevance of
mst1tut1~ns, .a?~ environn1ental consequences of individual
econom1c act1v1.t1es. Issues of climate change and global warming
ar~ seen as envar?nmental externalities from production activities.
Given the techrnques of econornics, economics as a discipline
 Concept o/ l!conomics n11d Development l 93

generally let1ds .its~lf. to prac.tically all disciplines. This explains

why there are d1sc1plmes whtc.h focus on the economics of other
fields of studies, applying economic techniques. These include
agricult~ral economics, . engineering economics, monetary
economics, health .econom1cs, economics of education environ-
mental . economics, international economics, and ~anageriaJ
economics, among others.

Definition of Economics
Based on the contributions of famous economists, economics has
been defined from different perspectives. For instance, Adam
Smith's contribution views economics as "an inquiry into the
nature and causes of the wealth of nations." The definition of
economics as "the practical science of the production and
·distribution of wealth" is associated with J.S. Mill. On the other
hand, Alfred Marshall simply views economics as "the study of
mankind in the ordinary business of life." Since the subject matter
of economics centres ori the inadequacies of available resources to
satisfy human needs or wants, an acceptable definition of
economics must be one that incorporates these essential elements.
Modem economists define economics as ,.,the study of how
man allocates scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to
achieve given ends or goals". One of the most acceptable
definitions of econQmics is the one by Prof. L. Robin, which
defines economics as
a social science, which studies human behaviour as a
relationship between ends and scarce means, which
have alternative uses." Economics can also be defined
as "the study of how limited resources are used to try
to satisfy unlimited wants. ·

Enquiry into the study of eco~on1ics !ms been based on

scientific methods, on which economtc theones and gener~l la~s
are formulated. Given that it deals with human behaviour in
society, economics can thus be viewed as a social science. .
Combining all these premises, it could be stated that economics
is a social science that deals with:
194 Samuel 0. Orek~·a

• The creation of. wealth from scarce resourc.e s; . ·

• the production and distribution of ,g oods and services for
consumption; ··
• the behaviour, interaction and welfare of the groups
involved.in the above activities; and
• the· insight into the trade-off involved in production and in
consumption.

These definitions include terms such as social sciences; human

behaviour; ends; wants; scarcity and choice; opportunity cost; and
scale of preference. ·We in tum briefly discuss each of these
concepts.

Science
Science can be defined as the systematic study of how the world
works. Economics is a science because its purpose is to establish
generalis·ations about economic relationships and use the
generalisations to explain economic performance of economies. In
doing this, scientific models are utilised. A model is a simplified
representation of reality that focuses attention on the issues that the
social scientist wishes to examine. Based on the models, the
development of sciences starts with the observation of regularities.
These are explained by developing generalisations. The
generalisations testable implications, called hypotheses, are
developed. For the hypotheses to be accepted or rejected, they are
tested with facts using real observations and data. Economics as a
science leads to distinctions between positive and nonnative
economics.

Positive E~onomics consists of tested propositions against facts

that are either confirmed or refuted. This is the science of
economics. It is .devoid of value judgments of whether outcomes
are good or bad. It is concerned with the ques.tions of facts which
are in principle, true or false. In positive analysis, eco~omists
describe the economy and scientifically study what causes what.
 Co,,crpt 1ffrn11omics and Development
0 195

Non!iative Eco110111ics is ~hat ought to be, as opposed to what is,

and ts bas~d oh the value JUdgetncnt of the observer. This depends
on value JUdgemcnt concerning what outcornes arc desirable and
what outcon1es are bad and which ones are the best. In normative
analysis, econotnists study whether an outcome or policy is
desirable or undesirable and how, what, or whether to change to
achieve the "best" possible outcomes.

Social Sciellce is simply the study of human behavioural

economics. Human behaviour is fundamentally characterised by
individual choices, or decisions. Human behaviour can be erratic
and unpredictable, which is why the science of human behaviour is
done under the assumption of other things being equal (ceteris
paribus principle). This is based on the assumption that an average
individual considers available information to him and rationally
takes decisions. In decision making, individuals choose the
alternative for which they believe the net gains is the greatest. In
this wise, economics believes that individuals are rational decision
makers. Individuals are capable · of setting goals and acting
purposefully towards achieving the goals. They make choices that
they believe will make them better off. This brings the concept of
an economic person. Economic person is the economies'
theoretical abstraction of a person behaving solely according to
profit- ·or benefit- maximising goals.

EcoJJomic Agents .
The mechanism through which scarce resources are organised for
the production of goods and services is referred to as the ecollomy.
These goods and services satisfy the needs and \~ants of the
different groups in the economy. There are three main gr.oups of
decision .. making units in the economy saddled with the
responsibility of determining how the scarce resources arc to be
uscJ to satisfy human needs and wants. They arc households,. fi.i:ns
and the govermnent. Economics also deals with how the act.1v1ttes
of each group affect the wclfure of the other groups tn the
economy.
196 Samuel o. Orekoya . ··

A household is one decision-making. unit. In .economics, two

assumptions are made about households. First, households
consume goods and services. Second, househo1~s are the o~ners ~f
the factors of production. A factor of production (factor input) is
any resource used to produce goods and services. The four.factors
of production are land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. 1:he
consumption decision of the household is guided by the objec~1ve
of maximising utility/satisfaction from goo.ds a~d. serv1ce.s
consumed. A finn is also a decision-making unit. This ts the umt
that produces goods and services. To produce these goods and
services; firms buy factor services from ho~se?olds. The
production decision of the firms is guided by the objective ofprofit
maximisation.

The government provides the framework of rules and laws for

households and firms to operate within. In most economies, the
government is also involved in production, however, to a different
degree. Government is also involved in the redistribution of
resources among different households and firms with the objective
of improving collective welfare of the society.

Hu"ian Needs and Wants

Man has needs and wants. Needs are any goods and services that
are essential for life. Wants are goods and services that are desired
to improve the quality of life but are not necessarily essential.
Wants go beyond basic needs. Human wants are generally
insatiable, as every individual not oi:ily desires one thing or the
other, but constantly prefers having more. The end goal of
e~onornic decision making is to allocate between current and
future consumptions. The amount of goods and services that an
individual can have depends on the resources available to him/her.

Means
These are resources wi!h which human wants are satisfied. They
can take the form of time, money, or material. If an individual
wants a tele~ision se~, he/she will require some ainount of money
to purchase 1t. In this case, money is a means. For a student to
prepare for examination, he/she will need time and study materials
 Crmc-t11t t~f /.,', 0 11rm1lt .f nnd l>t11elopme111 197

(e.g. books). Herc thnc m.1~l study rnntcriuls arc means. Generally
mean~ or resour~cs nrc uu hscd to produce goods and services and
distribute thcn1 tor consmnption.

Scarcity
\Vhile hmnan's wants arc unlitnitcd, economic resources are
1in1ited in that ~here ar~ not enough resources to produce all the
goods and services desired. If we were all to write down all the
goods and services we desire, our lists would be endless. This
imbalance between unli1nited wants and limited resources is the
basic econonlic problem. To an economist, everything is said to be
scarce, because, "scarce" simply means "limited in supply.n
Scarcity is tire eco11on1ic conditioll where all resources, goods
and services, though they 111ay be ple1ttiful, are not sufficient for
tdl those who desire them. Resources are scarce. Scarcity is a
relationship between how much there is of something and how
much of it is wanted. Resources are scarce compared to all of the
uses we have for them. This meaning is different from the usual
meaning of scarce, which is "rarely found in nature." Productive
resources (land, labour, raw materials, and machinery) are
insufficient to produce the amount of goods and services that
would be required to satisfy everyone's wants fully. In a world of
scarce resources, it is impossible to avoid making choices.

Choice
Because scarcity exists, choice is inevitable. Scarcity forces
choice. It is the range of options available to the individual
household, firm or govcrmnent when making a decision.
The problem of scarcity leads to economising behaviour:
choosing the best or optirnal use of available resources. \Ve n1t_ist
ch0ose how to use our scarce resources. ln the event of scarctty
choices must be made, since available resources are insufficient t~
satisfy all wants. Scarce goods require valuable resources for thetr
production. The fact that choices n1ust be 1nade in tum rcfl~cts the
fact that scarcity docs exist. Individual choices i~re dctenn1ncd b~
the interaction of two distinct phcnon1ena which ur~ tastes ?t
preferences and opportunities or constr~1ints. Co.nstramts , '~re .m
principle observable and n1casurablc whtle taste 1s not. T,\stc ts,
198 Snnmel 0 . Oreko}'n

however, important because even when individuals have equal

incon1es, and shop at the same stores, and are equal before the .law,
they will usually purchase different bundles of .goods and s~rv1ces.
Combining the concepts of scarcity and choice, econorrucs can
simply be defined as "the study of how choices are made to cope
with scarcity. "

Opportunity Cost .
Opportunity costs are everywhere, due to scarcity and the necessity
of choosing. Though not apparent in the definition of economics,
the concept of opportunity cost is implied in the definition.
Opportunity cost is at the core of economic problem. Individual,
households, and societies have limited income, but they seek a
myriad of goods and services from that income. Opportunity cost
is not what is chosen when choice is made-it is what is not
chosen in making a .choice. It should be noted that decisions are
required because resources are scarce and each choice entails
opportunity cost. Since by the concept of scarcity, all wants cannot
be satisfied: choosing among the set of wants means having to do
without the others. The term "opportunity cost" is used in
economics to emphasise that making choices in the face of scarcity
implies cost. Opportunity cost is the value of the forgone
alternative - what is given up when one gets something. It is the
value of the most desirable alternative given up when choosing an
option. Government uses its limited budget to build n1ore roads
rather than schools. Resources applied to one production activity
cannot be applied to another production activity. Consequently, the
production of a product to satisfy a want imposes an opportunity
cost. So opportunity cost is why goods are not free, but scarce.

Scale of Prefere nee

This is the list of chosen wants arranged in order of priority from
the most pressing ones to the least pressing ones. Taking the wants
of an individual to be a basket of commodities, for which the given
resources of the individual is not sufficient to meet all at once, if
the individual can only satisfy the commodities in his/her basket of
wants piecemeal, the specific order in which each of the items will
be satisfied, "one after the other is referred to as scale of
 Concept of Economics hml Dei•elopment 199

pre~eret~ce .." The i1nplicat~on here is thar i1u:e1itives constitute the

most .. s1gn1ficant rorce tn econof!Iics. Economic agents, pay
att~nuon to th.e d~fferc~ce. ~etweeh costs and benefits, i.e. net
gains. !he choice of a.n 1nd1v1dual is altered by changing the gains
fron'l dtff~re.nt altematt~es. An economically efficient choice is one
that .~axnruse~ net gain. Economic efficiency, therefore, means
obtatmng maximum benefits for a given cost or mjnimising the
cost of a benefit.
1:here ure two ty~es of -e~onomic efficiency: productive
effic!e~cy, an? allocattve, efficiency. Productive efficiency is
·obta1n1ng maximum output from the available inputs such that no
resources are wasted, while allocative efficiency means using
resources to produce goods with highest possible value. The
solution to tbe basic economic problems of what to produce, how
to produce, and for whom to produce is provided by these
efficiency criteria.

Branches of Economics
The economics discipline is divided into two major but
overlapping subjects called microeconomics and macroeconomics.
While niicroecono11iics is the study of individuals, households,
firms and markets, 11iacroeconomics is the study of the economy
as a whole. Microeconomics is the study of the behaviour of
households and firms in the process of consumption and
production decision making, and the market structure under which
they interact. It analyses the causes and effects of different markets
for goods and services, and inputs into the production process.
Economic analysis in microeconomics is mainly partial. It is
assumed in economics that all economic conditions retnnin fixed
except those being studied for a particular market.
Macroeconomics involves the study of the econon1y as a whole. It
examines the specific behaviours of the detenninants of the total
output of the economy as well as price level in !he econon~y. A~eas
of interest of 1nacroeconon1ics include economic growth, mflatton,
exchange rates and generally, business cycle of the economy
defined as the ups and downs of the economy's total output and
employment.
 ·~

1 200 Samuel 0. Oreko.rn I,

Typ~ of Economics Systents , .

Econ01nies of different countries are based on d! fferent
institutional frameworks. Different countries adopt d1ffere~t
economic approach~s or syst~fl1S i9 solvin~ the b~s1c economic
proble1ns. The different economic systems tn practice acro.ss ~he
globe can be ca-tegorised into four major systems: capitalist;
socialists; communist; and mixed economy.

Capitalist Econo1nic System . .

Also referred to as market economy, it allows for free enterpnse m
which resources are allocated through the price mechanism. Here,
economic deci sions are based on the interaction between forces of
demand and supply in the market. In this type of economy, the
involvement of the State in economic activities is absent or
minimal, while the allocation of resources is done by the price
mechanism. In a pure capitalist economic system, decisions in
respect of the basic economic questions are taken by the individual
economic units (i.e. households and firms), with government
playing a minimal role of ensuring conducive environment through
provision of laws and maintenance of order. An example is the
United States of America.

Socialist Econoniic Syste1n

Also referred to as planned or command economy, it represents the
extreme opposite of the capitalist economy in which the State plays
a dominant role in the process of taking economic decision. The
means of production are owned and controlled by the State and
distribution of goods and services produced are done throuoh a
central planning authority. Since firms are publicly owned~ the
State se~s the. target for pro~uction on behalf of the firms. The price
mechamsr:n 1n. the allocation of resources for production and
consuf!lpt1on 1s completely . replaced by a central planning
authority . . The defunct Umon of Soviet Socialist Republic
(U.S.S.R) ts one close example of a socialist economic system,

Co11u111111ist Eco110111ic Syste111

It r~~resents an advanc.ed ~tagc of the socialist · economy, with
addtllonal features, which include nationalisation of means of
 tn11rr111 of t~·rmwmlrs mid nt't1e/opmt'nl 20 I

production, whereby ull tncans of production arc owned by the

111asscs. The systen1 pron1otcs equal economic base for all citizens
while discouraging segregation of the society into economi~
classes.

!tliJ:cd Eco110111ic Syste111

ll cornbines the features of capitalist and socialist economies. Both
the tnarket forces through the free enterprise of the economic units
and the State control feature prominently in economic activities.
\Vhile there is an appreciable degree of price mechanism
involvement in allocation of resources, the involvement of
govemn1ent is justified by the need to take care of market failure.
This system is commonly practiced by most countries of the world,
especially developing countries like Nigeria, Ghana, etc.

Conclusion
It can be seen from the definition of concepts above that
economics arise as a result of scarcity and therefore include all
activities directed towards efficient utilisation of available
resources to satisfy the needs of man.

Concept of Development
The economic progress of nations is often described by the term
economic growth and economic development. While the
experience of economic growth by a nation does not necessarily
imply achieving economic developrnent, experience of economic
development presupposes achievement of economic growth.
Economic growth being a subset of economic develop1nent thus
means that econo1nic developn1ent is fnr 1nore thnn economic
growth.

Eco110111ic Growth
Todaro (20 J 5) defines econmnic growth ns "n stcucly process by
which the productive capacity of the econo1ny is incr~nsed over
time Lo bring about rising levels of national inco1nc". Pnn1ary here
is the sustainability of the increase over an nppreciablc .period of
ti1ne. Also, the increase in nationnl output n1ust be denvcd from
the expansion of the production capacity of the nation, which is
202 Samttr l
.
0 . Oreko)'fl
.. , 1• ; •••

'pennnnent in nature. Gro~s Ni~tionn1 Product. (GNP) and <?ross

DbJnestic Produet (Gbl') m·c the tw~ p~·om1nent conventional
t\1eastircs of econon1lc growth. GNP IS calculated a~ the. total
dotnestic and 1 fot'eign value added clai!11.by a country s. residents
without 1nnking deductions for deprecrnt1on of the capital stock.
GDP 1neasures the total value for final use of output produced
within an econotny, by residents and non-resid~nts. Thus . GNP
con1prises GDP P.lus the difference betw:en the income res1d~ts
receive 'fronY abroad ·for factors and services (labour and capital)
less paymet\ts 'made to non-residents who contributed .to domestic
econon1y. Each nieasure is often expressed as per cap1ta measure,
\Vhich is tlle average value per person in the COUntry. If the
population grows faster·than the economy, it is possible ~o observe
the growth of tht:!' economy without growth in per cap1ta values.
Thus econonlists are often:interested in changes in per capita GNP
or per capita GDP rather than changes in GNP or GDP.

Economics Development
While per capita·income uses income. as the basis of measurement,
development' involve$' ·more variables than income. Economic
development is more involving and complex than economic
growth. Traditionally, economic development is seen as the
capacity of a national economy, characterised by static initial
economic condition, to generate and sustain an annual increase in
its national output at an appreciable rate of up to 5o/o or more.
However, economic development has been redefined in terms
of reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality, and
unemployment within the context of a growing economy. In spite
of the country experiencing economic growth, an assessment of the
wel_fa re compone~ts of poverty, unemployment, and inequality is
basic to. the meamng of econornic developn1ent. Development only
occu~s if all these three have significantly declined. It transcends
physical r~ality to include the transfonnation of the state of n1ind
of the. so~1ety, as m~ch as a state of nationnl poverty, through so1ne
comb1na~1on of .socia~, econo1nic and institutional processes aimed
at ~ecunn~, better lt~e for the citizens. lt involves significant
s.tructural t1 an sforn1at1on of the cco1101ny, and social, and cultural
Jafe of the country. Oevclopn1ent has therefo re been conceived as:
''• ll t I
. .'
 · Co11ccpt of Ero110111/cs aiul De~elopment 203

a n~ultidi~ne!lstot\at process i~~oJvittg majot changes in

~oc1.al . structure, popular attitudes, ana national
1nst1tuttons, as well as the acceleration of econ'omic .
growth, the reduction of inequality, ancl' the 'eradication
of poverty · · ·
' '' t • ! • .

Therefore, economic development car:i broadly be conceptualised

as the sustained elevation of an .entire society and 'social system
toward a "better" or "tnore .humane" life. In 'orde; to take care of
the shortcomings of per capita income, . the United Nations I I '

Development Programme (U~DP,) developed an alternative

measµre1nent of development called the human .development index
(HDI).

Hu111a11 Development Index

HDI focuses essentially on human development. Having human
development that creates a process of enlarging people's_choices is
considered to be the aim of development. ·HDI is, therefore, a
composite of three main indices which are:
. 1•r 1' I

• Life expectancy at birth; . ,

• Education attainment as measured by . mean year~ of
schooling and adult literacy; and
• standard of living as measured by per capita income.
• The methodology deals with three different issu_es which
are:
• Separate the ends from the means in picking relevant
indicators; •
• Translate the indicators to comn1on denominator; and
• weigh them appropriately in a cotnposite index .\
I

Objectives of Develop111e11t · . : .· . . .
• To increase the availability and wtdcn the d1 stnbut1on of
basic life-sustaining goods, ~uch as ~ood. shelt~r, health, a~?
protection; . .. . ..
• To raise levels of living including. 1~1 adclttton t? h.1gh~t
income, the provision of 1norc jobs, better educatH~~, a~q
1
 :?04 Smu11C'I 0. 01•ekoyn

grenter attention to cultural and hu~anistic va~ues, all of

which serve not only to enhance mat~nal well being but also
to generate greater individual and nat!onal self-es.teem;
• To expand the range of eco~om1c and ~oc1al choices
available to individuals and nat1ons by freemg them from
servitude and dependence of ignorance and human misery.

Common Characteristics of Developing Countries

Low level of livi11g, co11iprisi11g low inco1nes, hig!t .inequality,
poor health and inadequate education: Standard of hv1ng tends to
be very low in developing countries, both as relative to
counterparts in developed countries as weJI as relative to small
elite groups within the country. There is a growing gap between
per capita income of the rich and poor individuals. Both the
average level of national income and degree of inequality in its
distribution determine the magnitude and extent of poverty in any
country. The concept of poverty is measured from absolute and
relative perspectives. While absolute poverty represents a specific
minimum level of income needed to satisfy the basic physical
needs, relative poverty is concerned with the relative income of the
poor to the average income of a particular country. Also, most
developing countries struggle against malnutrition, diseases, ill
health, and poor literacy levels.

Low level of capital accu111ulation: Economic development is

driven by the stock of capital of a nation. Most developing
countries are characterised by low level of capital accumulation
which leads to low productivity and poverty. Capital accumulation
reflects the curnulative effects of savings and investment ratios in
different countries.

Low lev~ls of labo1.1r protluctivity: Developing countries a~e

~h.aractensed by relatively low levels of labour productivity. This
as caused by t.he abse~ce or lack of "con1plementary" factors/inputs
s~ct~ ~s physical ~ap1tal. According to the econon1ic principle of
d1mm1stJmg rnarg1n,aJ productivity, the extra or 1narginal product of
the van.able .fuet6.r declines beyond a certain number, as the
am~unt of variable factor is applied to a fixed factor (e.g. land,
c~patal).
t • • .. •
• v . • • •
.. . : .. . :· ~·- . ,. '.:
0
• 0 '• , • 1 ( ' .. '
0
I
J" .,·.
• '1 , •
: •1•,
1
-
Co11reJ>t <~{ lfronomlcs and De11efop111e111 205

lligli r~tes of populatio11 growtlt a11d depe11dt11cy ·burdens: the

population of MlY country can be categorised into those who are in
active labour force, and the non-active. The active labour force has
to suppo~·t the unproductive n1c1nbcrs of the society who are made
up of children and older people. These unproductive members of
the society are refell'cd to.as an economic dependency burden, who
1nust be supported financially by a country's Jabour force (usually
defined as citizens between the ages 15 and 64 years). The
1najority of the population in developing countries are in the
unproductive bracket.

High and rising levels of une111ploy111ent and underemployment:

Utilisation of labour in developing countries is usually inadequate
and inefficient. Under-utilisation of labour can be in the form of
either underemployment or open unemployment. Under-
employment occurs when people work less than they could, or
those whose productivity is so low that a reduction in their
working hour would have a negligible impact on total output. Open
unemployment occurs when people are able, willing and often
eager to work but suitable jobs are not available.

Significant dependency on agricultural production and pri111ary

products exports: Most economies of developing countries are
oriented towards the production of primary products such as
agricultural products, crude oil and other tninerals, and raw
materials, as opposed to secondary (manufacturing) and terti~ry
(service) activities. The value added in the chain of production
process is usually relatively minimal in developing com~tries. N~n­
commercial peasant farmers predominate the sector, while, ~elauve
to available land for cultivation, the number of people usmg the
land are large, which has in1plications for prodl_1Ctivity. The
composition of the export goods of developing countnes to the rest
of the world is dominated by prin1nry products such as cash cro~s
and raw material s. Due to the relatively weak nature of their
economies, their share of total world trade in terms of exports nnd
imports is very small. ·
206 Samuel 0. Orekoya

t Goals (MDGs)
The Millenniu,m.Dev~lopmene of the Mi11ennium summit in
The MDGs w~s. ,an .. outcor:i d Nations where member states
September 2000 .. o.f the ~ntteh' h sustaining development and
agre~d to\\'ards. .a, world. in ~h~c hi hest priority. Made of eight
eliminating poverty would be. gn c·oncem to people of all
· · ,. s of commo
go~1S, It addre~se~ , issue d. cted at reducing poverty in alJ
nations. The first ,seyen.goals are litre ~n'"orcing while the eighth
. . 'fi . d are mutua y re1 i1 ,
1ts rarru 1cattons an h. the seven goals. To ensure
goal is about the means to a~ ieve were set in respect of the
achievement of the goals, specific tarbget:t . d by year 2015. The
goals, with all targets expected to e a aine
eight goals are:
0

•
1
(1) .Eradicate extreme poverty and hu~ger <2 targets).
(2) Achieve universal primary education (l target).
. (3) Promote gender equality and empower women ( 1 target).
(4) Reduce child mortality (1 target).
(5) Improve maternal health ( 1 target). .
(6) Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and other diseases (2
targets).
(7) Ensure environmental sustainability (3 targets).
(8) Develop a global partnership for development (7 targets).

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The SDGs is officially known as transforming our world; it is a
set of ·17 "Global goals" with 169 targets within them. The agenda
is spearheaded by the United Nations through a deliberative
process involving its 193-member state. The resolution is a broa~er
intergovernmental agreement that acts as the post 2015
Development Agenda (successor to the Millennium Development
Goals). The SDGs is built on the principles popularly known as
The Future We Want. This agenda is a guild for people and the
planet that will build on the success of the Millennium
Development Goals and ensure sustainable social and economic
progress worldwide. It seeks not only to eradicate extreme poverty,
but also to harmonise and balance the three dimensions of
sustainable ~evelopment; economic, social and environmental in a
comprehens1v~ global vision. The target period for the attainment
of these goals 1s 2030. They include;
 Co1ttept 01EconomlcJ mrd lJevelop111~1i1 207

(l} End poverty in nll its forms everywhere (7 targets): This

~all f~r an end to poverty In all its manifestations.
1nclud1ng extre1ne poverty, over the next 15 years. All
people everywhere, including the poorest and most
vul~1erablc, sl.1ould enj?y n basic standard of living and
social protection benefits.
(2) To ~~ld hunger, achieve food security and improved
nu~hon and promote sustainable agriculture (8 targets):
Tlus seeks to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition
and to achieve sustainable food production by 2030. It is
pretnised on the idea that everyone should have access to
sufficient nutritious food, which will require widespread
promotion of sustainable agriculture, a doubling of
agricultural productivity, increased investments and
properly functioning food markets.
(3) Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages (13 targets): This aims to ensure health and well-
being for all _at all ages by improving reproductive,
maternal and child health; ending the epidemics of major
communicable diseases; reducing non-communicable
and environmental diseases; achieving universal health
coverage; and ensuring access to safe, affordable and
effective medicines and vaccines for all.
(4) To ensure inclusive and equitable equality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (10
targets): It focuses on the acquisition of foundational and
higher-order skills; greater and more equitable access to
tech:iical and vocational education and training, and
higher education; training throughout li~e; and the
knowledge, skills and values needed to function well and
contribute to society.
(5) To achieve gender equality and en1powcr all wornen ~nd
girls (9 targets): This r.; ms to empower '~omen . a~d g~rls
to reach their f ulJ potential, which requires eltn11natmg
all forms of di scrimination and violence against them,
including harmful practices. It seeks to ensure that tl~ey
have every opportunity for sex ual and reproductive
208 S1tm11ef 0. Orekoyn

health nnd reproductive rights; receive ' due recognition

for their u~puid work; have ful~ ~cc~ss to. producti~e
resources; and enjoy .equal ·parttc1pat1on with men m
political, econon1ic and public life:
(6) To ensure availability and sustainable n:ianagement of
water and sanitation for all (8 targets): This goes beyond
drinking water, sanitation and hygiene to also addr~ss ~he
quality and sustainability of water res?urces. Ach1evmg
this Goal which is critical to the survival of people and
the plan~t, means expanding international coo~~rati~n
and garnering the support of local commun1t1es in
improving water and sanitation management.
(7) Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modem energy for all (5 targets): This seeks to promote
broader energy access and increased use of renewable
energy, . including through enhanced international
cooperation and expanded infrastructure and technology
for clean energy.
(8) To promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment and
decent work for all (12 targets): That is, continued,
inclusive and sustainable economic growth is a
prerequisite for global prospe1ity. Goal 8 aims to provide
opportunities for full and productive employment and
decent work for all while eradicating forced labour,
human trafficking and child labour.
(9) To build resilient infrastructure, pro1note inclusive and
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation (8
targets): This focuses on the pron1otion of infrastructure
development, industrialisation and innovation. This can
be accomplished through enhanced inten1ational and
domestic, financial, technological and technical support,
research and innovation, and increused access to
information and comn1unication technology.
(10) Reduce inequality within and arnong countries (10
targets): This culls for reducing inequalities in incon1e, as
well. a.s those, l~ased on sex, age, disability, race, class,
ethmc1ty, rellg1on and opportunity-both within and
 Cm1rr1'1 of Htmromlcs n11d /Je1·clopment 209

mnong countric~. It n1so uhns to ensure safe, orderly and

reguhw n1tgrat1on und addresses issues related to
repr~sentutlon of developing countries in global decision·
1nak1ng and dovelop1nont assistance.
(11) To n1nke citl~s und hutnan settlements inclusive safe
resilient and sustainable (10 targets): This aims to 'rene~
and plan cities nnd other human sett1ements in a way that
fosters con:tmunity cohesion and personal security while
stin1ulating innovation and employment.
(12) Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
(11 targets): This aims to promote sustainable
consumption and production patterns through measures
such as specific policies and international agreements on
the management of materials that are toxic to the
environment.
(13) Take urgent ~ction to combat climate change and its
impacts (~ targets): Climate change presents the· single
biggest threat to development, and its widespread,
unprecedent~d effects disproportionately burden the
poorest and the most vulnerable. Urgent action is needed
not only to combat climate change and its impacts, but
also to build resilience in responding to climate-related
hazards and natural disasters.
(14) To conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
marine resources for sustainable development (10
targets): It seeks to promote the conservation and
sustainable use of tnarine and coastal ecosystems,
prevent marine pollution and increase the economic
benefits to small island developing States and LDCs
from the sustainable use of 1narine resources.
(15) Protect, restore and pro1note sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably tnannge forest, con1bat
desertification, and halt nnd reverse land degradation and
hµJt biodiversity Joss ( 12 targets): This focuses on
managing forests sustninubly, restoring degraded lands
and successfully combttting desertification, reducing
degraded natural habituts and ending biodiversity loss.
All of these efforts in con1bination will help ensure that
 ......
2 \0 Snml1t'l O. Orrko)ln '

livelihoods are ~reserved for those that ?ep.end ~irect~y

on fot·esls tmd other ecosystems, that b1odtvers1ty Wtll
· thrive, and· that the benefits · of these natural resources
will be enjoyed for generations to com~. . .
(16) To promote peac~ful and . inc1us1ve ~oc1~ttes for
sustainable development, provide ac~ess t~ JU~ttc~ fo: all
and build effective, accountable and 1nclus1ve 1nst1tuttons
at alt' levels (12 targets): This · envisages pea~eful and
inclusive societies based on respect for human nghts, the
rule of law, good governance at. ~l~ l~veJs, and
transparent, effective and accountable 1nst1tut1ons. Many
countries still face protracted violence and armed
conflict, and far too many people are poorly supported by
weak institutions and lack access to justice, information
and other fundamental freedoms.
(17) To strengthen the means of imp1erpentation and revitalise
the global partnership for sustainable development (19
targets): The 2030 Agenda requires a revitalised and
enhanced global partnership that mobilises all available
resources from governments, civil society, the private
sector, the United Nations system and other actors.
Increasing support to developing countries, in particular
LDCs, landlocked developing countries and Small Island
developing States is fundamental to equitable progress
for all.

Conclusion
Economic growth and development, though sometimes used
interchangeably are two related but different concepts. While
economic gr~wth focuses on national productivity, economic
development is a much broader concept that extends to human
welfare, income distribution, access to education, health, freedotn,
etc. Although, development is not achievable without econon1ic
growth, there can be economic growth without economic
development. It is one of the n1acroccono1nic objectives that all
nations crave for.
 Co11cepl of E.'co11omlcs mu/ Development 211

Further Reading
Aboyadc. 0. 1983. Integrated economics: A study of developing
economies. London: ELBS and Addison-Wesley Publishers.
Egwaikhide, P.O. and E.O. Ogunkola. 2001. "The Subject Matter of
Economics" In Gove111111e11t Society and Economy: An Introduction
to the Social Sciences, C.0. Ikporukpo (ed.), Ibadan: Stirling-
Horden. ·
Henderson, J. V. and W. Poole. 1991. Principle of economics.
Massachusetts DC Health and Company.
Samuelson, P.A. 1980. Economics, 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Publishers.
Todaro, M.P. and S.C. Smith. 2015. Economic development 1th edition.
U.S.A: Cenveo Publisher Service.
Thirwall, A.P. 1999. Growth and development 6th edition. London:
Macmillan.
United Nation. 2016. "The Sustainable Development goals Report" New
York. .
https://en.m. wikipedia org.
 8
GROW1,I-I AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
NIGERIAN ECONOMY
S.O. Orekoya anti N. Olasei11de

Introduction
Thts chapter is devoted to the examination of the sca]e and scope
of major econotnic changes in Nigeria since independence. The
country attained political independence from Britain in 1960 and
became a republic in 1963. The country is endowed with vast and
largely untapped natural resources such as crude oil, columbite,
gold and silver, iron-ore, marble, lead, zinc, tin , natural gas,
limestone, among others. At independence, the Nigerian economy
was typically characterised by underdevelopment features such as
low productivity growth of the various economic activities, low per
capita income and poor standard of living, poor state of social and
economic infrastructure, with a do1ninant primary product
(agriculture) sector.
The country's desire for economic growth and development
resulted in the adoption and i1nplen1entation of four national
development plans between 1962 and 1985. The persistent
underdevelopment and economic crisis in the country led to the
adoption of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in June 1986.
By the turn of the decade, a series of rolling plans as part of a
perspccti ve plan was adopted. These plans were geared towards
attaining a nun1bcr of specific objecti ves, which include an
increase in the real income of the average citizen acc01npanied by
more equitable di stribution of income among individuals and
socio·economic group ; reduction in the level of unemployment and
undereinploymcnt; increased participation by Nigerians in the
ownership and management of production enterprise; increased
dependence on local resources in the development process; and
inaintc nance of economic ~tability (Anyawu ct al. 1997).
214 S.O. Orekoya and N. Olnseinde

The first decade of Nigeria's independence w~s. char~cterised

. . 1_ cnses,
by po I1t1ca . w1.th the 1·ntrusion . of
. the rruhtary
· h · into
d the
. . I scene, wh.tch resulted in a c1v1I war \Vil970its ad verse
poI1t1ca
econorruc· consequences. The second . decade of the l s un. er the
.
military administration witnessed the .emer~~~ce of ~ 1 I ":Ith
increased public involvement in econ?mtc acnv1ttes, and invasive
economic control policies. With the 011 glut of .the early 1980s, the
third decade from independence was charactensed ?r a protracted
economic crisis that led to the return of the m1htary and the
adoption of SAP. In the 1990s, the econ?mic liberalism a~opted
under SAP was intensified. The 1990s witnessed the adoptton of
rolling plans, while the return of democratic ~overnn1ent in the
'country gave birth to a departure frorn convent1 onal development
plan to a more paradigm approach.

Trend and Structure of Econon1ic Growth nnd

Develop ntent: 1960-201 S
Fron1 a modern cconon1ic growth perspective, "/\ country's
econotnic growth may be defined ns the long tcrn1 ri se in capacity
to supply increasingly diverse economic goods to its population
and this growing capacity is based on advancin g technology and
the institutional and ideological adjustment th at it demands"
(Kuznets 1971 ). This implies that attainment of sustainable
improvement in and higher standard of living for the generality of
the populace should be premised on sustained ri se in the
P.roductive capacity ?f the economy and real output per capita. The
size of an economy ts usually measured by a number of indicators
such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Product
(GNP), or Gross National Income (GNn. However, the growth rate
of GDP has conventionally been used as a measure of rate of
growth of the economy.

Structure of the Economy

The structure of any economy is typified by the component sectors
of .tt~e. economy an? the contribution of each to the economic
act1v1t1es. The main sectors of the N. · re
. . . 1genan economy a
agnculture, 011 and rruning, manufacturing and services. These
 Growt/i alld De\•e/opnrem oft/rt Nigerian Economy 215 ·

sectors con~bute ~ifferently ~o employment, and·total output of

the economy..Wlule the Nigerian ecoi:iomy as a whole has
generally exp~rienced steady growth since·independence different
sectors have exhibited varying patterns of growth over' the same
period. As shown in table 8.1, the real GDP recorded its all time
highest growth rate average of 12.6% between 2001 - 05 and its
all time lowest of -1 % average between 1981 - 85. The ~egative
growth rate in the first half of the 1980s could be as a result of the
austerity measures introduced as a result of oil glut in the world oil
market. The appreciable growth experience of the first two decades
after independence mainly arose out of the favourable affects of
the oil boom within the period. As a result, there was an explosion
of public expenditure profile of the country, necessitated by the
demand for rehabilitation of infrastructure after the civil war, and
significant increase in workers' salaries (popular Udoji awards).
In the case of the agricultural sector, no appreciable growth
was achieved between 1960 and 1980. In fact, the sector suffered a
decline during the period 1976 - 80 with average growth rate of -
1.5%, the all time lowest in the history of the country. This is
attributable to the Dutch disease syndrome, in which the boom in
the oil sector shifted incentives to the oil sector to the detriment of
the agricultural sector. With the oil glut in the 1980s, attention was
resuscitated in favour of the agricultural sector and appreciable
growths of 3.6% and 7.0% were recorded between the first and
second half of 1980s respectively. The sector has since maintained
steady growth. At the turn of the century, the sector experienced a
boom, as it grew by 18.l %, and since then, the growth rate o~ the
sector has been declining to 6.51 % and 4.11 % between the periods
2006-10 and 2011-15, respectively.
Coupled with the emergence of high inflation rate that rose. to
18.1 % in the period 1976-80, the period of 1980~ 1990 was a penod
of recession in the Niaerian economy with many sectors
experiencing negative gro~th. Inflation in the economy having
peaked at an average of 42% during the period 1991-9~, has
steadily declined to a single digit inflation rate of 9.72% in the
period 2011 - 2015.
 ,216 S. 0 . Orokoya and N. Olnseinde
• • • t

· ~n contrast to. the negativ.e growth exp.e~ence of the 1981-85,

~he external sector of the economy ·has s1gn1fi~antly grown. Most
espepially, .' in. th~ · 1990s, '"export and i111port . sectors grew
signifi~antly, at the rates 0f as much as 76% and!82%, respectively.
0

However, the sector recently 'recorded a n~gatiye growth of 3.96%

in ~he P,eriod 20ll-15, its ·all time low sin~e 1986. The economy
experience·d negative balance of trade as a result of faster growth
of import ove~ . export, which necessit~ted the drive for the 1

"iversifica~ion . of .~he .. economy from oil sector dependency to

. g~ying other sectors prominence, esP,ecially agriculture and
manufacturing. The structural imbalance in the economy and the
.. • • ' • • • J

•
9utstrip .of payment , for import over export earnings has
• # f ,) I* f

implications.for..~he ex~hange rate of the.naira .

.'
. ,. , . ,
_, , I

I''

..
,J i •• , • • 1 , . 4 ;
.
' I! •. J "st :

J ., r • '• "*
1 1

• '1: r, t •
.., . •
.
. 1
I .. .,
t
.JI . (1 ,/ 'I! . I

) • .. • I•
I • I
;
' ~ ;

', ,''' .
, I I

I t ' "

I ,, • .,
I'

.. I If
' .
 T a ble 8.1: Sclcclcd Economic lndlcalors for Nigcria, 1960 - 2015 (Growth Rate)

PERIODS 196() .70 1971 - 75 1976- 80 1981 - 85 19116-90 19'Jl -95 1996- 00 2001 · OS 2006 -10 2011 -15
REAL GDP 4.5 7.6 2.S -I 6.8 3.7 2.9 12.6 8.78 4.8
AGRIC 0.02 1.9 -1.5 3.6 7 .0 2.9 4.2 18. 1 6.51 4. 11
OIL and M.ininl! 23.6 7.8 3.2 0.2 --0.2 --0.6 1.6 6.7 - 1.85 4.32
Manuf3cnuin2 7.4 9.5 11 .S -2.0 7.2 0.3 --0.9 8.7 8.77 13.16
Bwl~;ind
Cons1r11ction S.3 20.6 7.1 -20. 1 --0.4 4.3 4. 1 4.6 I 1.12 11.35

Services 8.1 10.4 2.7 -2.7 4.6 5.8 3.1 19.3 12.29 6.02

Inflation 2.4 2.8 18.1 17.8 18.0 42.0 25.4 15.6 J0.09- 9-72

Gov't CONSUMPTION - - 19.1 7.6 9. 1 63.4 23.6 22.4 25.44 0.57

Investment <FDn S.4 24.9 6.4 -15.2 30.6 54.9 76.2 28.9 - 1.76 -8.76

Exoons 3. 1 15.9 4. 1 -29.5 22.3 75.1 82.6 23.3 12.39 -3.96

-
lmooru 0.7 0.6 0.7 4.5 16.8 21.9 123.3 25.35 738
Exchane:c r:ite ( ~ 1.00) - 1.9 3.3 1.9 2.4 3 10.4 3.3 I 5~

External reserve (USS'B) 0.9 5 .2 10.0 24.9 29.1 25.2 31.8 6.6 10.56 -1.17
· Ex1cmal debt stock
(NGN'B) 17.46 48.42 17.09 12.91 0 .68 :0.8 -2.61 -I.SS 17.9 1

- Source: Computed from CBN .Bulletin (2015) and World Bank National account data (2016)

217
 218 S.O. Orekoyn mid N. Olnsei1ide:

With the adoption of SAP from the middJe of the 1980s, the
naira began to lose its strength ~gainst the dollar and .other major
currencies of the World. A naira that was stronger. than dollar up till
1985 drastically depreciated to N4.5 to US$1 during the second
half of the 1980s. It steadily ·depreciated to W125.8 tc> US$1 in the
period 2005-08. As at the end of 2015, one US$ officially
exchanged for about Wl 92.44. Though the extemaJ reserve of the
country has o.ver time fluctuated, it has more or less consistently
risen from a relatively low level of US$1.9b in the second half of
1970s to US$43.7b in the period 2005-08. However, within the
period of 2011-15, the nation has experienced an average of
-1.17% growth in external reserve. ·
Given the poor performance of the economy, the country has
over the years increased its stock of debt, reaching around US$32b
over the period 2000-04. However, the country benefitted from the
, Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative as ~he had more
1 than half of her debt written off. Thus, the external debt stock of
I

the country drastically reduced to about US$6.6b in the period of

2005-08. The current debt stock for 2015 stood at US$290b.
In terms of contribution to real national output, the agricultural
sector has consistently remained the highest contributor (except in
the period 2006 - 00 and 2011 - 15, where service sector takes the
lead), contributing more than one-third of the total real GDP
between the period, 1981 - 85 (37%), 1986 - 90 (:41 %), 1991 - 00
(38%), 2001 - 05 (39%), but declined to 24% and 23% in the
period 2006 - 10 and 2011 - 15 respectively (table 8.2). Next are
the service sector and oil, quarrying and mining sector, whose
contributions significantly fluctuated over the years. The oil,
quarrying and mining sector gradually increased from 13.36o/o in
1986-90 to 28.6 in 2001-05, but declined to 17.85 % and 11.97% in
the period 2006-10 and 2011 - 15 respectively. The service sector
had accounted for a relatively stable proportion of more than 20%
average in the period 1981 - 2000. The first decade of the century
however witnessed a decline in contribution to less than 16% but
picked up to be the highest contributor to GDP for the period of
2006 - 10 and 2011 - 15 respectively. The least contribution came
from manufacturing, and building and construction sectors. While
the manufacturing sector has consistently declined in share of real
-

Growtlr <t11d Dt?t•elopmtm of tl1t' Nigerian Economy 2 f9

GDP from the height of 9.17% in the period 1981 - 85 to 3.91 % in

the period 2001 - 05, it however itnproved to 6.59% and 8.87%
between the periods 2006 - 10 and 2011 - 15 respectively. The
building and construction sector has similarly declined from the
height of 3.39% in the period 1981 - 85 to 2.71 % in the period
2006 - 10. The sector however reached its all-time highest of
3.58% in the period 2011 - 15. This has implications for the
developtnent of the ~conon1y and shows that a lot needs to be done
to improve n1anufacturing and allied sectors, such as building and
construction.

Table 8.2: Sectoral Share of Real GDP for Nigeria, 1981 - 2015

SECTORS 1981-85 1986-90 1991-95 1996-00 2001-05 2006-10 2011-15

Al!ric 37.25 4l.07 38.31 39.22 39.52 24.94 23.3 1
Manufacrurin2 . 9.17 8.28 7.51 5.91 3.91 6.S9 8.87
Oil and
Quarrying, 14.9 13.26 13.32 16.I 28.6 17.8S 11 .97
Mini DI?
Wholesale and
Retail Trade 13.45 13.36 12.45 12.04 11.94 IS.52 16.67

Service 21 .83 22.08 26.45 24.71 14.25 32.3 35.61

Building and
Construction 3.39 1.95 1.95 2.02 1.77 2.71 3.58

Computed from CBN Bulletin (2015)

Sectoral Analysis
Agriculture . .
The agricultural sector is an important economic sector m the
Nigerian economy providing employment for about 65 percent of
the Nigerian labour force. The agricultural and rural sectors. a~e
highly interwoven in Nigeria, because the rur.al. sect01 ~~
predominantly agriculture based. Thus, the sectot ts of gre
importance to the government in its policy scheme. The broad
agricultural policy objectives in Nigeria are:
• Attainment of self-sufficiency in food and fibre;
• Improvement in socio-ccono~ic w~lfare of the people;
• Reduction in the rate offood mflataon;
220. .
S.O. Orekom .and' N. Olnsei11de
. .. \

•I • Diversification of the country's sources <;>f foreign excha~ge

I ' • through the rejuvenation of agricultural export commodity;
..- .·'· and .
Rroquction of raw materials for local agro based industry.
.
.. 'o 'ne ~f the earliest interventions of government aimed at
developing agriculture in Nigeria was through the establishment of
the ' agricultural development corporation and f~m settlement
scli'e1ues hi the 1950s and 1960s. These schemes were aimed at
reducing the volatility of income streams of farmers as well as
ensuring farmers' access to farmlands, and modernising the
otherwise largely peasant agricultural sector. Considered as a
"preferred sector", many . other policies such as the use of
instrument .o f concessionary interest rates on agricultural loans,
establishment of agricultural specialised banks, commodity boards,
input supply and distribution, agricultural input subsidy, land use,
resear~h, extensioQ · and technological transfer, mechanisation,
water resources and irrigation, etc., were in vogue.'
Efforts at resuscitating the agricultural sector saw the
introdu.ction of "Operation Feed the Nation" programme in 1976,
replaced four years later, with "Green Revolution" programme in
1980. Specifically, interest charges on agricultural loans did not
exceed 6% and 9% in the 1970s and 1980s, respectively. Relevant
institutions established in this regard include Agricultural Credit
Guarantee Scheme (ACGS) in 1977, Nigerian Agricultural Co-
operative Bank (NACB) in 1973, Agricultural Commodity
Marketing Boards, River Basin Authorities, National Directorate
of Employment (NDE), Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural
Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Agricultural Land Development
Authority, and the Family Economic Advancement Programme
(FEAP).' In spite of all these efforts, it is surprising to note that the
sector has not been able to provide enough food to feed the
citizens. The country still spends billions of Naira to import rice
for local consumption.

Industrial
The industrial sector of the econon1y comprises manufacturing, oil,
quarryin~ 'and mining; 'and electricity subsectors.
 Growtli cmd Developme1i1 of tlte N/gerimr Economy 22 i'

Manufact11ri11g
Given the consistehtly low ~h.are of less than 10 percent of the
manufacturing s~ctor in national output over the years, the policy
aim has been t~ 1n1prove the sector in the country. The sector h~s
been charactensed by low capacity utilisation and lack of
appropriable growth. Capacity utilisation in the sector is about
50%. The poor yerforma~ce of the sector is attributable to high
dependence on imported inputs, ·low quality of products and low
diversification of export products. ·

Oil, Quarrying and Mining

With the oil boom of the 1970s, oil has gained prominence within
the Nigerian economy, accounting for the highest proportion of
export, foreign earnings and federally collected revenue. Nigeria
has estimated proven oil reserve of 32 billion barrels, and is 6th
largest producer in the Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries
(OPEC). At the current rate ·of production, 'these reserves can last
about 35 years.
Thus Nigeria is subject to the vagaries of the international oil
market. While the oil and gas sector has been well developed, the
solid mineral sector is not. The Nigerian liquefied natural gas
company was established to fully harness the associated gas
component in large proportions. The country currently exports
trains of millions of cubics of natural gas to Europe, especially
Italy. In addition to oil, Nigeria has substantial reserves of natural
gas and abundant solid mineral deposits, including coal, tin, kaolin,
gypsum, columbine, gold, barites, marble, tantalite, salt and
sulphur.

Electricity
Inadequate electricity generation and supply remains one of the
major infrastructural problems of the country. While the name of
the body in charge of electricity supply has over the year~ bee~
changed, the inefficiency and inadequacies that charactensed 1t
refuse to disappear. The body which was originally known as
Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) at inception after
independence was later . renamed National Electric Power
Authority. As part of the effort to introduce some element of
· 222 S.O•.Orekoya and N. Olcrseinde

.. · · - 'ts activities, and address ·

pnvate sector involvement in t t initiated an unbundl.1ts
inefficiency problem~ the gov~mhmd~~~ rent stages of its act' · '~g
process of the entity, through w~tc 1 e lVtttes
can be handed. over to the pn vate sector to mHanlad~e. TChus this
· · · · necessitate
1n1tiative . d . its
· be1n· g renamed
. . . Power
fi th o t ktng ffompan
f Y
of Nigeria (PHCN). As a precond1t1on or ~ a e-o o the
unbundling process; the power generation capacity of the coun.try
has drastically been increased to over 20,000 megawatts, U~tng
hydro·and gas to feed the grade. . .
In order to steer the Nigerian economy tnto industrial
development, the government embarked on a number of federal
·core industrial projects, which include:
• Refineries, .
• Fertili~er plants,
• Steel plants, and
• Pulp and paper plants.

Refineries
The four existing refineries in Nigeria, one each located in Wani,
and Kaduna, and two in Port Harcourt, are owned by government.
However, about 20 licenses have been issued by government to
private sectors since 2000 to build refineries in the country, though
n~ne ~s yet to be built, a decade after. In spite of the existence of
four refineries in the country, Nigeria still imports more than two-
thirds of domestic consumption of petroleum. This is the
consequence of a myriad of operational problems plaguing the
refineries. Though debatable, the government is said to subsidise
the consumption of petroleum products in the country, as a
substantial proportion of domestic consumption is . imported at
international market price.

Fertiliser Plant
Occasioned by t?7 need to promote agricultural output in the
country, two fertahser plants were established. They are Federal
Super-Phosphate Fertilis~r Company (FSFC), which accounts f~r
90 percent, ~nd National Fertiliser Company of Nigena
(N,A FCON) which accounts for the remaining 10 percent. The two
plants are, however, dependent on imports for their main inptJtS. In

...
'
 Growtlr mul f)rvt lopmem of tire N/gerlnn Economy 223

the face of scarce .foreign ~xchnngc, the activities of the plants

hav~ . been sub-optt~nl. Tlus hns thus, resulted in shortage of
fertthsers every planting season in the country,
•
Steel Plants
Considered to be central to the development of the industrial
sector, the governn1ent ernbarked on the construction of three steel
plants, .and three inl~nd steel rolling mills. The steel plant
compame~ are lc;>eated tn Itakpe, Ajaokuta, and Aladja, while the
steel rollmg mills are located in Osogbo, Jos and Kastina.
However, . both the st~el companies and the steel rolling mills
ended up tn colossal failure, as they are currently non-active. In an
attempt to resuscitate the steel plants, government has had course
to enter into arrangements with foreign private sectors without
appreciable result.

Pulp and Paper Plants·

In the case of pulp and paper plants, three core companies: Nigeria
Paper mills, Jebba, Nigerian Newsprint Manufacturing Limited,
and lwopin Pulp and Paper Company Limited, were established.
Similar to the experience of the previous ones, these c.ompanies are
also plagued with the ~rune problems of inadequate funding,
foreign exchange constraints, high cost of operation as well as
obsolete equipment and technology. .
The analysis above shows the summary of trends and
perfonnance of Nigerian economy from independence. It also
reveals the structure of Nigerian economy as well as the
contribution of each sector to national productivity. The
agricultural and service sectors are largest contributors while the
manufacturing sector is the )east contributor to national output.

Planning for Development .

The major framework for planning in Nigeria varied ~ro~1 n1~dtum
term development plans from independence to the n11d-e1ght1es, to
the rolling plan, and currently in the last one and hal~ decades, to
the NEEDS, Seven Point Agenda, nnd trnnsfo1mntton Agenda
frameworks. Planning was considered crucial to the process of
growth and development in the country. Th.us the country
embarked on different types of development planmng.

..
224 s.o. O~koya <lllil N. Olnsrlntlc'

Tire First Nntio11al Develop11ie11t l'ln1i (1962 - 1968) .

The objective of the plan wus to nccelcrate the. r~te of e~ono.mrc
growth and the rate at which the standards of hvmg of N1ger1ans
should be raised. Fresh from independence, the urge to have
increasing measure of control over her destiny by de-emphasi sing
dependence on external sources for capital and manpower became
the driving force. Both agriculture and industrial development
were given priority in the plan. Many projects s~ch. as the P~rt
Harcourt Oil refinery, the Kainji dam, and the N1genan Secunty
Printing and Minting were established so as to promote the process
of economic development of the country. However, the plan failed
to achieve its objectives. This failure is due to:
• Insufficient resources to execute the plan, as the resources
expected from foreign allies fell short. Up to 50% of the
plan was expected to be financed by foreign allies.
• Inadequate manpower, as most of the economic advisers for
the implementation of the plan were foreigners.
• Political problems also represented major problems faced by
the plan. This started with the wranglings between the
federal and regional governments.

The climax of the turmoil was the civil war that the country had to
engage in, in the last half of the 1970s. This affected the effective
and efficient implementation of the plan.

The Second National Develop111e11t Plan (1970-1974)

The plan was drawn at the end of the civil war with the hindsioht
that the economy had to be restructured. lt had fi ve n1~n
objecti~es: to create a. united strong and self-reliant nation ; a great
dynamic economy; a Just and egalitarian society; a land of brioht
and full oppo11unities for all citizens; and a free and deinocr:iic
society .
.The country witnessed the first oil windfalls during the plan
penod. Thus t~erc was reasonable economic and price stability.
~a~y economic reforms were introduced, such as changing to
1n~1~enous legal tender currency of Nigerian n(lira in place of
Bnt1sh pounds. Also was the promulgation of the indigenous
 Grmrtli nnd /Jei·d o1>me111 of the Nigerian Economy 225

decree to
· enhance
· · ownership of business by Ni'gcri'an s, agams
d the ,· t
the e~1sttng on111umce. by foreigners , Many stale owned
enterpt~ses, s.u~h us Rtver . Basin Development Authodties,
Ind~stnal Training Fun?, Nattonul Economic Advisory Council,
Nattonal ~an~ for A~ncultu!·e, National Standard Organisation,
and the N1genan Nattonnl 011. Corporation, aimed at developing
the econmny faster were established. The problem of this plan was
inadequate capacity to execute the plan.

Tile Third National Develop111ent Plan (1975 -1980)

The plan was drafted under a favourable financial condition
because the country had enjoyed the huge oil revenue as a result of
the positive oil shocks of the early and mid-1970s. This plan, in
addition to the objectives of the second development plan had the
following short-term objectives: increase in per capita income;
more even distribution of income; reduction in unemployment;
increase in the supply of high level of manpower; diversification of
the economy; balanced development; and indigenisation of
economic activities.
Despite high expectations, the plan failed to achieve its
objectives. In fact some of the objectives are yet to be achieved
almost four decades after; for instance, the development pattern of
the economy is not balanced across the sectors, and the economy is
yet to be diversified, but rather heavily dependent on the oil sector.
Overstatement of government capacity, and negative oil shock
were partly responsible for failure. Thus, a significant proportion
of the plan was not executed. The country had to resort to external
borrowing to even complete some of the projects, marking the
beginning of the rising debt profile of the country.

The Fourth National Develop11w11t Plan (1981 - 1985)

The objectives of the fourth plan were to promote .econo1~1ic
growth and development, achieve price stability an~ socrnl equity.
Agriculture, education, manpower development, mfrast~uc.tures ,
housing and health were accorded priority in the plan. S1mllarly,
the fourth plan failed to achieve its aims. This due to the udve1~se
effect of the negative oil shocks of the early 1980s, couple~ with
high cost of running a democratic govc1111nent under which it was

I '1
l I ~·
 226 S.0 . O"koyn and N. Olaselnde
.. . '

to be in1ple1nented. The plan was also ?ffected by Jarge~scale

corruption, high level of inflation: debt crises, as w~JJ as lack of
coherent fiscal and monetary policies. ·

Stn1ctllral Adjllst111ent Progra1n111e (SAP)

By the n1iddle of the eighties, the economy showed a d.eep
recession, structural imbalance, fiscal and exchange rate cnses
coupled with balance of paym~nt and external debt problems. SAP,
being a reaction to the economic crises of the 1980s, was
introduced in July 1986, with the belief that it represents the
process of leading the economy towards development. Though
meant to last for two years (1986-1988), it remained in force till
1993. The objectives of the programme were:
• To restructure and diversify the productive base of the
economy in order to reduce dependence on the oil sector
·and imports; ·
• To achieve fiscal and balance of payment viability over the
period;
• To lay a basis for a sustainable non-inflationary or minimal
inflationary growth; and
• To lessen the dominance of unproductive investments in the
public sector, improve the sector' s efficiency and intensify
the growth potential of the private sector.

The policy of SAP include among others:

• Adoption of realistic exchange rate;
• Deregulation and greater reliance on market forces·,
• Trade liberalisation;
• Removal of subsidies on public sector goods and services·
• Privatisation ~nd rational.isation of public enterprises and a
genera) reduction of the size of the public sector;
• Strong demand management policies.

The excl~a~ge r~te and trade reforrns were the lead policies iri
the S~P pohc1es, with th~ deregulation of the major sectors of the
economy. The deregulation of the fin ancial sector Jed to an
....- .

Gmwtli nt1d Develoµmc111 of tl1t Nigerian Oco11omy 227

increase in the nun~~er of finat~oial institutions, in addition, many

state owned enterpt 1ses. were. either commercialised or privatised.
SAP wa~ th.e 1nost cont1 ovcrstnl package of economic policies that
brought m· its wake great hardship to Nigerians, resulting in riots
and protests across the country.

Rolling Plans
It was believed that one of the reasons why the country had not
achieved sustainable economic development over the years was
because it was using medium-term development plans. By the
early 1990s, the country shifted from five-year plans to three-year
rolling plans. The first rolling plan to be prepared was the 1990-92
rolling plan. The objectives of the first rolling plan included:
• Attainment of self-sufficiency in the production of food and
other raw materials;
• Laying ·a solid · foundation for self-reliant industrial
development as a key to self-sustaining dynamic and non-
inflationary growth;
• Create ample employment opportunity; and
• Enhance the level of socio-poIi ti cal awareness of the people,
further strengthen the base for a market oriented economy
and mitigate the adverse impact of economic downturn and
adjustment process on the most affected group.

Despite great expectations that were placed on the rolling plan,

it was not very successful, as it relied heavily on deficit financing.
It was argued that the plan was just a package of myriads of
uncompleted public projects, lacking integrated achievable growth
objectives.
The 1993-1996 rolling plan was the first plan to be prepared
under the National Planning Commission (NPC), which was
established with Decree 12 of 1992. The plan sought to address
policy issues concerning, among other things, the depreciating
value of the naira, the inflationary trend, the sluggishyerformance
of the productive sectors, especially the manufactunn.g sector as
well as the debt quesiion. The major problem with this plan was
that it did not include estimates of the local governments. The plan
performed below expectations because it coincided with the period
 • "'11111111111

228 S.O. Orekoyn n11d N. Olnuinde

of widespread political crises. As· a result, rather than catapulting

the· economy into development, the. e~on~my was slowed down by
widespread .workers strikes and c1.v1l disturbanc~s. It should ~
noted that the rolling plans were guided by .the pohcy of economic
deregulation and the need for rapid economic recovery.

Lessons of the Development Plans

The study of the development plans shows that government ~as
the main agent in the development of the ec~nomy. There wa~ httle
or no role that was expressly given to the pnvate sector despite the
fact that the planning documents recognised the imp~rt~nce of the
private sector to the development of the economy. This ts based on
the assumption that government should be in charge of the
commanding height of the economy. During the period,
government was explicitly involved in production and distribution
activities. This led to the establishment of various state-owned
business enterprises.
However, the economy has a substantial influence on the
private sector. While the organised private sector comprises a few
private and public limited companies, more than 70% of the labour
force is employed by unorganised private sector or the informal
sector. This informal sector acts as the driving force for the rural
areas and a source of cheap labour to the urban sector.
Planning is an essential ingredient for growth and development
in any nation. Nigeria has undergone various development
plannings from independence to date. However, this unit only
considers planning from independence to 1999 (before the return
of democracy). It highlights the objectives, achievements, failure
and the reasons for the failure ranging from first National
Development Plan of 1962 to the rolling plan of the 1990s.

Recent Development Initiatives/Prograrnmes

The return of democracy to the country in 1999 has been
accompanied by different develop1nent initiatives ain1ed at
advancing the Nigerian economy along the development path.
~etw~n 1999 and now, four development progra1n 1nes could be
1dent1fied. They are: National Economic Empowerment and
Develop1nent Strategy (NEEDS), Seven Point Agenda,
 Glt,ll'tft n11d l>C'l'e/oJJment of tire Nigerian Economy 229

Transfonnnlion Agenda nnd Economic Growth and Recovery Plan

(EGRP). .

Notional Etonon1ic ~m11owcr111ent and Develo~ment .

Strategy (NEEDS)
NEEDS, which focuses on poverty reduction through economic
gro~vth, hmnan develop1nent and changing the way of doing
bus1~ess, represents a par~digm shift in planning. Contrary to
prev1~us plans, ~EEDS. tnes to p~ay down on projects, while
focusing on pohcy env1ronment/chmate, promoting measurable
targets and specific outputs, and down-top approach. It has
measurable targets and objectives, it is participatory, and the
targets are keyed into the MDGs. While NEEDS is national in
focus, there are states and local government counterparts caUed
State Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy
(SEEDS) and Local Government Empowerment and Development
Strategy (LEEDS). This is based on the premise that states and
local governments play critical roles in public spending and
Nigeria' s development agenda and that no sustainable
development can take place without key roles by state and local
governments. .
NEEDS is a development plan inspired by current challenges
for change and vigorous growth. It recognises the fact that the
fundamental challenge at this stage of Nigeria's development is to
meet the basic needs of her people in the areas of housing.
clothing, health care, education, adequate water supply. physical
security, job creation, sanitation, nutrition, empowering her people.
good governance and hence poverty reduction on a sustained basis.
Financing of the implementation of NEEDS is d:s.i~ed to co1~e
from increased efficient use of resources, mobthsmg d01ncst1c
savin gs, attracting FDI and ODA as well as. debt relief . froi_n
creditors. Part of the outcomes of the NEEDS 1mplementat1on is
the increasing fl ow of POI, and the successful debt relief and
payoff of the country's cebt balance.

Seven-point Agendo
The government's 7-point agenda reloasocl ~n August .1, 2007
accommodates Power and Energy, Food Secunty and A~nculture,
Wealth Creation and Employment, Mass Transportatton, Land
 230 S.0.. 0rdo)'n mrif N. Olnseifrde ··

Refonn~ Security, .plus Qualitative and Functional Education. It

contains within it two key concepts needed .to ~~talyse the
country's developtnent: the essential needs of. N1gena ~ ~om:, to
which oven·iding priority ·is given; and the 1de~ of hm1!at1~ns
imposed by Nigeria's state of technology and social organ1~at1on
on the government ability to meet present and future needs. As part
· of the public sector role, the challenge is to support and strengthen
the Nigerian system to actualise ~ts huge potential and fulfil its
obligations to the society and the continent.

Power and Energy. The infrastructural reforms in this critical

sector through the development of sufficient and adequate power
supply will be to ensure Nigeria's ability to develop as a modem
economy and an industrial nati9n by the year 2015.

Foqd Security. J'his reform is primarily agrarian based. The

emphasis on the development of modem technology, research,
financial injection into research, production and development of
agricultural inputs will revolutionise the agricultural sector leading
to a 5 - 10 fold increase in yield and production. This will result in
massive domestic and commercial outputs and technological
knowledge transfer to farniers.

Wealth Creation. By virtue of its reliance on revenue from non-

renewal oil, Nigeria has . yet to develop through diversified
production especially in the agricultural and solid mineral sector,
as against dependence on oil.

Transport. Sector. The transportation sector in Nigeria with its

poor road networks is an inefficient n1eans of mass transit of
people and goods. With a goal of a modernised industrialised
Nigeria, the agenda is to rehabilitate and 1nodemise the railway
system.

Land Refornis. This n1eans change in the land laws and the
emergence of land reforms to optimise Nigeria's growth through
the release of lands for co1n1nercialised fanning and other large-
. scale businesses by the private sector.
 Growtli a11d Drve/opme111 oft/1e Nigerian Economy 231

Secr~rity. An. unftiehdly security climate precludes both external

and 1nternal n\ves~me.nt from the hation. ·Security is to be seen as
not only a const1tut1onal requirement but , also as a necessary
infrastructure for the developtnent of a modem Nigerian economy.

Edllcanon. The two-fold reforms in the educational sector is to

ensure firstly the minimum acceptable international standards of
education for all, and a strategic educational development plan to
ensure excellence in both the tutoring and learning of skills in
science and technology.
The short lifespan of the agenda is responsible for the lack of
appreciable impact on the country's development path.

Transformation Agenda ·
The transformation agenda was planned for 2011 to 2015, which
was the duration of President Jonathan 's administration. It was
necessitated -by the need to correct flaws in the country's drive for
development where there is absence of long-term.perspective, and
lack of continuity, consistency and commitment (3Cs) to agreed
policies. It aimed to deepen the effects and provide a sense of
direction. A total investment of N40.75trillion in nominal terms
was also projected ·for the period, of which ~24.45trillion (60%),
and W16.30trillion (40%) were expected from public and private
sectors, respectively. The transformation agenda was based on a
set of five priority policies and programmes, which are:
•!• Ensuring greater harmony between fiscal and monetary
policy;
•!• Pursuit of sound macroeconomic policies, including fiscal
prudence supported by appropriate monetary policy to
contain inflation at single digit;
•!• Review of the budget process to provide greater clarity of
roles between the executi vc and legislature and ensure
prompt enactment of appropriation bill; .
•!• Review of the existing revenue allocatton forr.1ula to
achieve a balanced fiscal federalism;
•!• Institutionalising the culture of development planning at.all
levels of government and ensuring tha.t the annual capital
budget allocation takes a cue from medmm- and long-tenn
development plans .

..
232 . . and N. Olnseinde
S.O..Orrkowi · .·

While the .transformation agenda aimed at promoting continuity,.a

discontinuity of development programmes appears· to .be the order
of the day of governance in the country. The truth 15 that. pa~y
·
ideology ·
is absent ·
in the country ' s po1·1uca.
· I ~ys tern ' which is
responsible for frequent jettisoning of ex1~t1ng development
programmes ·and adoption of new ones whose hfe spans cannot ~
guaranteed. Since the beginning of the current dem~cratlc
dispensation, the same party has produced three presidents
associated with three different unrelated development programmes.
Thus, economic development focus is still an issue in the country.

Economic Growth and Recovery Plan

The Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (ERGP), a. Me.diu~­
Term Plan for 2017 - 2020, is introduced by Buhan/OsmbaJo
administration to help propel Nigeria back to sustainable,
accelerated development and restore economic growth in the
medium term after a short period of recession. It builds on the
Strategic Implementation Plan and has been developed for the
purpose of restoring economic growth while leveraging the
ingenuity and resilience of th~ Nigerian people. It is aJso
articulated with the understanding \hat the role of government in
the 21st century must evolve from that · of being an omnibus
provider of citizens' needs into a force for eliminating the
bottlenecks that impede innovation and market-based solutions.
The Plan also recognises the need to leverage Science, Technology
and Innovation (STI) and build a knowledge-based economy. The
ERGP is also consistent with the aspirations of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) given that the initiatives address its
three dimensions of economic, social and environmental
sustainability issues.

Broad Objectives of the Plan

Restoration of Growth: To restore growth, the Plan focuses on
achieving macroeconomic stability and economic diversification.
~acroeconomi~ stability will be achieved by undert~king fiscal
stimulus, e~sunng monetary stability. and improving the external·
balance of trade. Similarly, to achieve economic diversification,
policy ~ocus will b~ on t~e key sectors driving and enabling
economic growth, with particular focus on agriculture, ~nergy and
 Growtlr muf Drve/opmt/11 o/ tlrr Nlgrrin11 F.cononry 233

Micro. Small and ~edium Enterprise (MSME) led growth in

industry. nmnufucturmg. und key services by leveraging science
and technology. The revival of these sectors, increased investment
in other sectors, less rel~ance on foreign exchange for intermediate
goods and raw matenals and greater export orientation will
improve macroeconomic conditions, restore growth in the short
tenn and help to create jobs and bring about structural change.

Investing in our People: Economic growth is beneficial for society

when it creates opportunities and provides support to the
vulnerable. The ERGP will invest in the Nigerian people by
increasing social inclusion, creating jobs and improving the human
capital base of the economy.
• Social inclusion: The Federal Government will continue to
provide support for the poorest and most vulnerable
members of society by in-Vesting in social programmes and
providing social amenities. Targeted programmes will
reduce regional inequalities, especially in the North East and
Niger Delta.
• Job creation and youth empowerment: Interventions to
create jobs are a core part of the ERGP, which aims to
reduce unemployment and under-employment, especially
among the youth. The EROP accordingly prioritises job
creation through the adoption of a jobs and skills
programme for Nigeria including deepening existing
N-Power programmes, and launching other public works
programmes. The partnership for job creation will also focus
on the policies required to support growth and
diversification of the economy by placing emphasis on
Made-in-Nigeria, public procurement which takes account
of local content, and Jabour intensive production processes.
All initiatives under job creation wi.ll pri~rit.ise youths. as
beneficiaries. Accordingly, all capuc1ty bmldmg and skills
acquisition interventions wiU be targeted at . youth- '
dominated sectors such as JCT, creative 'industries, and
services. Furthennore, concerted cfforts will be made to
234 S.O. Q,.ekoyn mrd N. Olnseituf<>

encourage youths to venture into oth~r labour intensive

sectors such us ngriculture and construction.
• ltnproved human capital: The Federal Go~emmen~ will
invest in health and education to fi]) the skills gap m the
economy, and meet the international targets set under the
UN's Sustainable Development Goals (~~Gs). The ~RGP
will i1nprove the accessibility, affor~ab1hty and quality of
healthcare and will roll out the National Health Insurance
Scheme across the entire country. It will also guarantee
access to basic education for all, improve the quality of
secondary and tertiary education, and encourage students to
enroll in science and technology courses.

Building a Globally Competitive Economy: Restoring Nigeria's

economic growth and laying the foundations for long-term
development requires a dynamic, agile private· sector that can
innovate and respond to global opportunities. The ERGP aims to
tackle the obstacles hindering the competitiveness of Nigerian
businesses, notably poor or non-existent infrastructural facilities
and the difficult business environment. It will increase
competitiveness by investing in infrastructure and improving the
business environment.
• Investing in infrastructure: The ERGP emphasises
investment in infrastructure, especially in power, roads. rail,
ports and broadband networks. It builds on ongoing projects
and identifies new ones to be implemented by 2020 to
improve the national infrastructure backbone. Given the
huge capital layout required to address the massive
infrastructure deficit in the country, the private sector is
~xpected to P.lay a key role in providing critical
mfrastructure, either directly or in collaboration with the
Government under Public Private Partnership (PPP)
arrangements.
• Improving the business environ1nent: Nigeria's difficult and
oft~n opaque business environrnent adds to the cost of doing
busmess, and is a di sincentive to domestic and foreign
 Growtlr and Del'tlo/mttnt o/tht Nigerln1t Economy 235

investors •dike. Regulatory requirements must be more

transparent, processing times must be fastor1 , the overall
econo1ny n1ust be tnore business-friendly. The EROP will
buil? on the efforts. o( the Presidential Enabling Business
Env1~mnent Counc1 l (PEBEC) and track progress using the
n1etncs of the World Bank's Doing Business Report. The
target is to achieve a position in the top 100 ranking in the
World Bank's Doing Busin~ss index by 2020 (up from the
current ranking of 169).
• Promoting Digital-led growth: To make the Nigerian
economy more competitive in the 21st century global
economy, its industrial policy must be linked to a digital-Jed
strategy for growth. The ERGP will build on The Smart
Nigeria Digital Economy Project to increase the
contribution from ICT and ICT-enabled activity to GDP.
The overall goals of a digital-led strategy for growth centre
on the establishment of an ICT ecosystem in Nigeria. This is
enabled through significantly expanding broadband
coverage, increasing e-government, and establishing ICT
clusters, starting in the SEZs. Government will also drive a
programme to build the skills in this sector, focusing on
training IT Engineers in software development,
programming, network development and cyber security.

Key Executive Priority of the Plan

• Stabilising the macroeconomic environment
• Achieving agriculture and food security
• Ensuring energy sufficiency (power and petroleum
products)
• Improving transportation infrastructure
• Driving industrialisation focusing on S1nall and Medium
Seale Enterprises

We can see the vurious devclopn1ent initiates introduced by

democratic governments since the return of democracy to Nigcrin.
Although, these program1ncs ore great, their in1plcmentution and
 236 S.O. Orekoyn mui N. O/nsei11de
.
poor planning attitude of the coun t ry have denied it of the
dividends of the programmes.

Poverty and Human Development

Poverty can be defined as lack of resources. nec~ssary to ensure
access to a set of basic needs. It includes not JUSt. tnco~e, but also
Jack of access to health, education, and other bast~ ser~ices . .Three
main approaches to · measuring poverty can b~ 1dent1fied m the
literature. They are: relative poverty, absolute poverty, and
subjective poverty.

Relative poverty meas~renzelit:.

With respect to pove~y,
households can either be recognised as poor or non-poor. Relative
poverty is defined by reference to t~e living standards of the
majority in a given society and separates the poor from non-poor.
The non-poor are seen as those hquseholds with expenditure above
two-third· of the total household per capita expenditure, while the
poor are those households below this proportion. However, further
disaggregation of the poor can be in terms of core-poor (extreme
poor), moderate poor.

Absolute poverty measurement: This · approach, also known as

Food Energy Intake measure, defines poverty in terms of the
minimal requirements necessary to afford minimal standards of
food, clothing, healthcare and shelter. In this method, both the food
expenditure and non-expenditure approach, are considered. The
poor are seen as those households who cannot afford up to 40
percent of 3000 calories per day from the basket of food
consumed. Following the World Bank' s Purchasing Power Parity
(PPP) index, this approach recognises the poor as those living on
Jess than US$1 per day.

Subjective poverty measure111ent: This approach determines

poverty based on the opinion of the respondents as to whether they
consider their Jiving standard as poor or not. It is based on seJf-
assessment and "sentiments" from respondents interviewed. Unlike
the other two statistical measurements of poverty, it considers the
 Growtli mul Dev~l<.J/>
" "'""'1 o,.rt11e NIRerm11
)I . Economy
• 237

respondents' opinion on whether or not they consider themselves

to be poor.
In table 8.3 the proportion of people living in poverty, though
had fluctuated over the years, has generally progressively
increased frotn less than 28% in 1980 to 69% in 2010. This
represents about 150% incre~se.

Table 8.3:.Relative Poverty: Non-poor, Moderate Poor, and the

Extreme Poor(%), 1980-2010
Year Non-poor Moderate ooor Extreme poor
1980 92.8 21.0 6.2
1985 53 .7 34.2 12.l
1992 57.3 28.9 13.9
1996 34.3 36.3 29.3
2004 43.3 32.4 22.0
2010 31.0 30.3 38.7
Sources: NBS 2012: The Nigerian Poverty Profile 2010 report.

The problem of poverty is prevalent in many African countries,

Nigeria inclusive. As identified above, there are various definitions
of poverty. Poverty is however linked with growth and
development.

Further Reading
Aboyade, 0. 1983. Integrated economics: A study of developing
economics. London: Addison Wesley.
Anyanwu, J.C., A. Oyefusi, H. Oaikhena and F.A. Dimowo. 1997. Th e
structure of tile Nigerian economy. Onitsha: Joanee Educational
Publisher.
Central Bank of Nigeria. 2000. The changing strucwre of the Nigerian
economy and implications for development. Abuja: CBN.
Central Bank of Nigeria. 2015. Statistical Dulletin. . .
Garba, A.G. 2003. Development thought, policy advice am/ <'co1101111c
development in Africa in the 2rf" century: Lesson for the 2 ri century.
Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. . . .
Kuznets Simon. 1971. Modern Economic Growth: F111cl1ngs and
Reflections, Lecture to the Memory of Alfred Nobel.
238 S.O. Orekoya and N. O/asei11de

Ministry of Budget and National Planning. 2017. Economic Recovery

and Growth Plan. Federal Republic of Nigeria. 2017-2020.
National Planning Commissiqn. 2004. Na~ional economic empowerment
and development strategy (NEEDS). Abuja: NPC.
NBS. 2012. The Nigeria Poverty Profile 2010 Report, Press Briefing by
Dr. Yemi ·Kale, the statistician-General of the Federation/Chief
. Executive Officer, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), Abuja, 13th
February, 2012.
NISER. 2003. Understanding poverty in Nigeria: NISER review of
Nigerian development 200112002. Ibadan: College Press and
Publishers.
Obadan, M.I. 1993. Wither Structural Adjustment in Nigeria? NCEMA
monograph series No.3.
Olayide, S.O. 1976. Economic survey of Nigeria 1960 - 1975. Ibadan:
Aromolaran Publishing Company.
Osayimwese, I. 1983. Developnient economics .and planning: Essay in
Honour of Ojetunji Aboyade. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
World Bank development index (2016).
 9
PSYCHOLOGY: MAN AND HIS WORLD
Abigail O. Taiwo, S.K. Balog1111, A.M. Lawal, N.A. Slienge a11d R.A. Adu

Introduction
The word~ "tnan" and "his" are used here in a generic sense.
Psychologists are people who have been trained to observe,
analyse and evaluate behaviour. Psychology has a wide scope.
Through psychology we learn why some people act or fail to act in
a particular way. Human and animal behaviour can be covert
(concealed) or overt (manifest). Psychology is also concerned with
issues such as why some people conform and others do not, why
people forget or remember; · why others behave differently in a
similar situation; and why employees engage in counter productive
work behaviour.
There are different branches of psychology, including
industrial/organisational psychology, social and personality
psychology, developmental psychology, clinical psychology, and
counselling psychology. However, the kind of psychologist k.-nown
to most people is the clinical psychologist; someone who tries to
help depressed, worri.ed or other troubled people. This is just an
aspect of psychology. Many people might think that taking just a
psychology course of this nature will enable him/her to analyse
people, di scover the hidden aspects of the personality and even
control them. This is not true. Of course, taking a course in
psychology will enable an individual taking the course to
understand certain aspects of behaviour but such an indi vidual will
not be able lo analyse people, discover the hidden aspects of the
personality, talk less of controlling them. After this course for
instance, you may become skeptical of those who claitn t.o
understand people's personality from small samples of their
behaviour.
Psychology is both a science and a prof cssioll. Some
psychologists arc scientists who conduct research to create new

....
 l

240 Abigail O. Tnium, S.K: Balog1111, A.M. l..nwal, N.A. Slzenge and R.A. Adu

knowledge. Others are teachers who disseminate .kno~1edge to

students. Still others apply psychology to s?lve prob.le!11s in mental
health, education, bu.siness, sports, law, and medicine (Halpern
2003).

Definition of Psychology . .
Scholars of different schools of thought have variously defined
psychology. However, the variations observed in the definitions of
psychology are a reflection of different schools of thought that
exist in the discipline. Etymologically, the word psychology
originated from two Greek words; "psyche" which means mind or
soul, and "logos" meaning to study or ~ead. Based on the
aforementioned, psychology was originally defined as the study of
mind or sout The definition of psychology has changed just the
way the focus of psychology has also changed. At various times in
history, psychology has been defined as the study of the psyche or
the mind, of the spirit, of consciousness, and more recently as the
study of, or the science of, behaviour.
. P_sychology has also been defined as the scientific study of
human and animal behaviour and mental process. Psychology is a
science whose goals, like those of every other branch of science,
are to explain, describe, predict, and control. Perhaps we can arrive
at an acceptable definition of modem psychology by noting and
observing the activities of contemporary psychologists. These may
include:
• Seeking the biological correlates of mental processes such
as sensation, perception, or ideation;
• Trying to understanding the principles that govern learning
and memory;
• Seeking to understand hun1ans by studying non-human
animals;
• Studying unconscious motivations;
• Seekin.g to impr?ve industrial-organisational productivity,
educational practices, or child-rearing practices by utilising
psychological principles;
• Attempting to explain human behaviour in terms of
evolutionary theory;
- .

Psyclrology: Malt mu/ lli.1 World 24J

• Further attctn~ts to nccount for individual differences

atnot~g.peoplc tn such areas as personality, intelligence, and
creat1v1ty;
• ~er~~ting the.rapeutic tools that can be used to help
1nd1v1duals with mental disturbances;
• Foc~sing on the. strategies that people use in adjusting to the
environment or tn problem solving;
• ~tudying how la~guage develops and how, once developed,
tt relates to a variety of cultural activities;
• Exploring computer programmes as models for under-
standing human thought processes; and
• Studying how humans change over the course of their lives
as a function of maturation and experience.

These are just but a few activities the contemporary psychologists

engage themselve.s in. .
However, because the mind can't be studied directly,
psychology is now defined as the scientific study of behaviour and
mental processes. What does behaviour refer to in the definition of
psychology? Anything you do-eating, sleeping, talking, or
sneezing-is a behaviour. So are dreaming, gambling, watching
television, basket weaving, and reading this book. Naturally, we
are interested in over( behaviours (observable actions and
responses). But psychologists also study covert behaviours. These
are hidden, internal events, such as t11inking and remembering
(Leary 2004). •

The Origin of Psychology

Psychology is said to have a Jong past but short his tor~ . \Vilhel~
Wundt's founding of the first psychology laboratory m 1879 in
Leipzig, Germany is known to have ~ivcn birt~l to mod~m
scientific psychology. Way back in the fifth and sixth centunes
B,C., the Greeks began to study hurnan behaviour and decided th~t
people's lives were dominated not so much by the gods as by their
own minds: people were rational. These early philosophe~s
attempted to construe the world they observed around them in
terms of human perceptions with regards to wheth~~ ob)ects wer~
hot or cold, wet or dry, hard or soft. These quahttes influenced
 242 Abig(li/ O. Ti1iwo, S.K. l1alnRt111, A.M. lmvnl, N.A. Slrenge n11d R.A. Adtt

people's experience of the world around them . Althoug~ the Greek

philosophers did not study humnn behaviour systemat1call~, they
provided a foundation for the development of !he sc1ences,
including psychology. The reliance of the Greek phalosop~ers. on
observation as a tneans of knowing their world made the sc1ent1fic
foundation they laid all the more formidable. .
In the mid-1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus ·(l473-15~3) published
the idea that Earth was, contrary to previously held ~1ews, not the
center of the universe. Earth, according to Copernicus, revolved
around the sun. Later, Galileo Oalilei (1564-1642) used a
telescope to validate Copernicus' predictions about star position
and movement. During the Renaissance the concept of modern
experimentation was refined through observation.
Seventeenth-century philosophers popularised the idea of
dualism, the .concept that the mind and body are separate and
distinct. The French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
.. disagreed, however, proposing that a link existed between mind
and body. He reasoned that the mind controlled the body's
movements, sensations, and perceptions. His approach to
understanding human behaviour was based on the assumption that
the mind and body influence each other to create a person's
experiences. Exactly how this interaction takes place is still a
subject of interest today.
Hilgard (1987) opined that modem science began to develop
by combining philosophers' reflections, logic, and mathematics
with the observations and ingenuity of practical people. By the
nineteenth century, biologists had begun the idea that cells are the
building blocks of life. Later, chemists developed the periodic
table °.f elements, and ph.ysicists 1nade significant progress in
ad.van~1ng our und~rstand1ng of atomic forces. Many natural
s~1ent1sts were studying. cotn~lex p~enomena by reducing then1 to
simpler parts, It was in this env1ronn1ent that the science of
psychology was formed,
. F~r emphasis, the ~cience of psychology began in 1879 at
Le1pz1g, Germany where Wundt established the first psychology
laboratory. There, the "futher of psychology," Wilhehn Wundt set
up the htboratory to study conscious experience, How, he
wondered, do we form sensations, ilnages, and feelings? To
provide answers to this question, Wundt observed and measured
 ,·
p .sydwlogy: Ma11 mtd Ills World 243

stimuli of various kinds (lights sounds . wci h · ·

hysical energy that evokes , · ' g ts). A stimulus 1s any
P . a sensory response (st' I • . 1
sti1nuli: plural). Wundt ti . d . . imu us. smgu ar;
. ,, . . ien use mtrospect1on, or "Joolcin
inward, to probe. · hreactions to various sti'muli·· (For mstance
his . .gf
1
you . stop readding ng. t ·now and carefully exa mine. your t hough' ts
fee I1ngs, an sensations,
. you will have done some m · trospectmg
· )'.
Wundt caIIed his .approach . experimental self-observar·ion because
he. used both trained introspection and objective measurement
(Lieberman 1979). Wundt' s methods had many limitations.
Nevertheless, h~ got psychology off to a good start by emphasising
careful observation and measurement.

Philosophical Issues in Psychology

Many of .the philosophical issues that are of great concern to
psychologists today have their origins in ancient Greece
philosophers given the fact that psychology as a discipline
originat~d from ~hi~osophy. Though, psychology has separated
from philosophy 1n Its methods of enquiry, it continues to show
interest in some of the same issues. The three most important of
such issues are free will versus determinism, mind-body/mind-
brain question, and the nature-nurture issue.

Free Will versus Determinism

Some psychologists are convinced that the most important causes
of behaviour emanate from the self. For this class of psychologists,
behaviour is freely chosen and thus independent of physical or
psychical causes. This belief is termed free will. The conviction
that everything that happens in the observable world has a cause or
determinant is known as determinism. Determinism shapes actions
of scientists. Some psychologists are of the view that free will is an
illusion (Wegner 2002): they opine that what you call a cons~ious
intention is more a prediction than a cause of your behaviour.
Other psychologists and philosophers s.ub~ni~ tl~a~ we d? . ~ake
decisions in the sense that something wtthm md1v1duals m1tiated
the action. Nonetheless, Jaws of cause and effect still guide human
behaviour. IJ,, .
The mind-body/mind-brain question asks how . ~hy~1cal,
chemical, and electrical activities of the brain can e~plam mtncate
mentaJ.activities, such as feeling, thinking, and leammg. For a very
 244 Abigail 0 . Taiwo, S.K. 8a(og1111, A.M. Lmvdl, N.A. Slrenge and R.A. Adu

long titne, philosophers and scientists have given difre~ent answers

to the 1nind-body question. some having the conv1ct1?n that the
mind and brain are separate entities and others suggesting that the
1nind and brain are one and the same (Hergenhahn 2009). The
understanding that the mind is distinct from the brain but .somehow
controls the brain and therefore the rest of the body JS termed
dualism. The belief that mind and brain are same and therefore
inseparable froin one another is caJled moni~m.

The Nature-nurture Question

The nature-nurture issue asks how nature; hereditary or genetic
factors interact with nurture; environmental factors in the
development of a person's intellectual, emotional, physical, and
social abilities. Some psychologists believe that a good chunk of
·our behaviours are the result of genetics or inheritance. Others
opine that most of our behaviours are the result of. experience and
learning. Separating biological and environmental causes of
. behaviour is very difficult. Typically behaviour develops as a
result of the interface of both heredity and environment.
The quest to resolve all these philosophical issues that
confronted the discipline of psychology led the founding fat hers of
the discipline to begin to develop scientific psychology which later
developed into various schools of thought that exist in psychology
today. .

Early Approaches to Psychology

As the field of psychology progressed, various schools of thought
arose to compete and offer new approaches to the science of
behaviour.

Structuralisni
I~ 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) started
his Psychology Labor~tory .. Because of his efforts to pursue the
study of .human behaviour m a systematic and scientific manner,
Wundt is generally acknowledged as establishing modem
12syc~0Jogy as a separate, formal field of study. Wundt's interest
was m .the study of t~e h~man mind. He emphasised the study of
the baste ~lements, pnmanl~ sensations and perceptions, that make
up conscious mental expenences. His ideas were carried to the
 l'sydwlogy: Man mrd l/iJ World 245

United States, by Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener

called Wundt s ideas. structuruli.sm because they dealt with the
structure of n1ental ltfe. Essentrnlly. the structuralists hoped to
analyse e~pericnce into basic "elements" or "building blocks."
Structurahsts ar~ued that we can understand how perceptions are
fom1ed by breaking then1 down into smaller and smaller elements.
Then we can analyse how these basic elements are recombined to
fonn a ~erception. They believed that a perception is simply the
sum of tts parts. The structuralists utilised introspection as the
method of analysing mental life. Introspection is a method of
exploring conscious mental processes by asking subjects to look
inward and report their sensations and perceptions. The
structuralists' reliance on introspection got them into trouble.
Despite their training, introspectors often produced conflicting
reports. There.fore, structuralism was criticised for being narrow
and subjective. These criticisms resulted in another new approach,
called functionalism.

Functionalism
William James (1842-1910) taught the first class in psychology at
Harvard University in 1&75. James is often called the "father of
psychology" in the United State~. He laboured tirelessly for 12
years to write the first textbook of psychology, The Principles of
Psychology (1890). James speculated that thinking, feeling,
learning, and remembering-all activities of the mind- serve ~ne
major function: to help us survive as species. Rather than focusing
on the structure of the mind as Wundt and Titchener did. James
focused on tpe functions or actions of the conscious mind an.d the
goals or purposes of behaviours. Functionalists study how nnunals
and people adapt to their environments. Al.thou~I~ James wns ~ot
particularly interested in experimentation, hts wnt1ngs and theones
are still influential till today.

Gestalt School of 111ought

Gestalt school of thought was promulgated by n group of Gennan
psychologists, including Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang
Kohler (1887-1967), and Kurt Koffkn (1886- 1941_)-~hcy
disagreed with the principles of structurulism nnd bohnvtounsm.
The German word Gestalt n1cans "forn1, pattern, or whole." Gestalt
246 Abigail 0. Taiwo, S.K,'Bnlogw 1, A.M. IAWnl, N.A. Slrenge and R.A. Atltt

psychologists studied thinking, learning, and perce~tion in whole

units, not by annlysing experiences into parts. The1r slogan was,
~'The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Psychology

Many concepts taken from the early approaches to psychology are
reflected in contemporary approaches to the study of psychology.
The most important approaches to the study of P.sy~hology t?~ay
are the psychoanalytic, behavioural, human1st1c, cogmttve,
biological, and sociocultural approaches .

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
While the early psychologists were interested in understanding the
conscious mind, Sigmund Freud was more interested in the
unconscious mind. He believed that our conscious experiences are
only the tip of the iceberg, that beneath the surface are primitive
biological urges , that are in conflict with the requirements of
society and morality. According to Freud, these unconscious
motiyations and conflicts are responsible for most human
behaviour. He thought that they were responsible for many
medically unexplainable physical symptoms that troubled his
patients. Freud used a new method known as free association to
study unconscious processes of the mind. Freud's view of
unconscious motivation remains a powerful and controversial
influence till date. Modem psychologists may support, alter, or
attempt to disprove it, but most have a strong opinion about it.

Behaviourism
Behaviourism is the attempt to understand behaviour in terms of
relationships between observable stimuli and observable responses.
Behaviourists are psychologists who study only those behaviours
that they can observe and measure. Behaviourists are not
concerned with unobservable mental processes. They emphasise
actions instead of thoughts.

l/umanistic
Humanistic psychology developed as a reaction to behaviourism.
Humanistic approach en1phasises that each individual has great

......
 /',sy,·lmloRy: Man mu/ /lit World 241

frecdo1n in din~~ting his/her f uturc. u lnrgo capacity fot pcrsonul

growth. a constdcrublc amount of inner worth and enormous
potential for sc)f.fulfilhnent.
I

Cognitive ,
The cognitive approach exainincs how we process, store, and use
infonnation and how this information influences what we attend to,
perceive. learn, ren1en1ber, believe, and feel.

Biological
This approach emphasises the impact of biology on our behaviour.
The psychologists in this area are referred to as psychobiologists.
Psychobiologists study how the brain, the nervous system,
hormones, and genetics influence our behaviour. Psychobiologists
have found that genetic factors influence a wide range of human
behaviours.

Sociocultural
This is the newest approach to the study of psychology.
Sociocultural psychologists study the influence of cultural and
ethnic similarities and differences on behaviour and social
functioning.

Subfields of Psychology
As the field of psychology expanded, it divided into a number of
subfields. For easy understanding, it can broadly be classified as
pure/basic (encompasses branches of psychology that conduct
research and develop theories/models that are used to solve
problems in different settings) and applied (any branch of
psychology that applies psychological principles to tl'1e solution of
practical problems) psychology. Within these two 1najor divisions
or classification, there are many branches or nreas of psychology.
The major subfields of psychology include:

Clinical Psychology
A branch of psychology that deuls with the application of
P~ychological principles to diagnosis and trcntn1cnt of n1ental
?•so~ders and personal problems. Clinicnl psychologists may work
in pnvate offices, JnentaJ hospitals, prisons, and cHnics.

I·
 . 1 _ I N.A. Slienge and R.A. Adu
248 Abignil 0. Tniwo, S.K. Bnlogwi,' A.M. t..uwa •

Coi:111selli11g Psychology k. hools or industrial finn

The psychologists here usually ~or . ~n sc blems of everyday l'ts,
advising and assisting people with t e pro . J e.
They help people adjust to the challenges of hfe.

School Psychology . . d ·
It is a branch of psychology that is . conceme . with the
identification of the educational needs of children, devise a plan to
1neet those needs, and then either i~plement the plan themselves,
or advise teachers how to implement it.

Educational Psychology . . .
Specialists in this branch deal w~th t~p1cs related to teaching
children and young adults, such as intelhgence, ~emory, problem
solving, and motivation. Educational psychologists ~ay ev~uate
teaching methods, devise tests, and develop new mstructtonal
devices. ·

Industrial/Organisational (110) Psychology

This is psychological study of people at work. It is concerned with
issues such as matching th~ right person with the right job,
developing work teams, determining salaries and bonuses,
providing feedback to employees about their performance,
planning organisational structure, and organising the workplace in
order to ensure workers' productivity and satisfaction.

Social Psychology
This is a branch of psychology that investigates the ways in which
our thought~, feelings, and actions are influenced by the social
environments in ~hich we live:-by other people or our thoughts
about them (for instance, we imagine how they would react to
actions we might perform).

Developmental Psychology
Thi~ involves the study of physical, emotional, cognitive, and
socrnl developme~t/changes that occur throughout life. Develop·
mental psyc~ologtsts study children, the elderly and even the
process of dying. '
.............

l'.tyd10/ogy: Ma,, mrd 111.f World 249

Forensic Psychology
Studies problcn~s of ct"irne nnd crime prevention, rehabilitation
programntes, pnsons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for
police work.

Cross-c11lt11ral Psychology
Compares the behaviour of people from different cultures. This
branch of psychology is closely related to social psychology,
except that tt compares one culture to another.

Environmental Psychology
It involves the study of the effects of the environment on people.
Environmental psychologists may look at the effects of natural
disasters, overcrowding, and pollution on the population in general
as well as individuals and families.

Experimental Psychology includes the areas of sensation,

perception, learning, human performance, motivation, and
emotion. Experimental psychologists conduct much of their
research with both animal and human subjects under carefully
controlled laboratory conditions.

Areas of Contribution of Psychology

Shenge and Adu (2017) noted that psychology's relevance has
been demonstrated in some areas. For instance, in the area of
military strategies, the work of Hovland, Lumsdaine and Sheffield
(1949) helped in training some selected pilots to overcome fear and
subsequent) y return to combat.
Apart from the area of military strategies, psychology ha~ made
so much useful contributions to our lives nnd mnny of which are
taken for granted. Psychological testing nnd nssessr~ent pioneer.ed
by Kasschau and Lewin are of tre1nendous beneftt to humanity
today. Psychology has also proved its own relevn~ce in the .field of
teaching and Jean1ing. The role of psychology 1n education has
enabled teachers/educators to know what to teach lean1ers of
different ages (Shenge and Adu 2017). The influential role played
by psychologists today has made the world of work become more
humanised than ever before.
 . . M Lnwnl N.A. Shenge and R.A. Adu
250 Ab1gnil 0 . Taiwo, S.K. Bnlogu11, A. · '

logists in the areas of health and well-being

The roIes o f psyc I10 d. order to
cannot be· overemphasised ih the present ay. 1n ensure
health ,and well-being of the populace, a subfiel~ of psy~hology
called health psychology emerged. It concerns •!self with how
people' s behaviour can enhance he~lth and_ prevent illness and how
behaviour can contribute. to recovery
. from 11Jness.

Conclusion . .
Psychologists are people who ·have been trained to pr~ctise
psychology (that is, observe, analyse and ~valuate b~hav1our).
Psychology is ~o broad in scope. Psychology is bo~h a science and
a profession. The discipline has ~o~e a long way s1~ce t_h e days of
studying bumps on skulls. Many of the psychological issues that
are of great 'concern to psychologists today could be traced back to
ancient Greek ·philosophers simply because psy~hology as a
discipline emanated from philosophy. The quest to resolve all these
philosophical issues brought to the discipline of psychology by its
founding fathers led to the development of scientific psychology
which later developed into the different schools of thought that we
have in psychology today. As the field of psychology progressed,
various· schools of thought arose to compete and offer new
approaches to the science of behaviour. The field of psychology
has also expande~; it divided into a number of subfields. For easy
understanding, it can broadly be classified as pure/basic
(encompasses. branches of psychology that conduct research and
d~velop the?ries/models that are used to solve problems in
different s~ttmgs~ a~d applied (any branch of psychology that uses
psycholog1cal pnnc1ples for the solution of practical problems)
psychology.

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Uebem1an. D.A. 1979. Behaviourism and the mind: A (limited) call for a
return to introspection. American Psychologist 34: 319-333.
Shenl!e, N.A. and R.A. Adu. 2017. Meaning, relevance and prospects of
psychology: A survey of undergraduate students of University of
Ibadan. Edorium J Psychol 3: 19-23.
Wegner, D.M. 2002. The illusion of conscious will. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press. ( 1). ·
 10
PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL BASIS OF
BERA VIOUR AND METHODS OF
MEASUREMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY
Abigail 0. Taiwo, S.K. Balog1ut, Sylvester A. Okhakume and
Ojo Adesliitza

Introduction
Psychologists attempt to understand behaviour as well to
understa~d human beings. To understand the nature of our psyche
or our nunds, we need to understand the physical structure that is
responsible for them. Our experiences, our behaviour and, our
sense of personal identity are all products of the workings of the
human brain. The psychobiological basis of behaviour, therefore,
centres on the attempt to understand how the brain and the rest of
the nervous system generate those products earlier mentioned.
Human behaviour comes from the brain.
Earlier concerns of psychologists that examine the biological
basis of behaviour centre on some broad philosophical issues.
What is the relationship between the mind and the brain? Could a
mind exist independently of a brain? If not, what then is about the
physical structure and function of the brain that is responsible for
the carving out of the mind? They are also bothered about some
practical questions. One of such is, Can biological measuren1ent
determi ne which people are likely to develop alcoholism,
depression, schizophreni a, and so on? They are also concerned
about questions on how di sorders such as antisocial personality,
insomnia, anxiety attacks, hyperkinetic disorders, and so on, could
be prevented. There are four types of psychobiological
explanations of behaviour, namely, physiological, ontogenetic,
evolutionary and functional. . . .
A physiological explanation relates an act1v1ty to ho\~ the bratn
and other organs function, even at the cellular and chetn1cnl le~e ls.
Ontogenetic explanation describes how .a stn~cturc or behaviour
develops. The psychobiologist thus bcgms with the genes when
 A Oklwfwme mul Ojo Adesliina
254 Abighil 0. Taiwo, S.K. /J<t/ORllll, Sylve.rter ·
'

mbine with the influence f

possible, and traces how those genes co A . o
·· · d · th final outcome. n evo1ut1onar
the env1rontnent to pro ucc . e • r to the evoluti Y
explanation relates a strudure o( behaviou onary
history of a species.

Psychobiologica'I Basis of Behaviour . . b .

The 111ain aitn of biological psychology . ts ~o exarru~e od1Jy
1nechanisn1s which make a. particular behaviour possible. The
n1ajor goal {s to use research findings to improve the healt~ and
well-being of humans and other anima!s. S~me ~f the co:e 1ss~es
exan1ined by a psychologist in a relat1onsh1p w~th the b1ologica]
bases of behaviour.are thus discussed briefly in this chapter.

Psychobiological Explanations of ~uman.Behavio~r

Psychologists have identified two ~ypes. of exp.lanatton of .human
behaviour from the psychobiological p01nt of view. These include
factors that force a p·articular behaviour to occur and factors that
enable behaviour; to occur. Behaviours controlled by our instincts
arc those that the body forces to occur. For instance, people sweat,
when they become too hot, the pupil of the eye constricts in the
presence of bright light, the. hand becomes wet when anxious, the
leg jerks upward when the knee is tapped in a certain place, the
flow of sa1iva increases when a person drinks unsweetened lemon
juice, etc. All these behaviours are being controlled by the brain
and _the rest of the nervous system. To understand these behaviours
then, we will first need to understand the underlying biologicaJ
mechanisms that determine the behaviours. While some people
with a science background may be familiar with these mechanisms,
it will be appropriate to discuss the mechanisn1s briefly for general
readers so as to carry all along.

Casual Influence of Biological Detenninants of Behaviour

Psychology approach focu ses on biological and genetic bases for
human emotions and behaviour. The Casual Influence of
Biological Det~rminants of the human body is a complex network,
alJ parts of which must be able to communicate with one another.
Two systems are ~esponsible for this type of comtnunication in our
body: the endocrine and nervous systen1s. Your basic knowledge
 Psyc/1obiologiccrl Dnsis of D~linvio11r nnd Methods of Mensuremenl... 255

of biology is enough exposure to the functions of the endocrine

and the nerv~us systems. These shall be briefly examined.

The Endocrine System

n1is system consists of the various functions of the endocrine
glands. The follow ing characterise the endocrine glands.
Thyroid Thyroxinffriiodothyronine Increase metabolic rate.
growth and maturation.
Over-secretion leads to
Thyroid gland-
hyperactivity while
under-secretion leads to
low metabolism.
Parathyroid glands Parathormone Increase blood calcium,
decrease potassium.
Under-secretion causes
Parathyroid gland
deficiencies in bone
formation: Over-
secretion lethargy;
Adrenal glands- Epinephrine and Nor-epinephrine Plays an important role
Adrenal medulla in preparing the bo_dy for
stress or emergencies
e.g. speeding heart-beat,
raising blood pressure
and constricting blood
vessels in the stomach
and intestines,
Adrenal cortex Aldosterone. Cortisol and Sodium metabolism
corticosterone controls food
metabolism. sexual
maturity and activity

Insu1i n/gl ucagons Lowering blood-sugar

Pancreas level over-secretion-
Lethargy; under-
secretion-diabetes
Promotes growth
Pituitary gland- Anterior Pituitary
throughout the b?dy.
also called the Excessive secretion
master gland creates a pituitary giant;
because its under-secretion leads to
secretions influence pituitary dwarfism.
so many other Somatotropic (Growth hormone) Controls secretion of the
glands as listed in thyroid gland.
the middle c0lumn
 i k1117te and Ojo Adeslrina
256 Abignil 0. Taiwo, S.Ki Bnlogwi, Sylvester A: Ok· in

(Anterior)- 111yrolrophic,
.. Controls secretions of
adrenal conrtex; both
Synthesises six Adrenocorticotrophic control secretion of the
hormones but their Follicle .(FSH) gonads.
releases Luteinizing)
hypothalamus Proclactin
through the action Oxytocin . , ' ..
of the releasing Vasopressin . I •
..
hormones. Pituitary (antidiuretic hormone)
gland
,,
(Posterior)- can be
considered as an
extension of the
hypothalamus and
releases two .
honnones
Ovaries in Female Estrogen Progesterone Controls secretion of the
mammary glands.
Involved in the
contraction of ut~rus
during childbirth and
release of milk from
. . mammary glands.
Constricts blood vessels,
raises blood pressure
Testes in male Androgens testosterone Controls secondary
sexual characteristics in
male such as facial hair
and sexual behaviour
I•

Pineal gland Melanin Affects gonads to

Thymosin and others suppress output of
Estrogen Progesterone hormones. Under
Androgen Testosterone secretion decreased
Melanin sexual vigour

Thymus gland Thymosin and others Support immune

responses

The endocrine system is composed of glands which release

specific chemical substances called hormones and regulate various
functions of the human body. Each of these hormones influences
only those cells that have receptor sites for it.
 Ps.w·lroblnlogknl IJfr.tfs of /Jr-lrm·lottr mrd MrtluHIJ of Mtm1ttt'ntent.,. 2~7

The Nenrous Systen1 · .

1lte brnin niny appcm· ns the tnost obvious component of the highly
complex hutnan nervous systcrn, but it is not the only component
of the syste111. T~te .nervous systen1 is an organ system containing a
network of spectahsed cells called neurons that coordinate actions
nnd .tran~nuts signals . between different parts of the body
(\Vikipeclta, Encyc1opedia 2011 ). The nervous system consists of
the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.
• Central Nervous System is made up of the brain and the
spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System involves all the nerves outside
the brain and the spinal cord.

The brain is the control centre for all forms of behaviour and seems
to control the activities of most other components of the nervous
system.

The Human Brain

The human brain has the same general structure as the brains of
other mammals, but is . larger than expected on the basis of body
size among other primates (Herculano Houzel 2009). Different
areas of the brain have different functions. There are several ways
to divide brain areas. One way is to divide it into the forebrain,
mjdbrain and hindbrain. Each of these divisions performs different
functions as highlighted below.

Forebrai11, Midbrai11, lli11dbrai11 .

(a) Forebrain: This part of the brain fonns a larger pr~port1on of
the brain in mammals. Jt consists of the outer portion called
cerebral cortex and other sub-cortical structures lying under the
cortex such as the thalamus, basal ganglin and the lin1bic system.
The forebrain:
(i) receives sensation;
(ii) initiates movement fi ~ and
(iii) is involved in cognitive activities such as thinking,
talking, creating and in1agining.
258 Abigail 0 . fofwo. S.K. IJnlop.un. S.vlveslet A. Okhnk11111e and Ojo Ade.shina

(b) The Midbrain is surrounded by the forebr.ain, having structures

l~ke the tecturrt, superior and inferior colliculus, ~e~entum; and
itnportantly relevant to physiology is t~e subst~ntra ~lgra because
of its role itt Pnrkinsot1 disease ..Generally, the m1dbra1n: ·
(i) 1nakes connections with the other two divisions, and
(ii) '
alerts the forebrain to incoming sensations.

(c) TI1e Hindbrain is the most 'posterior part of the brain and
consists of the medulla, the pons and the cerebelJum. Generally,
the hindbrain:
(i) is involved in sleeping and waking;
(ii) coordination of body movements; and
(iii) regulation of vital reflexes (heart rate, blood pressure,
and respiration).

The Cortex
The cortex is a thin layer of cells that essentially covers the entire
surface of the forebrain, which includes a major part of the brain. It
contains the majority of the forebrain's neurons.
The frontal lobe is in the front of the tptal brain. This structure of
the brain; ·
(i) is involved in social-emotional behaviours, personality
(frontal injury may cause personality change and
emotional problems).
(ii) makes and carries out plans: the initiation of all voluntary
movements (frontal injury may cause paralysis).

Parietal lobe is located directly behind the frontal lobe. Its

function includes: receiving sensations (i.e., touch, pain,
temperature) from receptors.in the skin and joints.

Temporal Jobe is directly below the parietal lobe. It directs hearing

and speech.

~~e occipital lobe is just at the very back of the brain. It directs
VJSJOn.
 Psyr/10'1/ologlcnl lJnJis of 1Je/111viour mtcl Mer/rods of Measurement.·.. 259

Left and Right Hen1is11hercs

(a) T,hc left he1nisphere controls verbal, mathematical, and
analytic ability. I

(b) The right he1nisphere is non-verbal (simple reading,

writing and understanding; but cannot speak), spatial, and
holistic

Brain Cells
The brain is made up of cells. The nervous tissue is composed of
two main cell types: the neurones and glial cells. It is estimated
that there are about 100 billion neurons with 10 to 50 times more
of glial cells in the brain. Neurons transmit nerve messages in both
the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous
. System (PNS). ·Glial cells are in direct contact with neurons and
often surround them. They are sometimes called supporting cells.

Neurons (also called nerve cells) (fig. 10.1).

Fig. 10.1: The structure of a typical neuron.

The following characterised the neurons

• There are about 100 billion neurons in the hun1an brain.
• Neurons have sp~cialised extensions called dendrites and
axons. Dendrites bring electrical signals to the cell body and
axons take electrical signals away from the cell body.
260 Abigtril O. Taiwo, S.K18nlog1111, Sylvester A. Okltakume rltid Ojo Adesliina

• Neurons generate and transmit eJectrica1 signals over

distances frotn a fraction of an inch to over 3 feet at the
speed of.200 miles per hour.
• It is believed that humans grow virtually no new ne~rons
after birth. With monkeys (human' s "close relative"),
researchers from Princeton University have discovered that ·
new neurons are continually being added to the brains of
. adult monkeys, even io parts of the brain responsible for
very high-level functioning.

Neuron Structure and Function

( l) Dendrites are the branchlike extensions that arise from the cell
body. They receive signals from other neurons, muscles, or sense
organs and p~ss these signals to the cell body.
. .

(2) The cell body is a relatively large, egg-shaped structure that

provides ·fuel, manufactures chemicals, and maintains the entire
neuron in a working order. In the centre of it is a small oval-shaped
nucleus, which contains the instructio~s (in the form of DNA) for
the manufacture of chemicals and regulation of the neuron.

(3) Axon is a single thread-like structure that extends from and

carries signals away from the cell body. The axon conducts
electrical sign~ls to a neighbouring neuron, an organ, or a muscle
fibre.

(4) Terminal buttons are bulb-like swellings that are nun1ature

container or vesicles that store chemicals (neurotransmitter) and
are located at the extreme end of the axons branches. Terminal
buttons reach right up to, but do not physically touch the surface of
a neighbouring neuron, muscle fibre, or organ. The infinitely small
space in between is called a synapse. This is presented in figure
10.2.
 Psycl1obio/ogical Basis of Belun·iour and Met/10d.s o·'Measurement... 261
1

The Synapse

Tenn inal button

Synaptic
gap

Fig. 10.2: The process at which the terminal button empties its contents
(neurotransmitter) to the synapse.

(5) ~eurotransmitters are chemical substances released at synapse

carrying messages between two neurons. An impulse reaches the
terminal button and causes vesicles to release neurotransmitters.
The neurotransmitter molecules act on receptors in the
neighbouring neuron or muscle fibre either to excite or to inhibit
the latter.

** Electrical signals travel through a neuron in this order:

Information is carried in and out of a neuron in the order of
Dendrites>> Cell body >>Axon>> Terminal buttons >>
Neurotransmitter>> next neuron, muscle fibre, or a body organ.

2. Glial Cells
Although much is not heard about glial cells as we hear about
heurons because glial cells lack action potential, there are actually
10 to 50 times more glial cells than neurons. The following
functions are performed by the glial cells.
• Glial cells provide scaffolding to guide the growth of
developing neurons;
• Glial cells support mature neurons by wrapping themselves
around neurons and form a kind of insulation to prevent
interference from other electrical signals;
• Glial cells release chemicals that influence a neuron's
growth and function.
262 Abignil O. 1'<riwo, S.K. Bnlog11n, Syl"cster A. Ok'1alc.11me and O}o Adeslrinn

Behaviour from simple to complex depends on the integration

of nu1nerous processes within the body. This mu~h needed nervous
integration is provided by the nervous system with the help of the
endocrine system.

Measurements in Psychology . .
Psychological measurement is the use of specified testing
procedures to evaluate the abilities, behaviours,. a~d. personal
qualities of people. It is used to describe how 1nd1v1duals are
different fiom or similar to other individuals-how many more
' ' .
test questions they can answer than other people of their age,
whether they seem more successful in a career than other people,
etc.

What is Measurement?
Thorndike and Hagen (1986) refer to measurement as "the proce.ss
of quantifying observations (or descriptions)in a quality or attribute
of a thing or person" (p. 5).
The process of measurement involves three steps:
• Identifying and defining the quality or attribute that is to be
measured;
• Determining a set of operations by which the attribute may
be made manifest and perceivable; and
• Establishing a set of procedures or definitions for translating
observations into quantitative statements of degree or
amount (p. 9).

Variables and Measurement

Th~ ~oncept ?f a vari~ble i~ basic and virtually important in
statistical studies. A vanable simply refers to merely anything that
varies and can be measured. For instance, the sex of students in
GES 103 class is a variable, since it can be measured as either male
or female, and generally, the sex of students vary accordingly.
Similarly, socio-economic status is a variable because a set of
individuals will belong to high, medium, and low socio-economic
statuses. Thus, measurement can involve merely categorisation.

•,
~·
 Psycl1obiologlcnl On sis of Belinvlour nnd Mttliods of Mtnsuremtnt... 263

Types of Variable .
There are two main ty~es of variable used in the study of
psychology; the~e are independent and dependent variables.
Independent v~nables (IVs). are those that the experimenter
purposely manipulates .. The. independent variables constitute the
reasons t~e resear~h. is being conducted; the experimenter is
interested 1n d~terilllnmg the effect of the IV on the DV. The term
'in~epende~t' ts used ~ecause the IV does not depend on other
vanables; tt stands alone. A few examples of IVs that
expe.rim~nters have used i~ psychological research are price,
depnvat1on, temperature, noise level, removal of portion of the
brain and psychological context. Dependent variable {DV) changes
as a function of the level of the independent variable (IV) the
participant experien.ces; the value the DV assumes truly depends
on the IV. The DV ts the effect of the cause and effect relation the
researcher is examining.
For instance, in researching on "the effect, of price on
consumer buying behaviour" "price" is the independent variable,
whereas the effect of price determines the quantity of goods or
items the consumer will purchase. In other words, "quantity
purchased" in this sense is the dependent variable. Participants in
an experiment are individuals whose behaviour is being studied or
observed. They are assigned either to experimental group, that is,
the group exposed to the independent variable, or the control
group-the group exposed to all the conditions of the experiment
except for the independent variables (Shenge and Icheke 2005).

Major Types of Measurement

In psychological studies, the psychologist emphasises .different
types of measurement which includes: Score Numencal, and
Nominal/ Category Measurements.

(1) Score/Numerical measurement refers to the assignment of a

numerical value to a measurement. This includes most physical
and psychological measures, e.g. student's score !n a course work.
In psychological expression, these numencal values or
measurement are called scores. We could record the GES ~03 ..
'scores of five students as in table 10. l. Each of the numencal
..

t
 J {)kit kumt nn<f O}o Ade.,/ii11n
~64 AbiRnil 0 . 1'al11·0. S. K. /1nln~rm, Sylvdfl'r " · n

values in the tnblc indicntcs rhe studc~ts' scores. ob~ th~ .variable
GES I03, nlld the studc1Hs • scotcs quont1 fy the vtina e 0 ,,nterest.

tnUlc 10,1: GES 103 Score~

Stud<•nl GES Score
Ayo 60
Olnbisi 55
~.fojisoln 65
Bart kc 45
Da ro 56

Measurement Theory· . . . . .
(2) N01ninal/Category Measurement. This is simply dec1d1ng
which category of a variable a particular case belongs to. For
.instance, if a researcher is interested in measuring a person's job
status in an organisation, he or she would have to decide whether
or not the employee is a lorry driver, a security officer, a cashier
and so forth. This is called nominal measurement since usually the
categories are aescribed in words and given names. Thus, a cashier
is a name or verbal description of what sort of case should be
placed in that category.
Notice th~t there are no numbers involved in the process of
categoris~tion. A person is either a driver or not. If you have 50
employees whose occupations are known, you might wish to count
how many are drivers, security officers, and so forth. These counts
could be entered into a table like table 10.2. You can also notice
that the numbers this time merely corTespond to a count of the
frequency or a number of the cases falling into each of the three
occupational categories. They are not scores but frequencies. The
numbers do not correspond to a single n1easurement but are an
aggregate of many separate rneasuren1ents.

Tahlc 10,2: Frequencies of Different Occupations

Occuf!nllonol Cftf fl!Orlcs Number of Frequency
Loffy dri Yer~ 15
Securities 30 '
Cashiers 5
- -- ~

. -
 Psyclrobiologl'cal Rnsis of Belrnviottr nnd Metltnds of Mensttrement... 265

Many researchers speak ·Of tools or scales of measurement in

carrying out . their research investigation. The scales are
conceptually different. In psychological studies there are four
'theoretical' scales of measurement. They are as f ~llows.

(l) Nominal Scale: This is the placing of cases into named

categories. The word ~ominal cl~arly refers to narnes. Balogun
(2005) noted t~at norninal scale 1s the lowest fonn of assigning
numerals to objects, and the numbers sometimes assigned have no
meaning, they serve as labels to assist in categorisation. For
example, we can categorise socio-economic status as (1) high, (2)
medium, and (3) low.

(2) Ordinal Scale: The assumption here is that the values of the
numerical scores tell us little else other than which is the smallest,
the next smallest and so forth up to the largest. In other words, we
can place the scores in order (hence ordinal) from the smallest to
the largest. It is sometimes called rank measurement since we can
assign rank to the first, second, third, fourth etc.

(3) Interval Scale: Is the most widely used in scientific research

because it combines the qualities of both nominal and ordinal
scale, especially th~t of rank ordering (Balogun 2005). In addition,
numerically equal distances on interval scales represent equal
distances in the property being measured. For example, if we have
values like 4,6,8,10, that means the distance between 4 and 6 is the
same as 8 and 10.

(4) Ratio Scale: This is exactly the same as interval scale

measurement with one important agreement. A ratio scale of
measurement has an absolute zero point that is measured as 0.
Most physical measurements, such as distance and weight,. have
zero points that are absolute. Thus, zero on a tape measure 1s the
smallest distance one can have and there is no distance between
two coincident points.

Observational Method
Systematic observation has been described as the starting point of
ariy 'science.' Making observation involves watching a
 . _.....

ki1nkume and Ojo Adeshina

266 Abigail 0 . Taiwo, S.K. Bnlogwr, Sylv~Jler A· O

·
phenon1enon of interest · the .environm
tn · ent ' We all· do this in one
' way or the other in our daily lives. We watch ho~ people eat,
dress, associate, etc. Psychologists are en~aged in the same
activity, only in·a· more objective and systematic war. .
Observation techniques in psyc~ology are done Jn at least three
different ways, viz: · I•
I

• Case study technique; .

• Survey technique,_and
• Naturalistic observation technique.

(i) Case Study Technique

Through this means psychologists study individuals in great depth
and 1detail with the hope of revealing certain things about them.
After making a numbet of observations on an individual, the
psychologist would then infer the causes of the behaviour of the
individu·a1. This is, however, dorie according to certain rules of
logic.
Frequently, scientists use case studies in clinical settings to
help formulate hypotheses and ideas for further research. For
example, the French physician Paul Broca ( 1824-1880) reported
the ~ase ~tudy of a patient nicknamed "Tan" because he said
nothing except the word "tan" and an occasional obscenity when
he was frustrated or annoyed (Howard 1997). Based on his
observations, Broca hypothesised that· the centre controlling the
production of speech was located in the frontal lobe of the left
hemisphere of the brain and that this area was damaged in the
patient's brain. An autopsy indicated Broca' s hypothesis was
.correct.

(ii) Survey Technique

In this approach, people are asked specific questions about their
b~haviour, opinions, attitudes, feelings, expectations, or individual
knowledge. A number of methods exist which facilitate the survey
techni.que. These are: interview method-in which questioning is
done 1n a face-to-face interaction with the individual under study;
th~ ques~ionn~ire. method:-ane which most of us are ve~y familiar
with. lt 1s a way of getting responses to a list of questions that
 rsyrl1nMnlnglcnl llnti.t nf llPl1nvlnt1r nnd Mnlrodt n' u
'l mtnmrtmn1 1...
267

follow a fixed f or!1mt ?f presentation Where the individual is

e pcc~cd t~ fi 11 in his rcspottscs to the c1uestions asked.
Qucsuonnntrcs tnay be structured or unstructured, open or close-
cndcd.
The choice of any of these depends on the interest of the
rcsearcl~er and tl~c t~ature of the research. Generally. surveys can be
h~lpful 1n est~bhshtng how strong ~ particular reaction is among a
give~ p~pulatt~n of people, how w!despread a problem is, or what
the s1gn1ficant issues are from the viewpoint of the public.

(iii) Naturalistic Observation Technique

Observing some naturally occurring behaviour with no atmosphere
to change, alter or interfere with· it is called naturalistic
observation. For example, you might sit behind a one-way glass
behind a class of primary school children and observe them play
without their being aware of your presence. Naturalistic
observation is especially useful in the early stages of an
investigation for discovering the extent of some phenomena or
getting an idea of what the important variable and relationships
might be.

Correlational Method
Survey research represents a more general approach to
psychological research, called correlational research. Correlational
method does not involve the manipulation of independent variables
as in the case of laboratory or field experiment. Instead,
correlational method assesses relationships an1ong naturally
occurring variables with the goal of identifying predictive
relationships. Predictive relationships th~t are found in
correlational method allow researchers to make prediction about
future behaviour, and they also play an in1portant role in decis~on
making such as diagnosing psychological disorders, and selecting
among job applicants.
A correlation exists when two differcnt n1easures of the same
people, events, or things vary together, that is, when scores of .o.ne
variable covary with scores of another variable.. A fan11har
correlation is the predictive relationship between s1nokmg and lung
disease. The 1nore an individual sn1okcs (e.g. 1neasured by t~e
length of time the person has been s1noking), the greater their
 .,
268 Abigail o. Taiwo, S.K. B<t/ogwr, Sylvester A. Oklrnk1m1e nnd Ojo Adeslrina

li~elihood of contracting lung disease. Thus,. smoking a~d lu~g

disease are covmiant, or go together, and we can describe th~s
cotTelation by saying, ''the less . people ·smoke, the lower their
chances for contracting lung disease." . .
Based on this correlation, we can make predictt.on. a?out lung
disease. For example, if we know how J~ng an 1n~1v1~ual has
smoked, we can predict (to some degree) hts .or h~r ~tkehhood of
developing lung disease. The nature of. our pred1ct1~ns ~nd the
confidence we have in making them depends on, the d1rect1on and
the strength of the correlation. The direction an~ strength ?f a
correlation are determined by computing a correla.tton coe~~c1ent.
1
The direction of a correlation coefficient can be either positive or
negative. Positive correlations indicate that as the values of one
measure increase, the values of the other measure also increase.
For example, the correlation between measures of smoking and
lung disease is a positive correlation - as smoking increases, lung
disease increases. With ·a negative correlation, as the value of one
measure increases, the value of other measure decreases. For
I

example, a national survey of high school seniors showed a

negative correlation between the amount of time spent watching
TV and the number of correct answers on an academic
achievement test (Keith, Reimers et al. ·1986). Students who spent
more time watching TV answered fewer questions correctly on an
achievement test.

Experimental Method
The difficulty in ascribing a causal role to any variable or
behaviour as it is done in naturalistic observation is what leads
psychologists to use the experimental method. A controlled
experiment is a research method in which observations are made of
specjfic b~haviour u~der systematically varied conditions. Here,
the investigator manipulates one or more stimulus variables and
observes the effects on one or more behaviour.
The .sti~ulus va~~b!e. that is. manipulated systematically upon
!he subject or .the md1v1duals in the experiment is called the
independent vanabl.e. The response is the unit of behaviour whose
rorm or amount .is exp.ec.ted to depend on the manipulations of the
independent vanab.Je; It ts there.fore called the dependent variable.
The respondents m an experiment are the individuals whose
 r~.''<'l1ol1it1lnRiml lltult c>f IJrluwlmtr n11d Mttlrotlr n( Mtm1trtmfnt... 269

hcha,~iour is being observed. They are a~signcd to either the

cxpentnental group (the group exposed to the independent
varia~!c) or to the co!itrol group (the gr~up exposed to all the
cond1ttons of the expentnent except for the independent variable).
Generally, controlled experiments nrc used for testing
hypotheses. 111ey determine how two or more variables arc related
and v.thethcr there is a cause-effect relationship between them 1 that
is. between a particular condition and a later response.
For testing hypotheses, carrying out scientific research, and
generating psychological theories, a psychologist must first of all
select a method of data collection from among those described
above. After the necessary details about the subjects have been
collected, the behavioural outcome from the subjects will then
fonn the data of the study. The data need to be processed and
analysed to achieve the goal of the researcher. These are the
statistical manipulations that psychologists, like their counterparts
in the natural sciences, must make.

Why Psychological Measurements?

Measuring or assessing attributes of individuals serves a number of
functions for the psychologist.
(i) It enables him to formalise the procedures by which
predictions about individual behaviour can be made with
minimum error and maximum accuracy.
(ii) It makes sense of the incredible range of individual
differences. Measurements attempt to explain how
different traits go together to forrn a unique personality.
Psychologists are curious to discover ~vnys of descri~ing
the diversity of individual behaviour. By testang,
classifying, and categorising individuals who .share
similar traits, psychologists can colTelatc behavioural
differences with personality types.
(iii) Another aspect of the scientlfic concen1 for n1easuren1ent
has to do with le•trning about how people develop. At
what age do children develop which sk.ills, attitudes, and
ways of dealing with the world? 1low 1111portant. m:e sc~,
race, intelligence and other hu1nan characterasttcs 1n
predicting specific behavioural outcon1cs?
 k te and Ojo Adeshina
270 Abignll 0. Tniwo, S.K. Bnlogun, Sylvester: A. Oklur ""

hologists make use of

For the purposes highlighted above. psyc ssment intentions
1nany instrmnents in their measurement an~ ~ss~ cal testing which
These include interviews as well a~ psyc 0 ogt ure virtually· all
ut1·1·tses tests,
· sea·1es, a~ d .'nven
· tones to. meas · ·
II' ence personality
aspects of human functtonmg such as inte ig . ' ·n wh· h'
. . · d If inventones) 1
creativity' self-report (also cal 1e· .se "' t' b
tc
respondents are to answer questions or g1·ve in1orma ion a out
themselves, and finally judges ratings. . ado ted b
However whatever the measurement instrument P Ya
psychologist,· '·1t must satisfy
· certain · reqm·rements· The assessment
instrument or test should be:
• Reliable;
• Valid; and, for most purpose,
• Standardised
a
If measurement i'nstrument fails to meet these requirements, then
the validity or trustworthiness of a person's score will be in doubt.

Reliability
A test is reliable if its measurement consistently results in the same
findings over and over again.

Validity
This refers to whether the instrument is measuring what the
assessor intends it to measure. A valid test of intelligence tells us
how intelligent people are and p1edicts performance in situations
where intelligence is important.

Standardisation
To be most useful, che measuring device should be standardised,
i.e. capable of being administered to all persons in the same way
under the same conditions. Standardisation is a method that
establishes norms, or statistical standards, so that an individual's
score can be compar~d with th?se of others in a defined group.
Examples of rehable, vabd and standardised instruments in
psychology are the following:
 Ps)•drobloloRlcnl llmis of llel1nvlo11r nnd Mrtl1ods of Mtm11rtment... 271

(i) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test developed in 1960 on

intelligence.
(ii) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
de~elo~d by St~ke Har~haway and J.R. Mckinley at the
Un1vers1ty ~f M1nne~ota 1n 1930, to measure personality.
(iii) Rorschach inkblot Test developed by Swiss Psychiatrist,
Hermann Rorschach, in 1924, to measure personality.
(iv) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed in 1938
by the American psychologist, Henry Murray, to measure
personality.

Use of Data in Psychology

The observations made about individuals and, relationships
. between stimuli and responses (and so forth) from the outcome of
the various methods of psychology discussed earlier must be
'organised' and interpreted.to answer res~arch questions and to test
hypotheses. Having discussed this, let us now briefly examine how
psychologists go about their tasks of describing, organising and
interpreting the raw information available to them.
There are basically.. two statistical techniques available to
psychologists. These are:
• Des:;riptive statistical technique; and
• The inferential statistical technique.

Descriptive Statistical Technique .

Descriptive statistics deals with an attempt by psycholog1s~s to
process raw data into a fonn caplble of b~1ng used for analysts so
tha't the analysis can be used to describe the phenomen~n of
interest. Among the different descriptive statistical techniques
frequently used in psychology are the following:
• Frequency distribution;
• Central tendency;
• Variability; and
• Correlation
 ....

27~ Abt'gnil 0 . 1'nilt'o, S.K. ll<rlvg11 11, Sy/11estcr A. Oklwk1mte and Ojo Adeshinn

(i) Freq11e11cy Dist1·ibutio1t · · . .

To get a clearer picture of how scores a~e . d1strt but~d,
psychologists draw up frequency distributions, ~h1ch summa~ise
how frequent the various scores are. Ranking or : ordenn~,
according to the 1nagnitude of the sc9re, is,the first maJor step tn
drawing up a frequency distribution. . . .
. ..
(ii) Central Te11dency . . .· .
When the interest is in comparing t~o groups 9f,subJects by using
their typical scores rather than their entire dis~ributi~ns, we use
measures of central tendency: the mode, the median and the mean.
The mode is that score which occurs more often than any other; the • I '

median is . more clearly a cen~ral score, while ·the mean is what

mos~ people refer to as the 'average.'
• , I
.f ( • • ,

(iii) Variability . .. .
Measures of variability indicate how close together 'the scores in a
distribution are. It is also useful in indfoating how representative
the measures of central 'tendency ·are. The simplest . measure of
variability is the range which is the difference between the highest
and the· lowest values in the distribution. Another widely used
measure of varjability is the standard deviation which indicates the
average difference between the scores and their mean.
I

(iv) Co"elation
Another useful statistics is the correlation coefficient. This
indicates the degree of relationship between two variables. It tells
us the extent to which scores on ' the measure are associated with
scores on the other.

Inferential Statistical Techni()Ue

Inferential Statistical Technique, basically, has to· do with using 'the
raw information available to infer, with the use of certain rules of
logic, what the behaviour or responses of a subject would be from
the nature of data obtained. This technique is scientifically used to
assess the probability of obtaining certain kinds of san1ple results
under certain population conditions, e.g. policy-making decisions.
 1
Ps.\ cl1obiologicnl BnsiS vf Belur\l/011r flll(f Mrtliods nf Mtnsurt?ment., . 273

conclusion
This chapter ex~tnin.ed the introdu~tory aspect of measurement in
psychology, which includes definition of measurement variable
and me.asuremcnt, types .of variables, measurement theory,
observation method, techniques in research methods and the
importance of measurement in the study psychology. '

Bibliography
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Balogun, S.K. 2005. Research methodology in psychology: Perspectives
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Bohrnstedt, G.W. Reliability and Validity Assessment in Attitude
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Brown, H. 1976. Brain and behaviour. New York: Oxford University
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Galton. F. 1883. In inquiry into human faculty and its development.
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Pine, 32.3. 2003. Biopsycltology. London: All~ and J3acon. . .
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I,

• t I
 11
1.,HE PHYSICAL AND HUMAN
ENVIRONMENT
Yi11gigba C. Aki11ye111i 11nd O. Oladiran

Introduction
This chapter examines ·the natural and human environment with a
view. to understanding the relationship between humans and the
environment. Environment (derived from the French environner,
meaning to encircle or surround) can be defined as ( 1) the
circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group of
organisms, or (2) the complex of social or cultural conditions that
affect an individual or community (Cunningham and Saigo 1999).
The impact of human interference with the natural environment is
a function both of the environment and humans. The components
of the environment are natural elements such as climate
(temperature, humidity and precipitation), terrain (mountains, hills,
plains, valleys, swamps), vegetation, soils, rivers, and cultural
elements such as settlements, roads, farms, and so on.
The study of the interaction between humans and the natural
environment is referred to as environmental science.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary subject that
integrates natural sciences, social sciences and humanities in a
broad, holistic study of the environment. A proper understanding
of the environment is important for establishing a healthy and
rational relationship between humans and the physical
environment and to ensure that resources are derived to satisfy
human needs in a sustainable manner.

Environmental Syste1n
Environmental system is a system of the biosphere where life
interacts with the various ahiotic components found in the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Within the
environmental systems, energy 1noves from the abiotic co1nponents
to Jiving or biotic components through various processes like plant
photosynthesis. Energy also fuels environmental processes that are
276 Yingigba C. Akiny<'mi n11d 0. Olndimn

.a~~otic such as movement of air by wind, weat~ering of rock in~o

soil, formation of precipitation and creation of highland by tectomc
forces. .
The study of the environmental system is important ~or several
reasons: maintenance of renewable resources such as timber and
fish, conservation· of non-renewable resources such as minerals,
understanding the occurrence of natural hazards (~art~quakes,
flood, windstorms) and how to reduce their impacts,
understanding the components and processes that operate within
the environment, understanding the impacts of development ?n the
environment, as well as the nature and mitigation of human impact
on the environment.
In recent decades, the environment has been studied using the
systems analysis approach. Systems analysis emphasises the
'importance of understanding the structure of, and the relationships
between and within, different parts of the environment. A system
may be defined as a set of interconnected parts which function
together as a complex whole (Smithson et al. 2008: 9). The
complex relationships and systems within the environment is of
concern to biologists, biogeographers, botanists, zoologists,
collectively referred to as environmentalists.

The Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere is the layer of gases, commonly known as air,
that surrou~~ds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity.
Importance of the atmosphere:
(i) The atmosphere is important as it contains the air we
breathe;
(ii) ~rot~cts life on ~arth by creating pressure allowing for
hqutd water to exist on the Earth's surface;
(iii) Absorbs ultraviolet solar radiation;
(iv) Warms the surface through heat retention (greenhouse
effect);
(v) Reduces temperature extremes between day aod night
(the diurnal temperature variation).

Earth's atmosphere is about 480 kilometres thick, but most of it

is within 16 km of the surface and comprises a mixture of gases.
........... .

Tire 1''1ysiml muf llmt1<111 1i11viro111ne111 271

niese gases arc not che1nically cotnbincd but retain their identity.
The gases in the attnosphere by volun1c are nitrogen (78%),
oxygen (21 % ), carbon-dioxide (0.04% ), argon (0.93% ), trace
amounts of neon. heliun1, methane; krypton nnd hydrogen, as well
as a variable ntnount of water vapour, on average around l % at sea
level, and 0.4% over the ;entire atn1osphere. These gases support
life on earth. TI1e che1nical composition of the gases is fairly
uniform between the ground surface and the elevation of 80
kilometres. This layer is known as homosphere. Beyond the
homosphere, the gases have variable composition. This upper layer
is called heterospllere (Ajayi 2013). Air pressure and density
decrease with altitude in the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is vertically structured as temperature varies
with altitude. In terms of temperature characteristics, the
atmosphere has five main layers: the exosphere, the thermosphere,
the mesosphere, the stratosphere, and the troposphere as shown in
figure 11.1. The atmosphere thins out in each higher layer until the
gases dissipate in space. There is no distinct boundary between the
atmosphere and space, but the atmosphere meets outer space at an
imaginary line about 62 miles (100 kilometers) from the surface
calJed the Karman line.

Fig 11.1: Layers of the earth' s atmosphere and tcmpernture profile.

 278 Yingighn C. Aki11yemi nnd 0 . Oladiran

o~phere and the outermost

The lower layer is cal1ed the trop the troposphere Th
layer is the exosphere. We shall f~cus onof life on. the e~nh'e
.·
·troposp h · ·
ere 1s 1mportan t .tP the ex1stence h" k and contains half f
s
. 7 to 20 km t me
-"
suuace. Th
e troposphere ts • wt.th increasing altitudo
1
Earth ' s atmosp here. Temperature dee h troposphere because the
. tnes
usuall y at the rate of 4-6°C per km 1n ht e y transfer from the
troposphere is mostly heated throug energ . e
-" Th. . k as environmental lapse rate and It may
su11ace. 1s rate 1s nown . d
.
vary depen d1ng on the geo .graphical location an .season of the
.
year. However, w1 1n 'th' the stratosphere
. , temperature increases wtth
increasing altitude.

The Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the thin crust betw.een the mantl~ and the
atmosphere (fig. 11.2). The lithosphere includes the ?nttle upper
portion of the mantle (which surrounds the core that ts located at
the Earth's centre) and the crust, the outermost layer of Earth's
structure. It is bounded by the atmosphere above and the
asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle) below (fig. 11.3).
Lithosphere contains all of the outer, thin shell of the planet,
called the crust, which is cool, rigid, and brittle and·the uppennost
part of the next-lower layer, the mantle. The rock of lithosphere
originated as hot molten magma from the iinterior of the earth and
it lies beneath the mantle which has a radius of 35-2,895km and
the core with a radius of 2890km-6360km. The lithosphere is
thickest below the continents and t_hinnest at the mid-ocean ridges
(raised areas of the seafloor where new seafloor crust is f onned).
The lithosphere is also the zone o(earthquakes, mountain building,
volcanoes, and continental drift.
Lithosphere consists of the continent, ocean basin, rocks and
minerals. Lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick and there are
two types: Oceanic lithosphere which is associated with oceanic
crust, and continental lithosphere associated with continental crust
· (fig. 11.4). Ocean crust is thin and measures between 5 to 10
kilometres thick. It is also composed of basalt and has a density of
about 3.0 grams per cubic centimetre. The continental crust is 20 to
70 kilometres thick and composed mainly of lighter granite. The
 Tiie 1•/1y~rll'11/ imd /11111u111 R11vlrtmment 279

density. of · continental crust is about 2.7 grams per cubic

centi1neter. Both oceanic and continental lithospheres are thinnest
at rift valleys and n1id-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are
shifting apa11 frotn one another. Both crusts contain tectonic plates
1
that float on top of the 1nantle. C onvection currents within the
mantle cause these plates to move slowly across the asthenosphere.
The uppermost part of the lithosphere that chemically reacts to
the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere through the . soi I
fonning process is called the pedosphere. Although the lithosphere
is around 100 km thick, only 1 km of it can be considered in
interaction with the biosphere (notably through aquifers). Main
constituents are oxygen (47%), silicon (28%), aluminum (8%),
iron (5%), calcium (4%), sodium (3%), potassium (3%) and
magnesium (2%) in a crystalline state. The lithosphere is the main
source of pollutants since it is where raw materials are extracted
from to support life and economic activities, and . a permanent
accumulator. Some pollutants are naturally released through
sources like volcanic eruptions, while others like fossil fuels are
the result of artificial extraction and combustion.

Fig, 11.2: Layt!rS helow t he earth's s u~face.

Source: Pi<.lwirny, M . (2006)
 ·~

280 Yi11gi~ba C. Aki11ye111i nnd O. Olndirtm

Fig. 11.3: Properties of the litho~phere.

Sedimentary

' "r ~.,.;. ·. .

, ·· , !... · . Plastic Asthenosphere
.•·.•..• _.. .. . . ......... • .•.. , . . . . . . . . . . . . .•• . .. .... . - 200 km
Upper Mantle
{down to 670 km)

Fig. 11.4: Structure of the earth's crust and top most layer of the upper mantle.
Source: Pidwimy, M . (2006)

The Ifydrospherc
The hydrosphere is the accumuJation of water in all its states
(solid, Jiquid and gas) and the elements dissolved in it (sodium,
magnesium, calcium, chloride and sulphate) (Rodrigue 2017).
-
1711' /'l1y$/cnl nmf /11111rm1 Environnrn1 281

Hydrosphere includ~ underground water. rivers, lakes and water

in the atmosphere. It ts lnrgely represented by the combined ocean
bodies and seas of the world: 97% of the wntcr forms the oceans
2% is ice (north and south poles) and Io/o forms rjvers Jakes'
ground water and atmospheric vapour. Water makes up' around
71 % of the earth's surface, while the other 29% consists of
continents and islands. It is an important accumulator of pollutants
and a significant vector of diffusion.
It has beer estin1ated that there are 1.386 billion cubic
kilometres (km ) of water on Earth (UNESCO 1998). This includes
water in liquid and frozen forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes and
streams. Saltwater within oceans accounts for 97.5% of this
amount. Fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water,
68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the
Arctic, the Antarctic, and mountain glaciers. 30.8% is in the form
of fresh groundwater. Only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in
easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems (UNESCO
1998). The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of
'
salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).
The hydrological cycle transfers water from one state or
reservoir to another. Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture
(snow, rain and clouds), streams, oceans, rivers, lakes,
groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar ice caps and saturated
soil. Solar energy, in the form of heat and light (insolation), and
gravity cause the transfer from one state to another over periods
from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from
the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain.
Photosynthesis occurs mainly at the surface of oceans because of
illumination. This process is in1portant for food supply to
organisms.

The Biosphere . .
The biosphere js the layer of the planet Earth where hfe ex1st~. The
biosphere js unique. The study of the biosphere is the basis .for
ecology, the study of life and its interactions with the physical
environment. So far, there has been no existence of life elsewhere
in the universe. Life on Earth depends on the sun. Energy,
282 l'ingigbn C. .Akillycml a11d 0 . Olndiro11

provided as sunlight, is captured by plants in the proc~ss . of

photosynthesis. The captured energy transforms carbon d1ox1de
into organic cotnpounds such as sugars and produc~~ oxygen. The
vast 1najority of species of animals, fungi, paras1t1c pla~ts and
tnany bacteria depend directly or indirectly.on photos~nthests.
The biosphere is composed of all Jiving orgamsms: plants,
anilnals and one-celled organisms alike. Most of the planet's
terrestrial life is found in a zone that stretches from 3 meters below
ground to 30 meters above it. In the oceans and seas, most aquatic
life inhabits a zone that stretches from the surface to about 200
meters below. The biosphere is made up of biomes which are areas
where plants and animals of a similar nature can be found together
such as a desert and a coral reef. The living organisms interact
closely with the non-living matter in the form of interchange of
energy and matter. The functional interaction between organisms
and their physical environment results in distinct ecological
systems called ecosystems. An ecosystem is defined as a
community made up of living organisms and non-living
components such as air, water and mineral soil which interact with
one another and with their inanimate physical environment.
Components of the ecosystem are:
(i) Biotic component consisting of living organisms;
(ii) The abiotic component (non-living) organisms consist of
the inanimate aspects of the physical environment; and
(iii) Dead organic matter on the ground or soil or in the
aquatic ecosystem.

There are two basic types of ecosystem, namely: terrestrial, and

the aquatic ecosystem. Terrestrial ecosystem occurs on the land
and it is dominated by higher land (flowering) plants referred to as
flora and fauna, while the aquatic ecosystem occurs in water
bodies and usually characterised by small plants such as
phytoplankton. Also, there are man-made ecosystems such as the
city where the natural plants and organisms on land are greatly
disturbed, by different human activities.
 · 111e Plry.f lca/ and Humnn Environml'nt 283

Humnn Envlronn1ent
Hurnan Environment is the cornplex continuum of matter and
con~itions tha.t surround hum~n and human society. The human
envrronn1ent 1s concerned with people who Jive in different
environ1nents, their activities and the environmental features which
they have created. ~e relation~hip between human social systems
and the natural, environment 1s a two-way interaction. Humans
influence the environment and the resulting changes in the
environment in tum influence our perceptions and behaviour.
The nature and type of a society influences their impact on
ecosystems. Important characteristics of human social systems
include population size, social organisation, values, technology,
wealth, education, and knowledge. Settlements are part of human
environment. There are two broad types, namely, rural and urban.
They are classified based on certain criteria such as population
size, economic activities, and spatial characteristics. The pattern of
human activities results from the relationships between humans
and the natural environment. Human activities include agricultural
production, manufacturing, commercial activities, provision of
services (such as education, health care and banking), and
transportation of people, goods and information; and so on. Human
activities which generate income are known as economic activities.
Economic activities are broadly grouped into prim~y, secondary,
and tertiary activities. Higher services under tertiary activities are
further classified into quaternary and quinary activities". The way
human activities are organised in space is referred to as spatial
organisation. In an areal unit such as local government area, the
towns and villages, farms, roads, markets schools, hospitals,
occupy specific locations. When taken together, they constitute the
way space i.s organised in that specific area. Hence, spatial
organisation is the aggregate pattern of the use of space.

Primary Activities
Primary activities involve the extraction and .utilisation o~f earth's
resources such as land, water, vegetation, butlding n1atennls, and
minerals. It includes hunting and gathering, pastoral activities,
fishing, fores try, agriculture, and n1ining and quan·ying. These
activities arc directly dependent on the cnvironn1ent.
 284 Yingigba C. Aki11yemi ntrd 0 . Olndirn11

Agriculture is a vct·y i111portant economic activity.. It is .an

important source of food, . industrial raw materials and
en1ployn1ent. The type of crop or livestock produc~d, types and
quantities of inputs, size and shape of farm plots are mfluenced by
natural, economic, social and political factors. Natural factors that
n1ostly affect agriculture are climate especially temperat~re and
precipitation, topography and soi I. Economi~ factor~ include
market, transportation facilities, labour and cap1tal. Social factors
affect agriculture through ownership and inheritanc~ of land,. t~e
of crop cultivated; · and type of farming practised (sh1ft1ng
cultivation, subsistence farming, extensive or mixed farming. The
political system, i.e., capitalistic, communist or socialistic. system
determines the pattern of agriculture. In some countnes, for
example China, agriculture is fully controlled by government while
it is a private concern· in others like USA and Canada. The
government policies regarding land, irrigation, marketing and
trade, etc., h~ve a direct impact on agriculture. Similarly, subsidies,
loan policy, purchase policies, agricultural marketing and
international trade and tax policy of the government also have a
direct impact on agricultural production and its development.
Geographers are concerned with hdw the agricultural landscape
i is organised. The agricultural land use theor'y developed in 1826 by
J.H. von Thunen· explains the determinants of the prices of
agricultural products and how the variations in the price of
I products influence the spatial patterns of agricultural production.
According to von Thunen, the SP,atial distribution of crops,
livestock and farming systems depends upon competitive bidding
between products and farming systems and land is assigned to the
highest bidder. This means that if it pays more to cultivate cassava
rather than yams on a plot of land, cassava will be cultivated on
that plot while yams will be grown on anbther plot. The concept of
economic rent is basic to von Thunen' s theory. Economic rent is
the surplus production, which can be obtained from the use of a
better plot or soil over and above the return or production which
can be obtained by ~pplyirig the same inputs (labour, fertilisers,
etc.) on a poorer plot.
.. .
•
r..........-:
. -. . . ···

scrondary A~tl.v~tleq .
sec()ndnt·y oct1v1t1e~ add value lo naturnl rc~ourccs hy transforming
·raw n1nterinl~ into vnlunb1c products. Secondary activities;
therefore, a~-c ~onccrhcd Wt.th mnnufacturing, processing
and construc11.un (1nfra~tt·ucturc) mdustrics. The location and sit.e
of indus~ri~s \s ?ctenn1ncd. by :lvni labi lity or capital , government
rolicy. site 1:'lm.rcn1ents, lustotlcal factor, good transport network
and con1n1umcatton~ presen~e of taw mHtcrials, sources of energy,
Jabour. and ready tnarkct. Others include the presence of water
bodies near the industries for cooling down the machines, political
stability, and an attractive locality.
Classical and Neoclassical theories that explain the location of
manufacturing industries have been developed by economists and
geographers and are broadly classified as follows:
(i) Least cost approach: According to Alfred Weber ( 1909),
optimal location is where total transportation costs per
unit of output are at a minimum. Failing this,
transportation diseconomies are offset by economies of
agglomeration and low labour costs.
(ii) Profit maximisation or market area approach: Losch
(1939) noted that optimal location occurs where the
largest possible market area is monopolised - that is,
where sales potential and total revenue potential are
maximised.
(iii) Behavioural/organisational approach: Pred' s Theory
(1967) considers a hurnan being as a rational satisficing
being. Thus, information and ability to act could make an
entrepreneur shift to 1norc or less successful lo ational
decisions.

In most of the locational theories, transport cost is emphasised and

the actions of individual entrepreneurs rather than corporate bo~lics
are emphasised. Technological changes in transponat1on,
teehnology, world trade pattc111, change in labour rcqu it'l'tncnts,
nature of energy source, etc. influence the application of tl~cse
theories. Also, factors like globalisation and growth of multma-
tional companies have bccon1c in1portant.
•
286 )'ingigb<t C. Aki11yemi mtd O. Oladim11

Tertiary Activities
Tertiary activities include .both production and exchange. The
production involves the 'provision' of services that .are
'consumed' . Exchange, involves trade, transport and commun!ca-
tion facilities that are used to overcome distance and make possible
the marketing and distribution of products. · Rural and urban
markets differ. Urban markets operate daily while most rural
markets in developing countries .,are periodic as they hold on
intervals of three, seven or nine days. Periodic markets exist due to
lack of storage facilities, poor transport facilities and low
population density. Periodicity has •the advantage of concentrating
demand for specific products at specific places on specific days so
that the enterprise can survive. Periodicity is a device for reducing
the distance a buyer travels to obtain .goods and services. Stine's
theory (1962) of periodic markets is based on the Central Place
Theory by Chris~aller (1925). The Central Place Theory explains
marketing 'functions provided by cities to'' their hinterland and the
tributary areas of intra-city services.

Quartenary Activities
Quaternary activities are specialised tertiary act1v1hes in the
'Knowledge Sector'. There has been a very high growth in demand
for and consumption of information based services including
mutual fund managers, tax consultants, software developers
and statisticians. Personnel working in office buildings, elementary
schools and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors' offices,
theatres, accounting and brokerage firms all belong to this category
of services. Like some of the tertiary functions, quaternary
activities can also be outsourced. They arc not tied to resources,
affected by the environment, or necessarily localised by market.

Quinary Activities
Qui nary activities are services that focus on the creation, re-
arrangement and interpretation of new and existing ideas;
data interpretation and the use .~md evaluation of new technologies.
Often referr~d to as · 'gold collar' professions, they represent
another subdivision of the tertiary sector representing speCial and
 ·Tire Plrysicttl and Htmuin Environment 287

highly paid skills of senior business executives, government

officials, research scientists, ffnantial and legal consultants, etc.
The highe~t .t:vel of decision makers or policy makers perform
quinary act1v1t1es.

Human Impact on the Environment

There are two major approaches or ·beliefs concerning the man-
environment rel~tionship and these have been a subject of debate.
The idea that man is a product of the environment was dominant
during the classical time and onwards. The work of Charles
Darwin on the Origin of Species seemed to confirm the position of
man as a creatu.re adapted to his environment. Geographers
focused their attei:ition on the effects of physical environment and
fostered the belief that man was a passive creature moulded by
natural forces. This viewpoint that the environment was
predominant in man-environment interactions is known as
· environmental determinism. The second approach ·known ·as
possibilism is concerned with freedom of man to make a choice
under given a set of environmental conditions. The environment
provides a range of opportunities to which man reacts. It is
possible for man to influence the environment by exploiting
possibilities in the environment. This viewpoint became more
acceptable till today because man exploits the possibilities in the
environment to satisfy his needs. The impact of humans on the
environment is both positive and negative.

Destructive Impact of Human Activities

A major factor that accounts for the increased impact of human
activities on the physical environment is population growth.
Pop~Jation is defined as the total number of people living in a
geographical area at a specific time. Population is described in
terms of absolute size (number) and density (man-land ratio). The
growth of population is an important factor that affects the
utilisation of environmental resources. The size and growth of
population is influenced by natural increase (births and deaths) and
migration change (permanent change in the residence of
indiyiduals usually determined by the difference between
immigration and emigration). While births and immigration lead to
288 , .Yingigba C. Akill)'emi a11d 0. Oladirmr

population increase; deaths and · emig~ation cause a decre~se in

-population totals. On a global sea.le, migrationJs unimportant as all
moven1ents take place within the Ji~its of;.the worlq.
Population detennines how much impact humans exert <;>n the
natural environment and the demand for resources. The greater the
population, the rnore impacts exerted. , ~orJd popul~tion h~s been
increasing at a rapid rate. In 1990, world populatJon was 5.288
billion. This increased to 6.122 6iJlion by 2000, 6.933 billion in
2010 and 7.53 billion in 2017 (World Bank 2018). ~opulation
growth has .had a 'negative impact on the quality o~ the
environment as more land is used for agriculture and resource
utilisation has increased. ·More technologies have been developed
to enhance exploitation of resources and agricultural yields.
Wastes from industries, pesticides, fertilisers and households also
inc~ease. As more people are being ~om and live in cities, the
levels of carbon dioxide emissions increase leading to global
warming. The destructive impact of humans on the environment
include: ·
(i) Burning of fossil fuels, automobile exhausts, gaseous
effluents from factories have led to pollution of land, air
and water and its related consequences.
(ii) Overconsumption: Overconsumption is a situation where
resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the
ecosystem. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption
leads to environme.ntal degradation and the eventual loss
of resource bases.
(iii) Hunting of animals and birds and introduction of new
predators in the environment has caused extinction of
some species.
(iv) Mining activities lead to erosion, formation of sinkholes
loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil:
gr~~ndwater and surface water by chemicals from
rrumng processes.
(v) The influence of transport on the environment is
signi~ca~t because it . is a n1aj.or user of energy,
e~pec1a1Jy ~etroleu1n. This creates air pollution, including
mtro~s oxides and particulates, and is a significant
cor:itnbutor to global wanning through en1ission of
carbon dioxide.
 111r Pl1y.rlcnl mrd /111mm1 Envlronmem 289

(vi) D~forestation due to increased demand for land for

agn~ulturc, settlements and infrastructures causes
erosion, loss of natural habitat, loss of biodiversity, loss
of oxygen producers and carbon dioxide elimjnators.

positive impacts of human activities on the environment can be

through the following:
(i) ~omoting aff~restatio~ . - .Planting of trees plays an
important role 1n reducing air pollution by improving the
overall air quality.
(ii) Conservation of water resources - By not throwing
industrial wastes, domestic wastes into rivers, lakes, etc,
water pollution is prevented. Techniques like rain water
harvesting, water.shed management, and drip irrigation
help in the conservation of water resources.
(iii) Soil conservation - Methods like contour ploughing,
terrace farming, crop rotation, windbreaks, shelter belts
play an important.role in preventing soil erosion.
(iv) Conservation of flora and fauna - By setting up
conservation areas, botanical gardens, national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, humans play a
significant role in the conservation of flora.and fauna.
(v) Use of renewable sources of energy like solar energy,
biofuels, wind energy, etc, would help in conserving non-
renewable sources of energy.
(vi) Removal of invasive species by planting indigenous
trees.
(vii) Enforcement of environmental laws and management
programmes have positive effect on wo~ld's ecosystems.
(viii) Selective breeding has improved crop yields. .
(ix) Domestication of animals has protected them from thetr
predators. .
(x) Humans are responsible for the introduction of new
species of plants from one part of the worl~ to anothe~;
for example, rubber from the Ama~on Basin of Braz,11
was brought to Malaysia, which 1s now the world s
largest producer of rubber.
· 290 · Yingigbn C Aki11J1tm1i mid O. O/ad/Mn

·conclusion ··
This chapter examined the components :. of the environmental
systetn and their fentures. The , study ~ of the atmosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere and .. biosphere is essential fqr .the
understanding of the interaction between humans and the physical
environn1ent. Hu1nan activities can be classified into primary,
secondary, tertiary, quarten1ary and quinary activities. These
activities have e~erted poth positive an~ negative impacts on the
natural environment. ·

Revision ,
(i) Environment is the external surroundings including all of
the biotic and abiotic facto~s that surround and affect the
of
survival and development an .organism·or population.
(ii) The environmental system is made up of.the atmosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
(iii) Human Environment is the complex continuum of matter
and conditions.that, surround humans and human society.
(iv) The relationship between 'human social systems and the
natural environment is 'a two-way interaction.
(v) Economic activities are broadly grouped into primary,
secondary, and tertiary (quaternary and quinary)
activities.
(vi) Human activities exert both positive and negative
influence on the environment.

References
Ajayi, D.D. 2013. uMan's Natural Environment, Natural Resources and
Resource System" In Introduction to Basfr; Concepts in Government,
Society and Economy, 5th edn. General Studies ·Programme Unit,
University of Ibadan.
Cunnigham, W.P. and D.W. Snigo. 1999. En\1ira1111fe11tal science: A
global concern. 5th Edition. Doston: McGraw Hill Publishers.
Kennish, M.J. 2001. Practical handbook of marine science. Marine
science series (3rd ed.). CRC Press. p, 35. Retrieved June 10 2017
1

from www.study. com/ academyltopic/earths-speres-and...

-
 Tire l'/iysicnl n11d llumnn £11vlro11ment 291

Pidwimy. M. 2006. "Structure of the Earth". Fundamentals of Physical

Geograplty, 2nd Edition. Accessed 15 July, 2018 from
lrttp:/lwww.plzysicalgeograplry. net/fundamentals//Oh.html ·
Rodrigue, J.P. 2017. The Environmental System. Retrieved on June 10,
2017, https://people. hotstra. edulgeotranslindex. html.
Smithson, P., K. Addison and K. Atkinson. 2008. "The Physical
Environment. Scientific Concepts and Methods" In Fundamentals of
the Physical Environment, 4th edn. Routledge, London, pp. 3-23.
UNESCO. 1998. World Water Resources: A New Appraisal and
Assessment for the 21st Century (Report). Retrieved June 10 2017
from https//web.arcltive.org/web/2013092317160221/.. .
World Bank. 2018 World Population Total. Accessed on l~ July, 2018
from https://data. worldbank.orglindicator/SP.POP. TOTL
 • 1 •. 12
NATURAL RESOURCE USE, EXPLOITATION
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Yingigba C. Aki11yemi .

Introduction
This chapter discusses the nexus between resource use,
exploitation and sustainable development. It also examines the
characteristics, types and classification of resources, measures of
sustainability and sustainable development. A resource is any part
of the environment such as land, water, air, mineral, forest,
wildlife, created through natural processes and has the potential of
creating wealth or satisfying human needs. It is the stock that can
be drawn from nature for supporting life. The utilisation of natural
resource is defined by the culture, level of technology and
economic system of a society. Increased demand for goods and
services has led to the depl.etion of resources and environmental
problems. Current use of resources determines future resource
availability. Awareness of the link between resource use,
.environmental problems, poverty and intergenerational fairness led
to the acceptance of the notion of sustainable development
(derived mostly from 1987 Brundtland report) as a main principle
for environmental and development policies.

Classification of Resources
Resources are classified based on several criteria. On the basis of
their abundance and availability, resources can be classified into
renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable resources
(flow resource) are resources that have inherent capacity to renew
or replenish themselves by quick recycling, reproduction and
replacement within · a reasonable time, and maintain themselves.
For example, water, forests, air, and solar energy. These resources
are renewed along with their exploitation so they are inexhaustible.
Nori- renewable resources (stock resource) do not have the ability
294 l'ingiglxr C. Aki11)1cmi
· . . finite quantities and
hey exist in h fo ·1
for recycling and replncetnent. T . exploitation sue as . ss1
cannot be renewed along with their . ·
f uels-coal ' petroleun1 and tninerals.. d their origin into two
·
Resources can be classt icr· d base . on I
or derived from pants
types· Biotic resources are living organ~m~.1osphere. For example,
and a;1itnals. They are obtaine~ ~rom t e 5 are riot derived from
. 1 Ab1ot1c resource . .
forests, plants and amma s. d of non-living 1norgan1c
living organisms so they .are compo~e and minerals.
matter. Examples include air, land, w ~:~fied according to their
Natural resources are also c 1 such as forests cover
geographic concentration. Some resources s Point resources are
t med diffuse resource .
large areas so are er . . nificant areal extent on a
highly co~centr~ted ~n~ cov:r :~~~:!.ation required for renewal
map showing rrunera s. ase 0 ( 00l) further sub-divided
or recycle of resources, de Zeeuw 2 .
renewable and non-:-renewable resources into the follo~1ng:
(a) Non-renewable and non-recyclable resources such as fossil
fuels; · I
(b) Non-renewable but recyclable resources such as rrunera s;
(c) Quic~ly renewable resources such as fish;
(d) Slowly renewable resources such as forests;
(e) Environmental renewable resources such as air, water,
soil;
(f) Flow or continuous resources such as sunlight and wind,
the size of which is not reduced as a result of continuous
use.

Flow and environmental renewable resources are not depleted but

always exist. However, environmental resources can be degraded
by pollution and rendered useless.
Natural resources are also categorised based on the stage of
development: Potential Resources are known to exist and may be
used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in Lake Chad
that have sedimentary rocks, but until it is actually drilled out and
put into use, it remains a potential resource. Actual resources are
those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality •,
determined, and are being used in present times. For example,
 Nn11tml Resource Use, £\ploitntio11 and Sustninable Development 295

petroleun~ an~ nat~ral. gas is actively .being obtained from Niger

· De~ta ~g~on t~ . Ntgena. A rese~ve is the portion of a resource
which ts 1dent1f1ed and from which useful materials are extracted
using available technology while that part that cannot be developed
profitably because of lack of technology is called a stock resource.

Concepts of Resource and Resistance

Elements of the physical environment can be regarded as a
resource or resistance. A resistance is a socio-cultural or physical
obstacle that hinders the use of a resource to satisfy human needs.
This includes culture, available technology to exploit and process
the resource, and physical barriers.

Culture and Resources

There are several definitions of culture but the various definitions
have some common elements. Cultural elements such as traditions,
religious beliefs, and taboos affect a people's perception of their
environment. One of the comprehensive definitions of culture
defined it as consisting of people's beliefs (religion, political, and
so on), institutions (legal, educational and government), and
technology (equipment and skills). Culture is therefore, the total
ways of life of a group of people. It is expressed in the way people
communicate, perceive and exploit their resources and art. Culture
influences the ability of people in a society to convert or use
substances in the environment to satisfy human needs. The level of
technological development affects the search for, exploitation and
processing of resources. Primitive societies with low level of
technological development (equipment and skill) have limited
capability to utilise resources or modify their environment
compared to advanced societies.

Types of Natural Resources

Mineral Resources '
Mineral resources are elements, chemical compounds, minerals or
rocks that are concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain
a product that is useful. The finite stock of minerals are non-
renewable. Minerals are not evenly distributed on the earth's
 . · ·~

' . 296 Yhtgigl><r C. A/.:lt1)1crlrl

. on of roads, buildings
surfnee but nrc htlporhtt1t for tho construe t1 f . ,
' · t t'1on The use o mtneral
productH)h of goods, und power transpor a • d . . b
resources in it1dustry un<l co1nmercc is influence . pnman 1Y Y
technology and econon1ic factors. The earth has ninety t~? (92)
naturally occut'rin~ chcmicnl clerncnts but ~ost .0 f the ~rust
contmns· e1ght
· eletncnts: oxygen, st·1·tcon, alum'1n1um ' iron ' ca1c1um
. . . ,
sodiun1. tnagnesimn and potassium. These elements co~bt~e with
the trace clen1cnts to form thousands of minerals each with tts own
properties and distributional pattern around the. world. .
The ocean is a main source of food and mineral supplies. Vast
areas of deep ocean floor are covered by manganese oxid~ nodules
which consist of manganese, iron, secondary copper, nickel and
cobalt. Elements from weathered rocks are transported to the
ocean by rivers, wind or glaciers. Minerals are classified into two:
metallic and non-metallic minerals. Metallic minerals such as
copper, lead, silicon, tin, aluminium and iron occur in ores whjch
contain impurities. Non-n:ietallic minerals include nitrate, sulphur,
slate, building. stone, graphite, quartz, coal and petroleum.
Minerals are discovered, mined, . transported, refined and
manufactured into useful gdods.

Energy Resources
Energy supports life and provides capacity to do work. Energy
consumption is an important index of econo1nic development of a
country. Renewable sources of energy include the sun (solar
ener~y), wind, w~ter (hydro.. electricity), tides and waves. Energy is
obtam~d from biomass which is an organic n1atter (crops, plants
and ammal waste) that can be burnt directly as a fuel or converted
to a. convenient f orn~ and then burnt. Bio1nass refers to energy
o~tamed frotn orgamc n1atter- crops, plants and anin1aI waste.
B~ogas represents the ~arious con1p~sitions of different gases
pt odu~ed due to the act ton of anaerobic n1icro-organisms on raw
1~atcnals s~ch as domestic uncl agricultural wastes within
d1gestcrs: n.1ogas. contains n1ainly n1ethune and other gases like
carbon d1ox1de, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen.
. Non-renewable sources of energy include fossil fuels-crude
OJI, natural gas, coal, oil shales and tar sands. Other sources of
 Nntuml Reso1tl'ce Use, 1~:tJ>loitntio11 a11d Su.rtni11nble Deveiopme111 297

energy include · nuclear enet'gy from Utctnium and thorium.

Geothern1al energy cotnes frotn nalut·af heat from the interior of
the earth in Volcat1i~ . aret\s. ll is Used to generate e]ectricity in
USSR, New Zealand, lcelnhd, Mexico and Ctt1ifornia.
Forest Resources
Forests cover 32o/o of the World's land slltface. · There are
approxi1nately ·2.5 billion and 1.2 billion hectares of closed forest
and open woodlands and savannah. Forests provide · important
products for hun1an use and consumption as well as ecosystem
services. Forests supply wood products such as pulp, · building
materials and wood used for cooking. Non-wood products such as
bark dyes, fibres, gums, incense, latex, oils, tanning compounds,
fruits, nuts and berries are obtained from fores ts. Forests
ecosystem services include control of water runoff, regulation of
local climate. and weather, soil protection, water filtration', and
· carbon sequestration. The increase in demand for land for housing,
urbanisation and cattle ranching has led to destruction of forests.

Water Resources . .
Water is essential for life. It is the .medium in which all living
processes occur. Water dissolves nu.trients and distributes them to
cells, regulates body temperature, supports structures and·removes
waste products (Cunningham and Saigo 1999). Water can be found
in oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers and in other liquid or solid forms .
Water covers more than 70% of the world's surface. The total
amount of water on earth is more than 1, 404 million cu km (370
billion billion gal), out of which 97o/o are in the oceans, 2% in ice
locked up in the polar region and of the remaining l o/o, a large
proportion is trapped in underground reservoirs. Availability of
water determines the location and types of human activities. Since
the water from the oceans are salty, the main source of
freshwater supply for human use is the surface water-lakes,
streams, rivers and groundwater. Groundwater is the source of
water for agricultural and domestic use in several countries.
Overuse of these supplies causes proble1ns such as drying of wells,
natural springs and disappearance of surface water features such as
Wetlands, rivers and.lakes. .
298 Yingiglxr C. Aki11yeml

The global supply of water is fixed and finite. ~ere is

increased pressure on water resources and water shorta.ges m many
areas due to ( 1) natural ·forces: low rainfall, hot wmds. dry up
reservoirs, rivers change their courses; (2) human ~actors: ~ncrease
in detnand, urbanisation, overgrasing, inapproprtate agncultura]
practices allow water to run off, lack of adequate sewage systems
causes contamination of local suppJies.

Biodiversity . .
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the degree of ~anat1on of
life. It encompasses microorganisms, plants, animals and
ecosystems such as coral reefs, fores ts, deserts etc. It refers to the
number or abundance of different species Jiving in a particular
region. Essential elements of biodiversity are genetic diversity,
ecosystem diversity, species diversity and molecular diversity.
Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of different versions
of the genes withiri individual species. Species diversity is the
number of different kinds of plants, animals and organisms within
individual ecosystems. Ecological diversity measures the richness
and complexity of a biological community, including the number
of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes that capture
energy, sustain food webs and recycle materials within this system.
Biodiversity varies globally and within regions due to factors
such as variation in temperature, altitude, precipitation, soils and
their relation with other species. Generally, species diversity
increases from the poles towards the tropics. Tropical moist forests
possess 50% of the world's species while only 10 to 15% live in
North America and Europe. Functions of biodiversity include:
(i) Provision of food for humans and anin1als;
(ii) Wood, firewood, ornamental plants and industrial
materials including fibre, oil, dyes, rubber, timber, paper
~nd food from biological sources support livelihoods and
mcome;
(iii) In traditional medical practices, plants or their extracts
are directly consumed or applied as n1edicines;
(iv) In modem medicine, chen1ical substances extracted from
plants are used in medicines. Several microbial antiviral,
cardio active and neurophysiologic subst~nces are
 ,
Natuml R"sourc·q Use, 1~~'Vl<>itntlo11 nnd S1wninnMt /Jtvtlopmtlll 299

deti~cd frott\ nu•rino fauna. Domesticated animals

prov!dc horn~ones, cnzytncs nnd food products while
fun.gt. u~1d n11crobcs t'tovidc life-saving drugs such as
anttb1oucs;
(v) Biodiversity enhances recreational activities like bird
watching, fishing, trekking, etc;
(vi) Indirect benefits of biodiversity include carbon fixation
thr~ugl~ . photosynthesis; pollination, gene flow;
1nainta~n1ng water cycles, recharging ground water,
protecting watersheds and buffering from extreme
conditions such as flood and drought; soil formation and
protection from erosion; maintaining essential nutrient
cycles; absorbing and decomposing pollutants; regulating
climate at both macro and micro-level; preserving
recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific,
educational, ethical and historical value of natural
environments (Rana 2007).

Soil Resources
Soil is a medium for plant growth. Soil chemists, physicists ~
engineers, geologists and geographers have different viewpoints
about soil. To the geographer, soil is a living body formed by the
interaction of certain forces and the work of certain processes
(Faniran and Ojo 1980). Soil is a living entity that contains living
organisms and is continually being created from the underlying
material as the top is destroyed by agents of erosion. The soil can
be destroyed through the actions of humans. Accelerated erosion
upsets the balance between soil formation and destruction.
Most of the land surface of the earth is covered by a thin layer
of soil ranging from a few centimetres to several metres deep. Soil
is composed of rock and mineral particles, water, air, plants and
animals and their remains. Soil formation is extremely slow. In
areas where the climate is moist and wann, it takes thousands of
years to form few centimetres of soil and longer in cold or dry
climates. Although soil is a renewable resource, its slow rate of
formation makes it irreplaceable.
The main interest of man in soil is for agriculture, but not all
I. soils are suitable for farming. The total land area of the world is
I
hr
 .- --
... ...

300 Ying(~bn C. Aki11y~mi .

. th' half can be used for

ov~r 13 bil~1on h.ectares, · ~UL ·1css an b'llion hectares is
agt'lculture tncludmg grazing. About . 1.4 1 J d · 'th
. · · Th est of the an ts e1 er
Presently smtuble for crop culttvat1on. · er d fi · t · th
f zen or e 1c1en in e
k
too wet or dry, shallow or roe y, toxic, ro
nutrients required by plants.

Characteristics of Resour·ces d h h h
( l) Resources are ,used to. sati.~fy human nee s t roug t e
provision of goods and services. . .. .
(2) An important feature of .resources 1~ ~heir scare.tty.
Scarcity could be in, terms of hm1ted .physical
availability, geoP,olitical dimension (trad~ b~ers n:iay
hinder trade in materials), economtc du~ens1on
'' (limitation in. t~e supply. chain, problems in t_he
distribution or the imperfections of the market) .. ScarClty
also relates to the quality of resources which may
influence the potential b~ilefits of,the resources.
(3) Resource depletion refers to the exhaustion of raw
materials within a region. Depletion of renewable
resources occur when extraction exceeds renewal rate
due to increased demand for goods and services.

Depletion of Re.sources
Resources are important to every economy because they are used
as raw materials ' for the production of goods and services.
Resources also provide environmental services such as sink
function which assimilates and recycles waste products from
production and consumption. However, increased demand for ·
goods and services aided by improved technology has resulted in
increased stress on the environment. Consequently, the life-
sustaining environment has been forced to transform rapidly
causing rapid increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, large
scale 'deforestation, loss of biodiversity, land degradation, water
and air pollution. The overall impact of these problems manifests
as climatic change, depletion of the ozone layer, rise in sea level,
food shortage and famines.
Soi] degradation is due to the process of accelerated erosion
from the action of water, wind and cha~ges in soil structure;
 Nntuml Rnotm:c Ust, 1.;.,p/oi1nti<m mul .'iiwnlnnblt /Jevelopmt 1'f JOI

increase .in s.att content o~ soil by ~ater lo~ging; pollution through

the npphca~ton of chenucat and mdustnnl wastes; loss of soil
minerals (nitrogen, phospl~orus, potassium) and organic matter ara
rate faster than they nre be1~1g replaced. Increase in demand for soil
for non-font~ purposes-~otls are flooded for reservoirs, paved for
highways. airports, parktng lots, etc. All these processes reduce
productive agr~cultural land which affect human food security and
the natural environment.
The n1ajor form of soil degradation is from accelerated erosion.
Erosion is the washing or blowing away of surface soil sometimes
down to bedrock. When erosion occurs without the influence of
man, soil is lost slowly and is replaced through natural processes of
decay and regeneration. Removal of vegetation from soil used for
cultivation, grazing, burning or bulldozing expose soil to the
erosive action of wind and water. Loss of soil taJces place faster
than new soil can be created. Erosion accelerates on steep slopes
and long slopes. Globally, the rate of erosion range from a low of
0.001 t/ha/year on relatively flat land with grass or forest cover, to
rates ranging from 1 to 5 t/ha/year in mountainous regions with
natural vegetation. Worldwide, it is estimated that approximately
75 billion tons of fertile soil are lost from world agricultural
systems each year (Pimentel and Burgess 2013). Effects of erosion
incJude:
(i) Erosion reduces crop yield and increases the cost of crop
cultivation.
(ii) Erosion reduces the capacity of the soil to hold water and
make it available to plants, thereby, crops are subjected
to frequent and severe water stress. .
(iii) Erosion contributes to loss of plant nutrients as th.e top
soil which contains 1nore nutrients than sub-soils ts
washed away with soil particles. Consequently, fertiliser
is required to maintain crop yield. .
(iv) Erosion leads to poJlution of water resources. Erod~d sotl
)
I
is deposited at the foot of slope, in loca.1 dram?ge,
irrigation ditches or runs into ponds, rcscrv01rs, stre,1ms
and rivers. Sediments have to be dug out or dredged from
rivers at high cost.

b
302 Yi11gigbn C. Aki11)1f?n1i • .·

Deforestation, which is the pennanent destruction of

indigenous forests and woodlands represents on.e _of ~he
?
contributing factors to cli1nate change and ·Joss o~ 1odivers1ty.
World forest cover declined from 4128 lo 3999 m1Jhon hectares
between 1990 and 2015 (Food and Agriculture Organisation 2015).
Forests are cleared, degraded and fragmented b.Y timber harvest,
conversion to agriculture, road building, felltng of trees .for
firewood and building material. The consequences of defor~stat1on
include loss of plants and animal species, release of carbon 1n trees
as carbon dioxide due to burning, climate becomes dry as trees
draw groundwater up through their roots and release it in.to the
atmosphere. Cutting of trees expose the soil to sun leading to
increased flooding, silting of rivers, lakes and dams as a result of
soil erosion, decrease in local water quality and desertification.
The earth's biodiversity has been destroyed. So many species
are now threatened, endangered or rare. According to the World
Wild Fund's report (WWF 2014)', 76o/o of freshwater wildlife, 39%
of marine wildlife and 39% of terrestrial wildlife have been lost
globally since 1970. International Union for Conservation of
Nature noted that globally, about one third of all known species are
threatened with extinction; 75% of genetic diversity of agricultural
crops has been lost, 75% of the world fisheries is fully or over
exploited; 70% of the world' s known species is at risk of
extinction if global temperature rise by more than 3.5°C; one-third
of reef-building corals are threatened with extinction; and over 350
million people suffer severe water scarcity.
Although some animal species are increasing, some are stable
?ut the declining populations are decreasing rapidly. Biodiversity
mcreased by I 0% in high-income countries, middle-income
coun.tries experienc~d a loss ?f 18% while it declinP.d by 58% in
low-1nco~e countnes. Low-income countries have the highest
ecosystem losses, but, high income countries consume more
ecolog!cal resour~es t~an nature can replenish such that per capita
eco.l~g1cal f ootprmt 1s greater than the amount of biocapacity
(ab1hty of an ecosystem to produce useful biological materials for
food etc. and to absorb carbon dioxide emissions) available per
person.
 NM11rrtl Re.vo1m:e U.rn, Htplolttrtfrm nnrf Su.rtnlnable Devtlopnut111 303

l)cstruction of biodiversity is du~ to habitat destruction,

climate change. i!1v~sivc species, pollution, human overpopuJation
and over·explottution. Habitat destruction is caused by
deforestation, over·population, pollution and global warming.
Physically large species and those living in forests and oceans are
more affected by reduction of habitat. When a small element of an
ecosysten1 is destroyed, the whoJe system's balance is threatened.
Freshwater ecosystems are the most threatened ecosystems.
Excessive fishing, hunting, logging and illegal trade of wildlife by
humans lead to destruction of ecosystems.
Invasive species are those that are constrained from an
ecosystetn due to the presence of natural barriers. Human activities
destroy the barriers allowing invasive species to invade the
ecosystem thereby destroying native species. Genetic pollution
threaten species through uncontrolled hybridisation and gene
swamping. Abundant species can interbreed with rare species
causing swamping of the gene pool. Global warming is a major
cause of loss of biodiversity. Destruction of coral reefs due to
warming of oceans has caused extensive fish extinction.
Ocean biodiversity which includes mammals (whales,
dolphins, polar bears), birds (penguins) and other creatures have
declined due to de-oxygenation, acidification and warming. These
impacts result to alteration of food web dynamics and expansion of
pathogens. Freshwater ecosystems like ponds, Jakes, rivers,
streams and wetlands cover 15% of the world's continental surface
area. Since 1970, land species abundance has declined by 25o/o
while freshwater spedes declined by 55o/o due to human activities.
Development of water infrastructure such as dams, barrages and
dykes disrupt ecosystems by interrupting the n1igratory routes of
fish as well as the natural movement and settlement of plants and
sediments. Land use change such as deforestation, urban
development and drainage of freshwater bodies, pollution fron1
domestic, industrial and agricultural waste water and intense
extreme events such as flooding and drought are factors that affect
biodiversity.
Climate differs fron1 pince to place and varies with time.
Naturally, weather changes due to orbital variations as the earth

...
 • •• l

304. >'i11gigba C. Akin)'Cmi ,· ' .

rotates around the sun. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC). in 1995, concluded that world climate has
changed significantly over the 1past century mainly due to human
activities. Clitnate tnodels s~tggest that if current trends continue,
global tnean surface air tetnperatures will increase between 1° and
3.5°C (2° and 6°F) by A.O. ,' 2100. Greenhouse gases-carbon
dioxide, tnethane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide from fossil
fuel bunling, ce1nent pr.oduction, burning biomass, burning organic
material, landfills, pipeline leaks and soil denitrification, absorb
infrared radiation and warm the atmosphere. Effects of climate
change include increased flood and drought; loss of biological
diversity due to disappearance of habitats; scarcity of drinking
water and sanitation; decline in food production especially in the
tropics and subtropics, rising sea levels and heavier storm damage
in coastal areas; expansion of tropical habitats of insects increases
infectious diseases; heat stress, increased U.V radiation .and
pollutants suppress disease-fighting immune systems in humans
and animals leading to death; tropical coral reefs would be affected
thereby impacting diverse marine life.

Concept of Sustainability
Sustainability is the process suggested to improve the quality of
human life within the limitations of the global environment. It
involves strategies for improving human welfare that does not
involve degradation of the environment or impinge on the well-
being of others. The Bruntland Conunission in its report 'Our
Common Future' in 1987 defined sustainability "as the ability to
meet the needs of the present without compro1nising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability
measures involve three basic concepts: living within certain limits
?f the eart.h's capacity to maintain life; understanding the
mterconnect1ons among economy, society and environn1ent· and
maintaining a fair distribution of resources and opportunit~ for
present a~d f~t~re ~eneration" (Mensah and Castro 2004).
~ustamab1hty issues are classified into three: social/political,
environmental and econon1ic issues. Fron1 environn1ental
perspective, sustainability is .the ability to 1naintHin rates of
 . ( ..

Nnlllrnl Rt!so11~f! ':Ju, Explnitntlo11 and ~·11stnlnnble Develo/)ment 305

renewable resource harvest, pollution creation, and non-renewable

resource deple~ion th~t c~~ b7 continued indefinitely (Melville
2010). Economic susta1n~b1hty ts ~efin.ed a~ the ability to support a
defined level of economic. production indefinitely (Anat1d and Sen
2000) while social perspective views sustait;1ability as the ability of
a social system to functi~n at a defined level of social well-being
indefinitely (Hutchins and ·Sutherland 2008). To achieve
sustainability, solutions w~ich balance the importance and impacts
of each of the three categories must be 9onsidered as· shown in
figure 12. l (Munasinghe 1993). ' 1, ·

ECONOMIC I
•'
Ematncy
Cro\\ih ....
lotn-gaiaitiocul equity Subility
Tugc«cd miploymca

. OENVIRONMENTAL
SOOAL IntagcntntionaJ equit)' ,. Biodivrnity/Resiliencr
Po\·ttty Populu P"11ticipation Natunl resources
Ccnsultation/Empow~tent PolJuti ~n

CultweHaitagt

Fig. 12.1: Munasinghe•s approach to sustainable development.

I

Another model (fig. 12.2) shows the interaction. amon~ the ~hree
components of environment, economic and s~ctal eqmty with a
middle zone of sustainability which shows the ~nterdep~nden.ce ~f
biological, economic and social ·systems. Jn business, tht~ nollo~ ts
also called the Triple Bottom Line-increasing profits, '1n1provmg
the planet and improving the lives of peop1e.
306 Yingigbn C. Akin)'<!mi . "

Fig. 12.2: Interaction of the three pillars of sustainability.

Measuring Sustainability
The implementation and measurement of sustainable development
must integrate activiti.es in three key areas:
(a) Technical and economic activities ensuring the abilities of
societies to generate jobs, produce goods and services so
as to meet the needs of the increasing population;
(b) Ecological footprint ensuring the protection of natural
resources and the environment;
(c) Social decisions must be socially acceptable in terms of
environmental justice, political realities and community
participation.

Indicators used to measure sustainability are the drivers (processes

contributing to the phenomenon) and the outcomes (the result).
Approaches used to measure sustainable developments are as
follows:
(a) Capital approach to sustainable development looks for a
balance between different categories of capital (financial,
natural, produced, human and social) and the interactions
between them (UNECE 2009). Both the stocks and flows
are monitored through a System of Integrated
Environmental and Economic Accounts. Econo1nists agree
that there is an important positive relationship between
 Narum/ Re.m urce llu, fa1>loltntirm and S1mailrnble fJevl'lopnrent 307

ccon01nic growth and measures of environmental quality.

The concept of weak and strong sustainability refers to the
degree to which 1nan-1nadc and natural forms of capital
can be substituted for one another. In weak substitutability,
there is a high degree of substitution but as the resource
becomes scarce, the benefits of its further use would have
to be greater to justify the use. This concept is based on the
fact that during the early stages of development, as
resources were exploited and income increased, the
environment was degraded. At a critical point however,
environmental quality improve as the higher-income
societies restores the environmental impacts of the early
stages of economic development. This relationship is
depicted in figures 12.3 and 12.4. Man-made capital used
in the early stages of development increases human
knowledge and technology such that there is an optimal
substitution of resources which lead to sustainable
economic growth. Loss of irreversible resources such as
biodiversity are made up for with potential of new
technologies which will lead to greater investments to the
future generation for alternative resources and welfare.

Environmental

quality

Progression of economic gro\vth

Fig. 12.3: Long tenn relationship bNwecn environmental and economic growth.
Source: Ereckson cl al. 1999
· 308 Yingig'bn C. Aki11.\·eml

Dirtct mattlia Twnhig Point Income

inputs
..
Rtsource
En"ironmental
Deterioration
Improvement

Per capita income

1
Fig. 12.4: Yandle, Bhattarai and Vijayaragharan prototype environmental
1

Kuznet' s curve.
I
I

: Strong sustainability is the contrary view that assumes

that two forms of resources are complimentary and not
substitutes for each other. Unlimited substitution between
natural and man-made capital is not possible, so critical
levels of environmental services must be maintained.
I .

I
(b) Several approaches of measuring sustainability focus on
outcome level· estimates of unsustainability. Based on the
concept of natural boundaries, anthropogenic pressures on
the planet are estimated and the tipping point of nine
important earth processes arc defined. These earth
processes are climate change (reflected in C02 emissions
and an energy. imbalance at the Earth's surface), ocean
acidification, ~tratospheric ozone depletion, .atmo~pheric
aerosol loading, biochemical flows (phosphorus and
nitrogen cycles), global freshwater use, land-system
change, biodiversity _J.9ss as well as~.chen1ical pollution.
Beyond the tipping point, changes are uncontrollable.

(c) Another outcorpe level of estimate is the ecological

footprint which estimates the impact of human activity
(both consumption of natural resources and discharged
..... .,

Nnt11rnl Rt'.rntll't'<• Use. r~:v1/n/tallrm mid S11s1nlm1ble 1Jeve/npme111 309

waste that nc~ds to be absor·bed by the eco-systems

~Globul Footpnnt Network 2010). The ecologic footprint
· ~s . n. robust. ~~n)sustain.abllity measure that brings
tt1d1v1dual. acttv1t1es und~r a common denominator-the
area of the land necessary to produce the resources and
absorb the w.a.ste stock reflected in· "global hectares." The
tne~s.ure provide~ '~ cotnp~ehensive implicat~on of human
act1V1ty by outlmmg the trade-offs between different
agendas-meeting the needs of the present or future
genera.tions or between brown and green agendas.

Resource Use and Sustainable Development

In the past, the idea of development was conceived narrowly as
economic growth while social and cultural factors were
overlooked. The concept of 'human d~velopment' was conceived
as an alternative . to development paradigm which focuses on
capital formation determined by levels of savings and investment.
Non-economic elements such as social practices, beliefs, values
and customs are now subjects of. ren~wed interest. Human
development is regarded as ·development that improves people's
Jives and their livelihoods and places human- beings at the centre of
a11 development efforts. It is concerned with enlarging people's
choices-increasing their opportunities for education, health care,
income and a decent standard of living. Other choices include
freedom of expression, association and movement, social justice,
protection against discrimination, and the ability to influence
decision making and contribute to the life of a society (National
Human Development Report 2016).
These choices are influenced by fnctors such as individual
values, skills and abilities, econo1nic and political environment in a
country, access to education and health services as well as
international development. Hu1nan development needs to be
sustainable so that the fulfilment of the needs of cunent people
does not jeopardise the ability of future generations to n1~ct their
own needs. The concept of human develop1nent was designed to
eradicate poverty and hu1nan deprivation.
3 lO Yingigba C. Aki11yemi

Sustainable development is economic development that .seeks

to tneet the needs and aspirations of the present w.1thout
con1promising the ability to those . of fut~1re. Sustamable
de~elopment means achieving a quaht~ ?f ltfe. that c~n be
mamtatned for many generations because. 1~ 1s socially des1~able,
fulfilling people's cultural, material and sp1ntual nee~s m equitable
ways; economically viable, paying for itself wit~ ~o~ts not
exceeding income, and ecologically sustainable, matntammg the
long-term viability of supporting ecosystems.
Sustainable development means using renewable natural
resources in a manner that does not eliminate or degrade them such
as by making greater use of recycled material and greater use of
renewable resources, for example, solar and geothermal energy. It
means regulating economic systems so that resources are used
optimally and benefits of development are distributed equitably
(Knox, Agnew and McCarthy 2008). It involves organising
societies so that improved education, healthcare and social welfare
can contribute to environmental awareness and sensitivity and
improved quality of life. It entails a shift from globalisation toward
increased 'localisation'-locally based economy where production,
I
consumption and decision making are oriented to local needs and
conditions.
Concerns for sustainability of human development was
prioritised in the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169
targets adopted at the United Nations summit on 25 September,
2015, in response to prevailing problems of extreme poverty,
natural resource depletion, climate change and unemployment in
the world as the survival of cities and biological support systems of
the planet are at risk. The goals, which are expected to stimulate
action over the next 15 years builds on the Millennium
Development Goals. It emphasises the conservation and
sustainable use of oceans and seas, freshwater resources, forests,
mountains, drylands as well as protection of biodiversity,
ecosystems and wildlife.
Strategies of achieving sustainable development rely heavily
on substitution of natural resources in production and consumption
with man-made inputs. Technological change could be a threat
(resource using technological change) or solution (more efficient
 Natttml H<'JOtllt't' Use, l:.:,11/oitmlm1 mid St1stni1'rtbte /Jevelopment 311

resourc~ us~, .ctcan technologies ~rad resource-saving technologies)

to sustnmnbthty. Technology options which results in efficient use
of resources need t.o be adopte.d in developing countries. Although
developed ~ottt~tnes ~uve •.mprovcd ttcchnologies, they are
concerned wtth 1ncreas111g their profits rather than implementing
environn1ental policies.
Obstacles to sustainable development include continued heavy
reliance on fossil fuel as source of energy for economic
developrnent, population growth in less developed countries, and
inadequate institutional frameworks. Use of fossil fuels perpetuates
international inequalities and cause global problems such as global
wanning and climatic change. Renewable energy resources such as
solar energy, tides, waves, hydroelectric energy have been pursued
half-heartedly because of the interests of p'owerful governments
that control fossil fuel resources. Large population, in less
developed and developing countri.es suffer from hunger and
malnutrition. Sustainaple development can o~ly be feasible when
population growth is in harmony with changing productive
capacity of the ecosystems.

Conclusion
This chapter examined the classification and characteristics of
resources which includes utility, scarcity and exhaustion.
Sustainable use of resources is key to achieving economic
development that will meet the needs of present and future
generations. Sustainable development requires the integration of
economic, financial and fiscal decisions to environmental and
ecological decisions. National and local governments need to have
institutional structures and collective decisions from various
sectors on resource utili sation.

Revision
(a) A resource is a part of the environment used to satisfy
human need.
(b) A resource can be classified on the bases of its abundance,
origin, geographic concentration and stage of develop-
ment.
31 2 }';ngi~/>cr C. Aki11)•cmi

(c) Concept of sustainability is. viewed from three

pel·spectives: social/political, environmental and economic
perspectives. .
(d) Sustainable development is economic development that
n1eets the needs of the present and does not eliminate or
degrade natural resources in the envir~nment. .
(e) Environmental problems associated with unsustamable use
of resources include deforestation, loss of biodiversity,
global warming and climate change.

References
Anand, S. and A. Sen. 2000. Human development and economic
sustainability. World Development 28(12): 2029-2049.
Cunningham, W.P. and B.W. Saigo. 1999. Environmental Science: A
Global Concern. McGraw-Hill Book Company, United States of
America.
de Zeeuw, A.J. 2001. Resource Management: Do we need Public Policy?
Brussels: European Commission.
Ereckson, O.H., O.L. Loucks and N.C. Strafford. 1999. "The Concept of
Sustainability" In Sustainability Perspectives for Resources and
Business. U.S.A.: 3-21.
Faniran, A. and 0. Ojo. 1980. Man's Physical Environment: An
lntennediate Physical Geography. London: Heinemann.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2015. Global
forest resources assessment 2015. FAQ, Rome. http://www.fao.org/
3/a-i4808e.pdf Accessed 3 April 2018.
Hutchins, M.J. and J.W. Sutherland. 2008. An exploration of measures of
social sustainability and their application to supply chain decisions.
Journal of Cleaner Production 16(5): 1688-1698.
Global Footprint Network. 2010,, The State of the Art in Ecological
Footprint Theory and Applications. Academic Conference Short
Communications, Colle Val d'Elsa 9th-10th June 2010, ed.
Bastianoni, S.
Knox, P., J. Agnew and L. McCarthy. 2008. The geography of the world
economy. London: Hodder Education.
Melville, N.P. 2010. Information systems innovation for environmental
sustainability. MIS Quarterly 34(1): 1-21.
 .
Nnrurnl Resourcl' Use, l:.:\'p /oifnfinn muf S11!itni11nblr. D evelopment 31 3

Mensah, A.M. and L.C. Castro. 2004. Sustainable Resource Use and
Sustainable Development: A Contradiction? htips://www.zef.de/file
admi11/downloads/forumldocprogl. ..12004. . .3b_Mensah_Castro.pd
Accessed 4 April 2018.
Munasinghe, M. 1993. Environmental economics and biodiversity
management in developing countries. Ambio 22(2-3): 126-135.
National Human Development Report for Nigeria. 2016. United Nations
Development Programme.
Pimentel, D. and M. Burgess. 2013. Soil erosion threatens food
production. Agriculture 3(3): 443-463.
Rana, S.V.S. 2007. Essentials of ecology ai1d environmental science.
Prentice-Hall, New Delhi.
UNECE. 2009. Measuring Sustainable Development. Prepared in
cooperation with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development and the Statistical Office of tbe European
Communities (Eurostat).
World Wild Fund. 2014. "Living Planet Report".
 13
CURRENT DISCOURSE IN PEACE AND
CONFLICT STUDIES
A.L Alabi, and T.A. Joshua and Ojuge Folorunsho

Introduction
Peace. a~d. conflict .studi~s is essentially navigated through an
interd1sc1plmary social science and humanistic approach which
incorporates elements of. sociology, political science, philosophy,
history, psychology, social anthropology, geography, economics
and religious studies. However, this chapter provides the basic
introduction to peace and conflict resolution with the aim of
familiarising students with the origins of peace and conflict studies
in tertiary institutions and the prominent concepts that have
evolved as part of the current discourse in peace and conflict
resolution studies. This introductory discourse will provide
students with basic knowledge, language and skills for
understanding conflict situations and appreciating the opportunities
in peace. With the aid of a case study, the chapter will also equip
students with critical thinking on peace building and conflict
resolution for future explorations.

The Origins and Development of Peace and Conflict Studies

The literature on the origins and development of peace and conflict
studies establish that the academic and professional fields of study
that is now known as 'peace and conflict resolution studies' were
born simultaneously, as 'peace research' and 'conflict studies,' but
separately. The primary focus of 'peace research' w?s the
'prevention of conflicts and maintenance of peace,' \vhtle the
primary focus of 'conflict studies' was the 'settling of dispute.s and
sustenance of peace.' Both arc thus fundamentally and logtcally
interwoven (Robben and Ferrandiz 2007; Glenditsch et al. 20 14;
Rasbotham et al. 2011 ).
~ 16 A.I .. Ala/Ji, muf 7:A. Jm/11w mid V}ul(<' rolont11JIW

. ,
Peace Resenrch
Robben and Ferrandiz (2007) ascribe the origins of ~ace st~dies
to the n1oral reflections of leading politicians and intemattonal
states1ncn such as Woodrow Wilson, Georges Clemenceau and
David Lloyd George on the massive human and social. costs ~f ~he
First World War (WWI). It was estimated that eight milhon
soldiers died in cotnbat while another two million went missing in
action. The appreciation of that avoidable colossal loss to the
hmnan race and the thinking that human kind should never again
engage in that type of costly warfare led to the foundation of the
League of Nations in 1919. Following this, there was a
simultaneous development of peace research studies m
Scandinavian universities in the 1950s.
As noted by Glenditsch et al. (2014), although war and peace
had always been key issues in the academic field of international
relations, it was only . in the 1950s that calls arose for the
systematic investigation of the conditions of peace as a special
academic field or even a separate discipline. Thus, the
multidisciplinary study of peace by social and political scientists
emerged in contrast to the field of war studies which was
dominated by military scholars. Over time, that initiative of peace
studies evolved into the complex field of peace studies which is no
longer narrowly concerned with war and peace between states, but
has branched into areas such as human rights, human security,
transitional justice, violence prevention, peace building,
reconciliation, identity formation and cultural trauma (Robben and
Ferra~diz 2007).

Conflict Studies
The academic study of conflict resolution started as a defined field
of study in North America in the 1950s and 1960s. This was at the
height of the cold war when the development of nuclear weapons
and the conflict between the superpowers seen1ed to threaten
human survival (Rushotham et al. 2011 ). Academics, concerned
about the nuclear anns race and about humnn conditions more
generally, founded the Jo11r11al of Conflict Resolutio11 in 1957, and
the Centre for Conflict Resolution at the University of Michigan,
 ,
Current Discourse in Ptnce nnd Conflict Studies 317

USA, in I?S? (~lenditsch et aJ. 2014). A group of pioneers from

dl·f[erent d1sctphnes
. h saw
. the
.1 value of studying
. confJi'ct as a genera
1
P henomenon wit s1m1 ar properties whether it occu ·
. I I . d . rs in
internatt~~a re atto~~' omesttc politics, industrial relations,
comm~mttes or f~m1hes, or between individuals. They saw the
potential of applymg ~pproa~he.s that were evolving in industrial
relations and community med1atton settings to conflicts in general
including civil and international conflicts. '
These new ideas of conflict resolution began to attract interest
and the field began to grow. A handful of people in North America
and Europe began .to establi~h resear~h groups to develop the new
ideas. Scholarly Journals 1n conflict resolution were created.
Institutions to study the field were established and their number
rapidly increased and spread across nation-states and continents.
The field of conflict resolution studies developed its own sub-
divisions, and by the 1980s, conflict resolution ideas were
increasingly making a difference in real conflicts. For example, in
South Africa, the Centre for Intergroup Studies was applying the
approaches that had emerged in conflict studies to the developing
confrontation between apartheid and its challengers, with
impressive results. In the Middle East, a peace process was getting
underway in which negotiators on both sides, that is, Israel and the
Arab nations, had gained experience of each other and of conflict
resolution through problem-solving workshops. In war-torn
regions of Africa and South-East Asia, development workers and
humanitarian agencies were seeing the need to take account of
conflict and conflict resolution as an integral part of their activities
(Rasbotham et al. 2011).

Merger of the Ideas .

With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the cold war which had
dominated the international system ended. This ~rofoundly shi.fted
the attention of the international cotnmunity to internal conflacts,
ethnic conflicts, secessionist movements and power struggles
within nation-states which had become widespread up to the
1990s. At their extremes, the emergent internal ~onfli~t~ .witnes~ed
the return of mercenary armies and underpaid m1ht1as which
3t 8 JtL Alabi, mid 1~A ..loJ/111<1 "'''' Ojuge 1;u/orn11.tlto

preyed on civilian populations and international aid and relief

tnatcrials diverted by covert criminal international networks. In
this new clitnate . u richer cross-fertilisation of ideas developed
between academi~s in the fields of 'peace research' and 'con~ict
studies;, including practitioners and statesmen from vano.us
backgrounds who were attracted to peace building and conflict
resolution (Rasbothatn et al. 2011).
International statesmen began to use the languages of. "p~ace
building" and "conflict resolution"; and international orgamsat1ons
such as the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE) and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
consequently set up peace building and conflict resolution
mechanisms and conflict prevention centres. Countries and
individuals also began to set up Non-Governmental Organisations
(NGOs) that focused on peace building and conflict resolution. The
Jimmy Carter Centre and the Nyerere Foundation are examples.
There was significant overseas development ministries in several
countries which set up conflict units and were funding peace
building and conflict prevention and resolution initiatives on a
considerable scale. International financial institutions such as the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank also took
on peace building and conflict resolution roles. In fact, the
prevention of violent conflicts became a central goal for the
international community in the new millennium. Finding out how
to achieve peaceful settlement of disputes between states became a
familiar theme in contemporary literature on international relations
and strategic studies (Ras both am et al. 2011 ). These socio-political
developments established the fields of 'peace research' and
'conflict studies', and they became a robust field of academic and
professional endeavour; with many sub-divisions and areas of
specialisation being floated in mnny universities across nation-
states and continents.

The Concept of Conflict

A basic understanding of conflict provides the starting point for the
appreciation of peace. This is so especially when peace is basically
taken as the absence of conflict and the extreme conditions that
 C11rre111 /Jlsco11 rse i11 /'en er nnd Conflict S111d/e.f 319

provoke c?ntlicts .. G~neral.ty.' c?nfiict is a universal feature of

human society, taking tls ongms m economic differentiation social
change, cultu~al . formation, psychological developme~t and
political or~a~tsatton. These are all . inherently conflicting and
t>ecome exhtbtt~d through the format1on of conflict parties with
mutually opposing goals. Coser (1956) defines conflict as the
struggle over values or claims to status, power and scarce
resources, in which the aims of the individuals or groups involved
are to neutralise, injure or eliminate rivals. He expatiates further
that th.e occurr~nce ~f conflict must involve two or more parties
with mcompat1ble interests, or who perceive and/or pursue
incompatible goals; and who express hostile attitudes or pursue
their interests through actions that damage the other.
The parties to the conflict may be individuals, small or large
groups or countries. Interests can be divergent in many ways. The
areas of conflicting interests usually include issues of
inaccessibility to and poor distribution of common resources (e.g.
'territory, money, energy resources, food, etc), inability to control
political power and lack of participation in political decision-
making; loss of identity (cultural, social and political
communities); or values, particularly those embodied in systems of
government, religion or ideology (Payson Conflict Group 2001 ).
The identity of the conflicting parties, the levels at which the
conflict is contested, and the issues surrounding the struggle may
vary over time and may themselves be disputed. Conflicts are
dynamic as they escalate and de-escalate, and are constituted by a
complex interplay of attitudes and behaviours that can assume a
reality of their own. As the conflicts develop, third parties are
tlikely to become involved and may themselves thereby become
'parties in an extended conflict (Rasbothnm et al. 2011).

Types of Connict
There are various types of conflict, some of which include: pseudo
conflict, conflict of interests, vnlue conflict, goal conflict, conflict
of perception, role conflict, and resource conflict. However, witt~in
the field of international relations, three general types of conflict
have been identified by Wallcnstcen (2002). These are: (a) inter-
 320 A.l. Mnbi, and 1:A, Joslwn mid Oj11ge Folon111sl10

state conflict; (b) internal conflict; and (c) state-formation conflict.

Inter-state conflicts nre international conflicts or disputes between
nation-states or violation of the state system of alliances. Internal
conflicts are civil crises and ethnic wars: State-formation conflicts,
seen as a variant of internal conflict, include: anti-colonial
struggles, secessionist and autonomy movements, territorial
disputes, and battles over . the control of government. Other
scholars classify internal conflict variants into: intra-group conflict,
inter-group conflict, and national conflict. Apart from these three
forms of conflict mentioned above, there are also 'global conflicts'
where non-state groups combat international and regional
organisations. However, the international community has become
increasingly concerned with the rise in frequency and intensity of
internal conflicts which are contributing to the expanding nature,
sophistication, and at times, legitimisation of interventionist
policies (Rasbotham et al. 2011).

Some Theoretical Perspectives on the Causes of Conflicts

Theories on the causes of conflict fall within two broad categories,
namely: (1) a combination of social and psychological matters; and
· (2) issues related to structural and political economy (McCandless
2007).

Social a11d Psychological Matters: Agency

According to McCandless (2007), theories that fall into this
category locate causes of conflict at the level of individual or
collective agency. That is, they are based on human behaviour.
These theories underscore perceptions and misconceptions as
ca~ses of conflicts. The f olJowing streams of argument are the
mam substance of this category:
(i) Aggressive .behaviour is innate and biologicaJly
programmed m the human species;
(ii) !J1edifferentiation between 'self' and 'other' manifests
m the psych.ological need for enemies, representing a
psychoanalyt1cal perspective;
(iii) The. processes of group formation and differentiation-
part1cularly the role that images, perceptions,
 C11rre111 Discourse ;,, Pence and Conjlict Studies
321

., misperceptions, stereotyping and dehu . . . .

decision tnaking-lead to violent conn%~ntsat1on pl~y m
psycho-social perspective. ' representmg a

Drawing on several of these theories in the 1990 , ·

fl· ' d '· d t' t fl· ' b s, ethnic
con ict 'ban t en t Yfl.con. tct • ecame commonly used concepts
to descn e many con tcts 1n Afnca (McCandless 2007).

StrUctural and Political Econoniy

foJlowi~g McCandless' (2007) readings, this category involves
explanations that assume tha~ ~he organisations of society itself
create the causes of and cond1ttons for conflicts. Such theoretical
approaches focus on the general forces of society and dynamics at
play. Galtung's structural violence illustrates an early example of
this orientation, where unequal social structures produce unequal
access to resources for different social groups. Structural theories
have experienced resurgence in the 1990s in international political
economy and war economy literatures. The international political
economy challenges non-liberal economic theory, maintaining that
global political and economic processes contribute to systemic
conflicts. International political economy elaborates the functions
of conflict foe different actors and considers who benefits from
war, as well as the internal socio-economic and political processes
underpinning complex humanitarian emergencies and the ways in
which societies are re-ordered in the process (Duffield 1988; Keen
1998; Goodhand and Hulme 1999).

Conflict-related Concepts, Balancing the Two General

Perspectives .
McCandless (2007) analysed other conflict-related concepts which
balance the two general theoretical perspectives ?iscussed above.
Based on his reading, he comes up with the followmg:
(a) Protracted Social Co11jlict (PSC): This is a concept advanc~d
by Edward Azar that focuses on religious, cultural, or ethnic
communal identity ~P~otracted social connicts are dependent u~on
the dissatisfaction of basic (developmental) needs, s.uch as s~cunty,
communal recognition and distributive justice. This explams that
I
-322 A.L Alnbi, nnd 'T:A. Jo1/1tm mrd Ojuge Folorrmslro
'

long"":tenn .unmet psycho-political and socio-economic needs lead

to dysfunctional cognitive and behaviour~) p~ttems that are not
easily remedied by ordinary methods of diplomacy or the use of
force. Following that line of analysis, the causes of protracted
social conflicts include:
(i) Communal Content that is, a generic reference to
politicised groups whose members share et~n!c, religious,
linguistic or other cultural identity cha~actensttcs; .
(ii) Deprivation of Hunian Needs, that 1.s' 1.ack. of. physical
security, access to political and social 1nst1tut1ons, and
acceptance of communal id(fntity, which is largely a result
of social, political and economic interactions; .
(iii) The State and Govenzance, that is, the role of these m
engendering or preventing protracted social conflict by
depriving or satisfying basic needs;
(iv) lntenzational linkages, that is, such linkages as economic
dependency within the international economic system,
along political and military client relationships with strong
states, whereby the patron provides protection in return for
the client's loyalty.

It is noted that protracted social conflicts occur usually in

developing countries where the situation is worsened by
circumstances of extreme poverty which creates demoralised and
under-resourced populations. This often incapacitates individuals
from being able to solve social problems effectively. However,
rapid growth-oriented economic development strategies may
exacerbate the problems, thereby increasing poverty, inequality
and duality between modem and traditional sectors and
marginalisation. This convergence contributes to different patterns
of communal discrimination that takes effect as protracted social
conflicts (Azar 1990).

(b) Co111plex Political E111erge11cies (CPE): This is a descriptive

category developed by Jonathan Goodhand and David Hulme that
provides shorthand expression for many, often dissimiJar conflicts
that combine the following features :
 CurtemlDiscoltr.re ;,, /'enc(' mul C()11j1/ct Sturlles
323

(i) They are connicts Within und across st· t b d .

· I . e oun anes
1nak1ng. t ietn a hybrad. form of conn1'ct th at ts
i "
. ne1t. her'
I
• . y .mtcr-state
pure . d conflict nor confined wi'th'in th e norma 1
1nsututtona1tse ru 1cs and procedures of d ·
conflict management; omestic
(ii) They .h.ave political origins and causality. The
cornpe~1tton for power and scarce resources is the central
dynan11c; I
(iii) Tl~~y ~re prot1:acted in ~uration, with enduring features
mt htat1ng agamst a quick return to nonnal level of
societal physical violence;
(iv) Th~~ are characte?sed b~ social cleavages encompassing
poht1cal, econotruc, social and cultural dimensions of
society, and the lives of the people who are a part of
them characterise the conflict;
(v) They involve predatory social formations, often ethno-
nationalist in nature, characterised by strong feelings of
loyalty for one group and antipathy towards other social
groups within the same state. These groups are often
mobilised and manipulated by conflict entrepreneurs and
political opportunists (Goodhand and Hulme 1999).

The Concept of Peace

There are negative and pos1t1ve conceptions of peace in
contemporary literature. The negative conception which sees peace
as absence of conflict, is not different from a situation of non-war,
that is, neither war nor peace, but 'yet-to-be-violent' tensed
situation or hostile environment (Miller 2005). The positive
conception of peace considers peace as a political condition that
ensures justice and social stability through formal and informal
institutions, practices and norms. In this regard, the definition of
peace is based on four concepts, namely:
(a) peace as harmony, stressing the absence of conflict;
(b) peace as order, stressing stability and peace through '
strength;
(c) peace as justice, stressing absence of domination and
poverty; and
----- -· - "'"···

324 A.l Alnbi, and 1~A. Joslum n1td Ojuge Folonms/10

(d) pence ns conflict 1nunagement, stressing peace ·as pr~cess

for obtaining interests and needs rather than as end m itself
(Payson Conflict Group 2001).

o!
Under the positive conception, there are a number conditions
that must be met for peace to be achieved and sustamed. These
include:
(a) Balance of political power among the various groups
within a society, region, or most ambitiously, the world;
(b) Legitimacy for decision makers and implementers of
decisions in the eyes of their" respective groups, as well as
those of external parties, duly supported through
transparency and accountability;
(c) Recognised and valued inter-dependent relationships
among groups fostering long-term co-operation during
periods of agreement, disagreements, normality, and crisis;
(d) Reliable and trusted institutions for resolving conflicts;
(e) Sense of equality and respect, in sentiment and in practice,
within and without groups and in accordance with
international standards
(f) Mutual understanding of rights, interests, intents and
flexibility despite incompatibilities (Miller 2005).

In the above sense, peace connotes more than an absence of

war or hostilities. Importantly, we must note that an absence of
conflict is impossible in human societies. Peace is notoriously
elusive. In addition, the state of peace should be distinguished from
techniques that simply avoid conflicts or violent or coercive
approaches to engage in, manage or resolve conflicts. In summary,
while positive conception of peace outlines the conditions that
must be met for peace to be achieved and sustained, as listed
above, negative conception of peace is mostly described as the
mere absence of war or violence despite the existence of mutually
antagonistic goals, interests and values (Galtung 1990).
 ,
Current IJi.rrnttrsr ;,, /ltaa flfltl ( ' .n· 1,
A >nptrf •llt1<llt's 325

S n1e Con1mon Te1·n1s In Pence Studies

p~ce Buildi'1g
(i) The . employ1nent of measures. to consoli'd ate peace fu
1
rclattons and create. an environment that deters the
emergence
. or escalation of tensions which may Iead to
con fl 1ct.
(ii) The effo!1 to promote hu~an security in societies marked
by conflict. The over~rchmg go.al of peace building is to
strengthen the capactty of societies to manage conff t
.h . I IC
wit ~ut v10 ence, as a means to achieve sustainable human
secunty.

Peace Enforce111ent
(i) The application of military force or threat of its use
nonna~ly pursu~nt to international authorisation, to compei
comphance with generally accepted resolutions or
sanctions to maintain or restore peace and support
diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement.
The primary purpose of peace enforcement is the
restoration of peace under conditions broadly defined by
the international community.
(ii) The use or threat of the use of armed force as provided for
in Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter aimed at
restoring peace by military means such as in Korea in
1950-1953. It can take place without the agreement and
support of one or all of the warring parties. It can refer to
both an inter-state and intrastate conflict, to (serve) the
mitigation of a humanitarian emergency or in situations
where the organs of state have ceased to function. Peace
enforcement actions include carrying out international
sanctions against the opposing sides, or against the s~de
that represents the driving force in the armed conflict;
isolating the conflict and preventing arms deliveries to the
area, as well as preventing its penetration. ~y ar~ed
formations. It also includes delivering air or 1n1sslle strikes
on positions of the side that refuses to halt its military
actions; and rapid deployment of peace forces to the
 326 AL. Alttbi, nuil T.A. Jos/i11n n11d Ojuge Folonm.r/10

cmnbat zones in numbers sufficient to carry out the

assigned missions, including the localising of the con~ict
and the disarrning or eradicating of any armed formattons
that refuse to cease fighting.
Peace Operatiot1s: The umbrella term which encompasse~ three
types of activities, namely: activities with pred?rrunately'
diplotnatic orientation, (preventive diplomacy, pe~cemak1ng, p~ace
building); and two complementary, predorrunantly rruhtary
activities, namely peacekeeping and peace enforcement.

Peacekeepi11g Operations: This is a common term used for various

types of activities, such as to resolve conflict; prevent conflict
escalation; halt or prevent military actions; to uphold law and order
in a conflict zone; conduct humanitarian actions; restore social and
political institutions whose functioning has been disrupted by the
conflict; and restore basic conditions for daily living. The
distinctive feature of peacekeeping operations is that they are
conducted under a mandate from the United Nations or regional
organisations whose functions include peace support and
international security.

· Some Common Terms in Conflict Resolution

(a) Conflict Resolution
(i) A process that transforms conflicts in an enduring
~anner rather than settling disputes or suppressing
differences. It addresses basic human needs and buildino
qu~li~ies of sustainable ~elationships between group;
This is done through creating structural mechanisms that
involve~ equality amo~g identity groups, multi-
c~ltu~ahsm, and federalism as appropriate to each
situation.
(ii) Effiarts to increase. coopera.tion among parties to conflict,
and . ~eepen their relationship by addressing the
cond1t1ons th~t Jed to dispute. It fosters positive attitudes
and ~llays mistr~st. through reconciliation initiatives. It
also involves bu1Jdmg or strengthening the institutions

(
 Currcm Di.vco11r,fe 111 Peace and Couflkt Studie.r . 327

:md pr~csscs through which the parties interact. Connict

resolution cat~ be used lo reduce the chances of violence
or to consoltdat~ the cessation of violent connict to
prevent rc-escalat1on.

(b) Peace a11~ Conflict b11pact Assessme11t Syste111 (PC/AS):

Method to estimate and evaluate the negative effects of conflict
escalation .. Early warning. systems t.hat alert potentially affected
parties of increased conflict escalation risks should also inform
their audiences of the costs that a wait-and-see policy is likely to
incur.

(c) Co11flict Mitigation!Manage1nent

(i) Efforts to contain and reduce the amount of violence
used by parties in violent conflict and engage them in a
process to settle the dispute and terminate the violence.
(ii) The reduction or minimisation of violent acts normally
targeted toward a specific group in order to compel
restraint and restore calm.

(t{) Conflict Prevention: Actions, policies, procedures or

institutions utilised in vulnerable places and times to keep states or
gl-oups from threatening or usi ng armed force and related forms of
coercion to settle di sputes. Also refers to actions taken after a
violent conflict to avoid recun-ence.

(e)i Post-conflict Peace building: Multi-dimensional, multi-layer

actions and programmes undertaken to address the root causes of a
conflict with a view to preventing relapse of conflict and to
promote sustainable peace.

if) Preventive Diplo111acy: The provision of skilled assistance

through good offices, 1nediation and the like in order to rcs?lve
disputes well before the likelihood of eruption into armed conflict.

(g) Early Warning: The systematic collection and analysis of

information co mi no0 from areas of crises for the purpose of
~~R .U .. Mnl1i. mtd T.r\. 11>.tlmn mid OjttRt" l•'olo11111tlrr>

:mticipaling the escalation of violent conflict. Thi~ involves the

develop1ncnt of strntegic response to these cnscs and the
presentation of options to critical actors for the purpose of decision
n1aking.

(h) Interactive Co11j1ict Resol11tio11: Involves small group

proble111·solving discussions between unofficial representatives of
identity groups or states engaged in destructive conflict facilitated
by an in1partial third party, group or panel of social
scientists/conflict resolution practitioners.
(i) Prei1entive Peace building or Pre-conflict Peace building:
Refers to the conscious use of relief and sustainable development
resources to strengthen conflict-prone societies' capacities to
resolve disputes through non-violent methods. Sustainable
development initiatives in the areas of humanitarian assistance,
economic growth, democracy and environment are designed with a
framework to address the root causes of conflict in violent-prone
environments. Special care is also given to ensure that sustainable
development initiatives are designed and implemented to avoid
exacerbating or creating violent-prone disputes.

(j) Preventive Diplomacy

(i) Action taken in vulnerable places and times to avoid the
threat or use of armed forces and related forms of
coercion by states or groups to settle political disputes
that can arise from the destabilising effects of economic.,
social, po)jtical, and international change.
(ii) Measures taken to prevent the breakdown of peaceful
conditions. It aims to prevent existing tensions from
escalating into violence and to contnin the spread of
conflict when it occurs.

(k) Pre.ve1~tlve Strategies,· .Effectiv.e preventive strategies rest on

three pnnc·1ples: early reactton to signs of trouble requiring early
detection ~nd skilled annlysis of developing trends; a
comprehensive, balanced approach to alleviate pressures that
 Currr111 lJi.rcvur.re ;,1 /'eau 111
d (' .
' -011j11c1 Stur/in 329

. ger violent conOict and an cffcctive rcspo , . .

tn~rdinnted range of po1iticul, economic S~lci~se , rcdqu1r~~g a
C0
asures· an d .1n
' ex l en dcu
., . I -,f'j' . ' '
c ot t to resolve the ut dcln .mJ)tfary
me es of ' Vto. 1encc.., T wo su ll-catcgorics can bn er 1ymg root
· 'd .
caUs . · · · c 1 cnt1ficd·
perational prevention 111casures applicable in th f ·
~ ,. cdiatecrisis; and structural prevention mc·isurcs t e ace of
IOL01 • • I r· . 0 ensure that
t •
crises do not ansc 111 t te 1rst place or, 1f they uo, that they do not
recur.
Some Other Con1n1on Terms .
'a)
\!
A-lediatio11:
• •
A problem-solv1ng negotiation process in wh'1ch an
outside, nnpartta 1 1
. , neutra. fparty works with disputants to aSS ·IS t
I
them in reac.11ng a satis. actory negotiated agreement. Unlike
judges or arbitrators, 1ne~iators have no authority to decide the
dispute between the parties: Instead, the parties empower the
mediator to help resolve the issues. The assumption is that a third
party will be able to alter the power and social dynamics of the
conflict relationship by influencing the beliefs and behaviour of
individual parties, by providing knowledge or information, or by
using a more effective negotiation process and thereby helping the
participants settle contested issues.

(b) Mediation Process: Typically proceeds through four stages:

creating the forum or bargaining framework; information gathering
and sharing; problem-solving bargaining; and decision making

(c) Power Mediation: A process in which an intermediary provides

the functions of pure mediation and adds the use of leverage in the
form of promised rewards or threatened punishment to move the
parties toward a settlement.

(d) Pure Mediation: A process through which a skilled

intermediary attempts to facilitate a negotiated settlement on a. set
of specific substantive issues through the use of reasomng,
persuasion, control of information and suggestion, helping the
parties to arrive at mutually acceptable solutions.

I
h
:no A.l .. Alltbi. mul 't:t\ . Jo.tlwn rr11d Vj11g<} Polonuu/uJ

(c) Reco11cilintio11.• The pt·occss through whi~h con~it!ons t~at l~ad

to conflict nrc nddrcsscd und advcrsanal r~lattonsh1ps a~e
transfonned into 1norc harmonious ones. Sustamable peace is
tnaintaincd as cmnmunitics use nonviolent channels to resol~e
contlict, a sense of nationhood is established or restored, and social
capital is enhanced.

(f) Reco11str11ctio11
(i) The permanent reconstruction or replacement oy severely
dan1aged physical structures, the fulJ resto~att?n ?f all
services and local infrastructure, and the rev1tahsatton of
the economy. . .
(ii) Economic, political and social . re-bu_1ld1ng of . P?St-
conflict state and society, including de-rrumng,
disarmament, reintegration of combatants, return of
refugees, resettlement of internally displaced persons,
reviving political processes, restoring physical
infrastructures, re-starting economic life, conversion to
civilian production, re-establishing civilian a~thority, and
conducting new (supervised) elections.

(g) Capacity Building: The development of individual and

collective abilities or capacities to transform conflict from violence
into a positive, constructive force. Collectively, capacity building
also includes the development of institutions, both state and non-
state, which allow society to handle conflict in non-violent ways.

(h) Compr0111ise: A settlement of differences in which each party

makes mutual concessions for the purpose of reaching an
agreement. It also refers to an agreement blending qualities
mid way between two different things. Politicians constantly make
coi:npromi se~ to keep the widely divergent groups in society
sati sfied. Without compromise, it is difficult to reach agreements
and keep government running.

(i) Co11cili"tio~1: T!1e process by which two sides in a dispute agree

to a compromise. fhe agreement has to be voluntary; the process
 Current /)iscoitrse ;,, f>e~ce mrrl Co11j1lc1Studies 33 J

f conciliation, unlike arbit~·ation, docs not compel the disputants

0
cept the proposed solution.
to ac
') co11cilia~or: . A trusted third P.arly who provides a
0 nitnunicat1on lmk
co I
between the antagonists to assist in identifying
. . .
ma1or issues, owermg lenston, and tnovmg them toward direct
tIle ~ . II . . (P
interaction, typtca y negottatton. ayson Conni ct Group 2001;
Miller 2005).

ease Study: Nigeria's Niger Delta Militancy and Federal

Response
(Students are to take note of the peace and conflict resolution
concepts and terms marked in bold italics in the case study). The
Niger Delta region provides the most economic revenue to the
Nigerian state. It accounts for 80% of the national wealth by virtue
of oil exploration and sale. .

Fig. 13.1: Map of Nigeria numerically showing srntcs typically considered part
·- -o~ the Niger Delta region: l. Abia, 2. Ak~a Ibom. 3. Bayel. a, 4. Cross
River, 5. Della, 6. Edo, 7. Imo, 8. Ondo, 9. Ri vers.

l
 332 A.L Alnbi, and 1:A. Joshua a11d,0)11ge Folonmslw

Against the incontrovertible evidences of extreme poverty,

·
une1nploy1nent, water pollutton, ·
env1ronm ental degradation
. . .and
.
I govenunent neglect of the Niger Delta .area, the eth~tc mmonties
in the Niger Delta region continue to agitate for incr~as~d share of
I 1
I

I the oil wealth and resource control. The ag1~ations later

deteriorated into youth 1nilitancy and cri~in~Jities which shook the
economic and political fabric of the. N1genan state. An a~esty
progranune established by then President ~mar Musa .Yar Adua
was embraced by the militants. The respite. result~d tnt~ some
remarkable peace for Nigeria, even though without 1ncreasmg the
derivation revenue agitated for, or the resource control demand.
The Niger Delta militancy falls into the category of protra~ted
social conflict (P.S.C.). As an insight into our summansed
theoretical perspectives on the causes of conflicts, we can engage
the fi1,stration -aggression theory to explain the Niger Delta
militancy; more so, when it is clear that the militancy poses the
picture of the ethnic groups rising up in arms against the Nigerian
state. The original exponent of the frustration-aggression theory
was John Dollard and his associates, whose fundamental thesis is
that the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always presupposes
the existence of frustration, and contrary-wise, that the existence of
frustration leads to some form of aggression (Dollard et al. 1938).
This theory postulates that aggression is caused by frustration.
When an individual or groups of individuals are prevented from
reaching their targets, they become frustrated. The frustration turns
into aggression when something triggers it. In thi s case, the
aggression becomes usually directed at the cause of the frustration
and where this is not possible, the aggression may be directed a~
another person ~r object (Berkowitz 1980). As already noted, the
pe?ple of the Niger Delta were frustrated by the incontrovertible
ev1~ences of extreme poverty, unemployment, water pollution,
envtronn:iental degradat1?n and government neglect of the people
of the Ni~er. Delta, des~1tc the huge national wealth derived from
the explo1tat1on of the 011 resources of the area.
Federal responses to the Niger Delta mili'tancy ca b d
· fi . · · . ' n e groupe
mt~ our categories. Frrst, there 1s the dcployrnent of th N' .
Police and the Military either pro-actively r e igen.an
' 1or pre-e1npt1ve
 C111.,.c11t /J/Uo11rse /11 l'tnce mid Conflict .fouliu 333

deterrence, or in massive cngag~tncnt to check and restore pubJic

order and si~fety. Howeve~, this category of federal response,
which most hterature somctnnes refer to as "repression" h be
. 'b' r · , as en
castigated ~s bemg respon~1 1e •or the unwholesome militarisation
of th~ Niger Delt~ .region, and. c~nsequently resulted in the
escalation of youth m1htancy and cnmmalitics in the area.
'f!1e second. category of federal ~esponse to the Niger Delta
question comes m t~e form of pr~ve~tive ~eace building initiatives
packaged as a senes of const1tu.t1onal/mstitutional approaches.
Briggs (2007:88) traces the first m the series of constitutional/
institutional approaches to June 1959 when a constitutional
provision. was made by Nigerian Order-in-Council for the setting
up of Niger Delta Development Board (NDDB) for an initial
period of ten years. Section 14 of the Nigerian (Constitution)
Order-In-Council 1960 contained provisions for the establishment,
functions and operations of the Board, which was also streamlined
by the Niger Delta Development Board Act 1961. That board
failed. Consequently, in August 1976, the federal military
government established a new body, the Niger Delta Basin
Development Authority (NDBDA) by Decree 37 of 1976 with the
function of finding solutions to the twin hazards of annual flood
and pollution, and erosion of river banks and estuaries in the Delta
and to achieve a rapid agricultural, economic, industrial and social
development in the Niger Delta Basin. The NOBOA also failed
because of the contradiction inherent in government
acknowledgement of pollution and river bank erosion and annual
floods caused by the petroleum industry and government's
unwiJJingness to interfere with the industry's operations causing
the problems.
The setting up of the Oil Mineral Producing Areas
Development Commission (OMPADEC) by Decree 23 of 1992 by
the General Babangida government was a better improvement over
the NOBOA, because it directly addressed the difficulties and
sufferings of the individuals, local goven1ment areas, states and
other peoples in the oil producing areas bearing ~he dire~t brunt of
I the environmental consequences of oil production (Bnggs 2007'
l ibid). The Decree 23 of J992 establishing OMPADEC allocated
\ 3~4 AL Alabi. n11d 1~A .•fo.'fl1t1ct <r11d Ojugr /.'vfanmslw
I
I

three perceht of revenue from Pcdcrution Acco~nt. to the

Con11nission to uchicve its mat\datcs. The Comm1ssto~ thus
overcmne the tlotable pitfalls of its predecesso~s br
directly
addressing the real issues with the statutory funds at 1ts disposal.
However, with the return to full democracy in May 1999, the
OMPADEC was scrapped and in its place the Niger Delta
Devclop111ent Con1111ission (NDDC) was established by NDDC Act
1999. By virtue of section 7 sub-section 1 of the NDDC Act, all
the n1ain problems and cont~ntious issues bordering on the Niger
Delta question were captured by the expressed po~ers and
functions of the Commission except the people's asp1rat10.n for a
minimun1 of 50 percent derivation formula for revenue shanng and
resource control. However, the struggle for the leadership and
membership composition of the Commission, the elite assessment
of its actual management and performance, and the people's
percepti.on of the funding of NDDC as tokenism in relation to the
huge wealth pumped from the belly of the Niger Delta region
became subjects of contentious politics watering down the noble
ideals of NDDC (Briggs 2007:87-116).
The third category of federal response to the Niger Delta
conflicts, which can broadly be termed as post-conflict peace
building efforts, is contained in a series of fiscal redistributive
\ mechanisms adopted over time by succeeding administrations.
Over time, the derivation formula had become downplayed,
crashing from 50 percent in 1951 to 1.5 percent under the Buhari
regime. Following intensive agitations, by the oil producing
communities and their elected representatives, and local and states
governments under the General Babangida elongated political
transition programme, the statutory allocation to oil mineral
producing areas was increased from 1.5 to 3 percent of federally
collected oil mineral revenue in June 1992. Secondly, the statutory
allocation for the amelioration of ecological problems throughout
the federation was increased from 1 percent to 2 percent of the
Federation Account. In addition, the federal government had
earlier in J99 J instituted a policy which required the Nigerian
National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and its joint-venture
multinational oil companies to allocate three percent of their total
 Currrmt Dluo11rst' 111 f'ente 011d C
onjllcl Stud/eJ 335

C'apital investments to comtnunity development

· · f ·1 I · . . . purposes
.
Co rnmumttes o 01 · exp oration achvtt1es Thi's w · kthe
m
. · as a mar ed
departure from previous practices to which the 01· J ·compames · voted
any paltry atnount they deemed fit for development . .
·· f · projects m
their communities f
o operations. Furthermore the d · .
fonnula was raise rom 3 percent to 13 percent during
· d ' th envahon
G J
1 • • d. e enera
Sani Abac11a regime as contame m section 162 sub-se t' 2 f
. . h' h . ' c ion o
the 1999 const1tut1on w tc came into force on May 29 1999
i:ie _fourth category of federal .response to the Niger ·Delta
conflict 1s the amnesty package which is the offer of a political
soft-lan~i.ng for. the Nig~r ?elta militants as an alternative to full
scale military s1eg~. This ts a form of preventive diplomacy. As
rightly noted by Gilbert (2009), the use of amnesty by successive
Nig:rian govem~ents as a..st~ategic state. policy for diffusing
tens10n, e~gendermg reconc1hat10~ or averting full-scale military
confrontation was not new. _The history of that initiative as a tool
for peace and reconciliation can be traced to 1967 when General
Yakubu Gowon pardoned Isaac Adaka Boro and his compatriots in
the Niger Delta Volunteers Force (NDVF) who were sentenced to
death as a result of their insurgency in February 1966. In October
2004, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo brought Asari Dokubo and Tom
Ateke to a reconciliation table and signed a peace accord with their
respective militant groups, namely the Niger Delta Peoples'
Volunteers Force (NDPVF), and the Niger Delta Volunteers
(NOV), the terms of which included a general pardon for all youths
who took up arms against the Nigerian state. The tem1s also
included the tnilitants' disarmament and demobilisation.
On its part, the government was to organise and fund a
resettlement scheme through which ex-militants would. ~e re-
integrated back into normal civil life anchored on a prov1s1on of
4,000 jobs by government, as a form of capacity b11ildi11g for ~x­
mjlitants. The peace accord however broke down because, while
the militant's disarmament had resulted in the voluntary surrender
of over 5,000 weapons, within a period of eight months «?ctober
2004 - June 2005), the government could not come up ~ith any
resettlement schemes and the pron1ised jobs were not provided for
the reintegration of the ex-militants. Asari Dokub? was eve~~ually
arrested in September 2005 by government while the m1htants
 ·.

· 336 A.L. Alnbi, and T.A. Joslrua and Oj11ge Folonmslro

regrouped and formed the Movement for the Emancipation of the

Niger Delta (MEND) which resumed milit~ncy on a. lar~e scale
and presented the most violent terrorism against the Ntgenan state
using sabotage, oil theft, pipeline destruction, guei:i Ila ~~rfare,
and kidnapping to press for its demands. The ensuing mthta.ncy
and criminalities led to some near full-scale assault on the Niger
Delta by the Nigerian Armed Forces.
This was the situation when President Umar Y ar' Adua
assumed office in May 29, 2007, with Dr. Goodluck Jonathan, a
Niger Delta indigene, as the Vice-President. The new government
immediately made the Niger Delta crisis a paramount issue on its
agenda for rapid response by appointing a 45-man Technical
Committee to study and harmonise all the various reports on the
Niger Delta crisis from the 1957 Sir Henry Willinks Commission
through to the 2007 Peace and Conflict Resolution Committee.
Consequently, on June 25, 2009, President Umar Yar' Adua
· declared anmesty to all the Niger Delta militants giving October 4,
2009 as the deadline for the total demobilisation and disarmament
with a tacit statement that the "governm.ent would irnpletnent those
recommendation it found acceptable in the Report of the 45-man
Technical Committee','. At that stage, the preventive diplomacy
worked. Surprisingly, in spite of the history of government
insincerity on the Niger Delta question, about 15,000 militants
cautiously but progressively accepted the amnesty, and surrendered
their arms and ammunition by the 4th of October, 2009 expiration
date, :-".hil~ waiting and expecting government to come up with its
rehab1htation agenda and schemes. The heightened insecurity
hitherto precipitated by the militants reduced significantly and this
ushere~ in an era of relative peace.
For our purpose, we can safely conclude this case insi oht by
reflecting on three q~estions: ~hat are the prospects f~r the
sustenanc~ . of the rel alive peace. 111 the Niger Delta Region? With
the preva1hng peace, has the Niger Delta conflict been resolved?
And if not, given the complexities of Nigeria's pluralism, can it be
resolved pennanently? The answers to these questions can be
qualitati~ely specul~ted. In s~ite of the amnesty programme and
the r~lat1~e peace in the Niger Delta region, the Niger Delta
question 1s yet to be pennanently resolved. Acceding to the
 Cu,.rem Discourse ;,, Peace and Conflict Studies 337

resource control demands of the militants would have tilted

economic power in favour. o~ the Niger Delta region, and
c?~sequen!IY weaken t~1e N1gcnan s~ate. This may lead to the
d1s1ntegrahon of the t~allon-statc. Despite the absence of respite for
the people of the Ntgcr Delta, the concern for the survival of
Nigeria as a state has thus traversed the conflict into the realm of
intractability. Hence, rather than being resolved permanently, at
best what we can have is an efficient management of the conflict.

References
Adeyemi, David and Olu-Adeyemi, Lanre. 2010. "Amnesty in a
Vacuum: The Unending Insurgency in the Niger Delta of Nigeria" In
Checlanating the Resurgence of Oil Violence in the Niger Delta of
Nigeria. Ojakorotu V. & Gulbert L.D. (2010) (eds.), Retrieved from
http://www.lags.org/Niger-Delta-Book.pdf, o~ May 26, 2017.
Azar, Edward. 1990. The Management of protracted social conflict:
Theory and cases. AJdershot: Dartmouth Publishers.
Berkowitz, A. 1980. Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and
reformulation. American Psychological Association Journal, Vol.
l(b).
Briggs, Deinbo A. 2007. Critical reflection on the Niger Delta question.
Larigraphics Printers, Jos Nigeria.
Coser, Lewis. 1956. The function s of social conflict. New York: New
Y'orkFree Press. ·
Dollard, J., L.W. Doob, N.E. Miller, O.H. Mowrer and R.R. Sears. 1938.
Frustration and aggression. New Have: Yale University Press..
Duffield, M. 1988. Global governance and the new wars: The mergmg of
development and security. London: Zed Books. .
Galtung, Johan. J990. 'Culture violence'. Journal of Peace Research.
27(3): 291-305.
Goodhand, Jonathan and Hulme, David. 1999. From .w~rs t.o complex
emergencies: Understanding conflict and peacebmldmg tn the new
world di sorder. Third World Quarterly 20( l): 12-26. . .
Gilbert, Lysias Dodd. 2009. "Youth militancy, amnesty and secunty .m
the Niger Delta region of Nigerin", a l~<~pcr prese.nt: d at the !~mt
Africa Jnstitute of South Africa/South Afnca Assocaatton of Pohti~nl
Science (AISA/SAAPS) Colloquium, Burgers Park Hotel, Pretona,
South Africa. J 5-16 October.
338 A.L Alnbi, nnd T.A. Joslrtt<l nfld Ojuge Folorwrslro

Glenditsch, N.P., J. Nordkvell and H. Strand. 2014. Peace research - just

the study of war? Jounwl of Peace Research 51(2): 14~-l5.8'. Sage.
Keen, David. 1998. 'The economic function of violence in c1v1I wars' .
Adelphi Paper 320. London, Oxford University Press on behalf of
the International Institute for Strategic Studies.
McCandless, Eric. 2007. Synopses of major concepts. Peace Research for
Africa: Critical Essays on Methodology. Ed. M.E. King and E. Sall
(Addis Ababa, UPEACE Africa Programme, 2007).
Miller, C.E. 2005. A glossary of tenns and concepts in peace and conflict
studies. M.E. King (ed.) (2"d Ed). University For Peace, Africa
Programme.
Payson Conflict Group. 2001. A glossary of violent conflicts (4th ed.).
United States Agency for International Development, Office of
Sustainable Development, Bureau For Africa. Crisis, Mitigation and
Recovery Division, Tulane University.
Rasbotham, 0 ., T. Woodhouse and H. Miall. 2011. Contemporary
conflict resolution. Cambridge UK. Polity Press.
Robqen, A.C.G.M. and R. Ferrandiz. · 2007. Multidisciplinary
perspectives on peace and conflict research: A view from Europe.
University of Deustor Bilbao.
Wallensteen, Peter. 2002. Understanding conflict resolution war, peace
and the global system.
,,

14
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
IN THE 21 8T CENTURY
A.S.Jegede

Introduction
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is an accepted
element of day to day human activities and plays an important role
in teaching and learning. Since teaching and learning are
relationship issues, discussing ICT in social science disciplines is
not an aberration. Social science as the study of human interaction
and behaviour provides basis for information and comniunication.
All disciplines rest on the oars of social sciences because there is
no discipline that is independent of human beings. Therefore,
knowledge of ICT in the social sciences is important for optimal
performance of other disciplines indirectly. This thus involves
application of ICT to management. This chapter attempts. to
introduce students to ICT and its role in teaching and learning
social science disciplines in the 2 lst century.

Learning Outcomes for Chapter Fourteen

At the end of the lecture, students should be able t? .
( I ) Know the differences between Natural Sciences and Social
Sciences. (SAQ 1.1) . .
(2) Understand what lnforn1ation and Com1numcatlon
Technology (JCT) is. (SAQ J.2) . . . .
(3) Understand relevance of Inforn1at1on and ~o.n11_numcat1on
Technology (fCT) to Socinl Sciences D1sc1phne. (SAQ
1.3) . .
(4) Explain the roJc of fnforn1ation and. Con1~umc.atton
Technology (JCT) in teaching und learnmg social science
disciplines (SAQ 1.4)
 340 A.S.Jegede

Natural and Social Sciences

Science
Science is the application of systematic methods to obtain
knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods. Just as
hu1nan beings today have an intense desire to unravel the mysteries
around them, people in ancient times also attempted to understand
their world. Their explanations were not based on observatio.ns
alone, however, but were also mixed with magic and superstition.
To satisfy their basic curiosities about the world around them,
humans gradually developed science. Science then consists of the
systematic methods of studying the social and natural world (fig.
14.la&b).

(a)

Fig. 14.1:. Both natural and social sciences ·

evolution and how the world was created. scientifically explain human

• •
 /nfon11a1io11 mrd Comm1111ic<11io11s Tedmology mu/ Social Sciences... 341

Tlte Natural Sciences ·

The natural .sciences are t~e intellectu~tl and academic disciplines
that are designed to explain and predict the event in our natural
enviromnent. The natural sciences arc divided into specialised
fields of resea~ch according .to subject matter, such as biology,
geology, chemistry and physics. These are subdivided into even
more highly specialised areas. Biology is divided into botany and
zoology; geology into mineralogy and geomorphology; chemistry
into its organic and inorganic branches; and physics into
biophysics and quantum mechanics. Each area of investigation
examines a particular 'slice' of nature.

Fig. 14.2: The natural science deals with chemicals and the study of human
natural environments. (Images from Google).

The Social Sciences 1

The social sciences examine human relationship. Just as the natura
sciences attempt to objectively understand the world of n.ature, the
social sciences attempt to objectively understand the social world.
Just as the world of nature contains ord~red (or lawful)
relationships that are not obvious but must be discovered through
342 A.S.Jegede

controlled observations, so the ordered relationship of the human

or social world arc not obvious, and must be revealed b.y me~ns of
repeated observations. Like the natural sciences, the soc.'aJ sciences
are divided into specialised fields based on their s~?Ject ~atter.
These divisions are anthropology, economics, poht1cal science,
psychology and sociology.

Information and Co1nmunications Technology (ICT)

Information and communications technology (ICT) was introduced
in the early 1990s to replace that of information technology (IT) in
recognition of the communicating abilities and facilities offered by
the computer (Adesoki and Fatoki 2013). The term ICT covers a
whole range of applications, techniques and systems (Clarke
2006), such as computers, communications equipment and the
services associated with them (fig. 14.3). This means that ICT is
not just considered as applications and systems but also as skill for
life. In this sense, it is viewed in line with literacy and expertise as
a fundamental skill that every individual needs so as to live
confidently, effectively and independently in a modem or
contemporary society (Clarke 2006).

Fig. 14.3: Information technology c.o .

.
...
· -· ·· "
ver a wide range of applications.
 /11fomUJtio11 n11d Comm1111ic<11io11s Tech I
. no ogy nnd Social Sciences... 343

JCT has three positions in the educational c ·

include lean1ing ab~ut ICT, learning with ul~~ul~:::i and th~se
through ICT. t:ea~1ng about ICT refers to ICT learning
subject of learning 1n the school curriculum while fonc:vt as. a
JCT is concerned with the use of ICT as a med' earning. ~tth
·
instruction. Le am111g
· t hrough ICT, moreover aum cto fac1htate
· o f ICT as an essential
integration ' reiersh hto the
· tool of a course
teaching · o f t hat course are no longer poss'bl
· an d Iearning ' sue t .aththe
. t e wit out
it.

Inf~rmat!on and Communications Technology (ICT) and the

Social Sciences
ICT helps our understanding of the social sciences discipline better
today. For example, ICT has now become a learning tool· a
platform of interaction between groups; and a form 'of
communication which is far becoming a universal language.
Computer is an example of JCT study, and when ICT supports
traditional study, computer based learning becomes a tool.
The knowledge of computer helps manpower in production and
distribution of the material goods and services of a society.
Employability in many organisations is now dependent on the
special skill in the computer; one quick example is the financial
sector more especially the banking sector. With the computer, you
can now determine in any organisation what goods they are
producing, what they cost, and how those goods are distributed.
The relevance of ICT cannot be overen1phasised in studying a
constitutional government such as that of Nigeria, .for exam~le, the
political scientist uses the computer to analyse voting behav:our. It
is even now possible to predict voting behaviour by taking the
voting survey before the actua] election. The use of card ~ader
machine in Nigeria's election influences how people attain the
ruling position in our political sphere. This is ICT based, other
more sophisticated elections in the developed world even sh.ow the
results as individual electorates cast their votes. The foll~w~nf. are
specificalJy the importance of TCTs to the social science discip me.

ICT Literacy . . . the Nigerian

!he. teaching and lea111ing of social sciences tn within the
institutions in the 21st century have developed
 344 A .S. Jegede ..

this technological age, the

framework of theory and res.ear~h. 1 ~ the classroom instruction
effective means of commum~at 1 ?" in chnologies. According to
requires the use .of commumcatto~l te . ntury will not be those
Alvin Toftler; 'The illite~ate of the 5~~~ can~ot ]earn, unlearn,
who cannot read and wnte, but those bove statement pointed
and relearn" (cited in Shikshak ~00~). ~e ~st century education.
out the relevance of ICT revolutton 1n t e 2
. B · I sin the Use of ICTs
Understanding the as1c ssue h four basic issues in
Haddad and Jurich ~2002), ar~ued .that~ e~la~e century. They are
the use of ICTs in education in t .e . . ~ ointed out
effectiveness cost equality and susta1nabihty. Th~y P . h
' ' h b
that, in recent years, there as een an upsurge
. of interest b ow
1n be
ICTs most importantly computers and the 1~temet can est.
harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiven.ess of education
at alJ levels and in both formal and non-formal settings.

The Role of Information and Communications Technology

(ICT) in Teaching and Learning of Social Science .D isciplines .
The role of JCT in the teaching and learning of social sciences 1n
the 21st century can be seen in three major areas, riamely, the
impact on the teacher, the learner and the image of social sciences
as a discipline. Conventional teaching is still common today in our
schools, and emphasises content. For many, teachers of social
sciences, in particular, have taught through lectures and
presentations interspersed with tutorials and learning activities
designed to consolidate and rehearse the content (Kamal and Banu
2010). Meanwhile, contemporary settings are now favouring
curricula that promote competency and performance. In the
developed countries, curricula are starting to emphasise
capabilities and to be concerned more with how the information
wiJJ be used than with what the information is. The moves to
competency and performance-based curricula are well supported
and encouraged by emerging instructional technologies
(St~phenso.n 2001): Such curricula tend to require: access to a
vanety of 1nformat1on sources; access to a variety of information
forms and types; student-centred learning settings based on
information access and inquiry; learning environments centred on
 /nfomuJtion and Comm1111icntio11s Teclmology nrid sOcta· /Sc1·ences... 345

problem-centred and inquiry-based activities; authentic settings

and examples; and teachers as coaches and mentors rather than
content experts.

JCT and Information Literacy Skills

Another role of I~ in the teachin~ and learning of social sciences
in the 21st century 1s the need for information literacy. In the 21st
century, there has emerged the need for educational institutions to
ensure that graduates are able to display appropriate levels of
information literacy, "the capacity to identify an issue and then to
identify, locate and evaluate relevant information in order to
engage with it or to solve a pro~lem arising from it" (McCausland,
Wache and Berk 1999). The dnve to promote such developments
stems from general mc-ves among institutions to ensure their
graduates demonstrate not onl y skilJs and knowledge in their
subject domains alone but also to acquire general attributes and
generic skills. Traditional generi c skills have involved such
capabilities as ability to reason formally, to solve problems, to
communicate effecti vely, to be able to negotiate out.comes, to
manage time, project rnanagement, and collaboration and
teamwork skills. The growing use o f ICTs as tools of everyday life
have seen the pool of generic skills expanded in recent years to
include information literacy (Kamal and Banu 2010).

ICTs and Students Independent Learning . .

The role of JCT on how students learn social sciences courses is
significant. Just as technology is influencing and s~pporting w~at
is being learned in schools and universities, so too 1s tt supporting
changes to the way students are learning. Moves from con.tent-
centred curricula to cornpetency-based curricula are as.soc1ated
with moves away from teacher-centred forms of dehvery to
student-centred forms . Through technology-facilitated approaches,
contemporary learning settings now encourage students to take
responsibility for their own learning. In the past, ~tu?ents have
become very comfortable at learning through transm1ss1on modes.
Students have been trained to let others present to them the
information that forms the curriculum. The gro\ying u~e of ICT as
346 A.S. Jegade .

an instructional rnedium is changing and will likely continue to

change tnany of the strategies employed by both teacher~ and
students in the learning process. Technology has the .capacity to
pron1ote and encourage the transformation of education from a
very teacher directed enterprise to one which supports more
student-centred models which is manifested in the moves towards
problern-based learning and increased use of the Web as an
information source (Kamal and Banu 2010). The use of ICT in
educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this
domain. ICTs by their very nature are tools that encourage and
support independent learning. Students using ICTs for learning
purposes become immersed in the process of learning and more
and more students use computers as information sources and
cognitive tools (Jonassen and Reeves 1996). The influence of the
~echnology on supporting how students learn will continue to
increase.

Fig. 14.4: Students can learn anywhere with case • tireedom and comfort.
Image from Google
,...
,.,

/nfonnntion nnd Commmricmion.'i 1eclurolog c.· • •

Y '""1.,ocu1I Sciences... 347

Fig. 14.S: Distance is not a barrier. Cattle rarer in a remote villaoe 0

communicating on a mobile phone. Learning is made easy through JCT.
Image from Google

ICT and Alternative Learning Theories

The emergence of ICTs as learning technologies has coincided
with a growing awareness and recognition of alternative theories
for learning. The various theories of learning during the classical
period pre-date the introduction of ICT into the school curriculum.
The current theories of learning that hold the greatest sway today
are those based on constructivist principles (Duffy and
Cunningham 1996). These principles posit that lean1ing is
achieved by the active construction of knowledge supported by
various perspectives within meaningful contexts. In constructivist
theories, social interactions are seen to play a critical role in the
processes of learning and cognition. In the past, the conventio~al
process of teaching revolved around teachers planning and leading
students through a series of instructional sequences to achieve the
desired learning outcome. Typically, these fonns of teaching have
revolved around the planned transmission of a body of knowledge
followed by some forms of interaction with the content as a ine~lns
to consolidate the knowledge acquisition. Contcn1porary learmng
theory is based on the notion that learning is an active process of
 348 A.S. l<'gt!dc

-. constructing knowledge rather than acquiring knowledge and that

instruction is the process by which this knowledge c~n~truction is
supported rather than a process of knowledge transn:u~ston .<Duffy
and Cunningham 1996). The strengths of construct1v1sm he With
its emphasis on learning as a process of personal understanding
and the development of meaning in ways w.h ich .are active and
interpretative. In this domain learning, is viewed as the
construction of meaning rather than as the memorisation of facts
(Lebow 1993; Jonassen and Reeves 1996).

Factors Favouring or Hindering the Use of ICT in the

Social Sciences
The usefulness of Information and Communications Technology in
the educational sector cannot be over-emphasised. In the social
sciences, just like other faculties in the university, benefits of ICTs
can be channelled to teaching, learning and research by lecturers,
researchers and students. However, there are interrelat.ed factors
that support or hinder their use of ICT. These include

Factors Supporting the Use of ICT

Availability of Fund: Proper funding of integration of ICT into
university education will provide opportunities for students and
lecturers to have access to ICT facilities which will definitely
enhance their teaching, learning and research (Nwankwoala 2015).

Availability of Infrastructural Facilities: The effective and

effi~ient use of ICT resources depends on their availability and
eqmty of access to the resources by teachers and students. It Is
enhanced by the ~vail~bil~ty of equipment, supplies and services of
computers, mult1med1a information providers, adequate power
supply (Kessy, Kaemba and Gachoka 2006).

Positive Attitude . to Technological Change: The use of JCT

depends on the a.ttitude ~f the users. Teachers' attitudes have been
round t~ be ITI3J~r predtctors Of the use of new technolo . es in
1nstruct1onal settings (Alrnusalam 2001) s v k gt t al ·
· ang, a 1c e, e
(20.l 0) asserted th at t~ac Iicr.' s positive attitude and constructivist
behefs towards JCT 1s a big dcternlitYint ' o f integrating
· · ICT 1·n
 /nfom1atio11 nnd Commw1icnrim1s 1cclmology nrid s0CU1
· / •>CICl1
" . Ct'S. •. 349

teaching and learning. Positive attitudes often encourage the 1

technologica_lly capable to learn the. s.k~lls necessary for ~~~
implementatton of technology-based act1vtt1es and vice-versa.

Conipetency in ICTs' Opercpion: Bemer (2003) studied the

relationship bet'":een compute~ use in the classroom and seven
inde~ndent va~ables: perceived releva~ce; desire to learn;
emottonal reac~ton to technology; beliefs about computer
competence; behefs about technology; administrative support; and
peer support. He found that the faculty's belief in their computer
competence was the greatest predictoreof their use of computers in
the classroom. Therefore,_ teachers should develop their
competence based on the educational goals they want to
accomplish with the help of ICT.

Personal Characteristics: Personal characteristics of the lecturer

(age and year of experience) can influence the adoption of an
innovation (Schiller 2003 ). The report by the United States
Department of Education (2000) indicated that teachers with fewer
years of experience were more likely to use computers in their
classes than teachers with more years of experience. This may be
due to the possibility of the new teachers to have been exposed to
computer during training and thus have more experience using it.
In Nigeria, Nwankwoala (2015) reported that some old lecturers
feel that ICT tools are for the younger generation.

Factors Hindering the Use of ICT

Inadequate funding: Some of the obstacles in the utilisation of
ICTs include low level of funding of Nigerian universities by the
government (Nwankwoala 2015). User' s accessibility to I~s
requires much funding and this can be wotTisome t~ those tn
developing countries. In Nigeria, inability to afford the high cost of
ICT facilities is a stumbling block to their utilisation by l~cturers
and students. For example, maintenance of internet ts very
expensive (Mumtaz 2000~ Eze and Olusola 2013; Nwankwonla
2015). This definitely limits students' and lecturers' access to the
~ntemet which is a valuable source of getting relevant updated
•nformation.
350 A.S. Jt'gedt'

Inadequate i11frastructural facilities: A report on use of ICT. by

teachers released by the United States Department of Educallon
(2000) indicates a correlation between availability of computers
and cotnputer use. Majority of the teachers submitted that limited
access to cotnputers is a barrier to effectively using computers in
their classes. In most Nigerian universities, ICT facilities such as
computers and internet are shared and thus had to be booked in
advance. lnabi1ity or failure to book translates to denied access to
such facilities (Hennessy, Harrison and Wamakote 2010).
The adoption and use of up-to-date ICT resources is central to
the diffusion of technology (Gulbahar 2005). In most of the
educational institutions in developing countries, the available ICT
resources are sometimes of poor quality and most times obsolete.
Most institutions of learning do not have broadband internet access
thus, limiting access to the internet. Irregular power supply in
Nigeria is another hitch to students and lecturers access to ICTs. It
is a known fact that the nation's power supply is epileptic and this
affects virtually all the sectors of this country. One of the key
factors in the operation of ICTs gadgets is electricity. Thus, when
it is not adequately available, effective use of ICTs is not
guaranteed (Nwankwoala 2015).

llladequate Professional Training: The ability to maximise the

benefits of ICT depends on the knowledge of its operation. Hence,
lack of or inadequate professional training on how to use ICT in
e~uca~ion ~s .a major barrier (Mathipa and Mukhari 2014). In
Nigeria, tlus is further worsened by the paucity of ICT technical
staff to train university lecturers who are unable to use ICTs
because they do not currently have the required training
(Nwankwoala 2015).

Neg_ative Attitude to Te~~111ological Clta11ge: Change is constant.

W~1le some. people pos1t1vely respond to change, it can be quite
tedious or difficult for people ~ho like n1uintaining the status.quo.
Such pe?ple are ~ornfortabl~ wath the traditional \vay of teaching,
researching.
. . lcHrnmgdand domg adrnini s trative work .an d arc ,averse
to 1nnovat1 ve n1ct110 s of executing tasks. Some teachers are stuck
 lnfonnntion mtd Conmumications Tec/1110/ogy and Social Scit flcts... 35 1

with the face-to- face teaching and teacher centered methods which
gives them the sense of power in front of their learners (Makgato
2012).
In most Nigerian universities, some lecturers still use the
traditional face-to-face method of teaching because they perceive
the use of ICTs as a waste of time. Furthermore, they hardly find
time to attend workshops and seminars organised by the
universities to expos.e them to ICTs (Nwankwoala 2015).

Lack of Technological Know-how: Lack of technological

knowledge and skills about ICT is a barrier to its utilisation (Tedla
2012; Bingimlas 2009; Mathipa and Mukhari 2014). Pelgrum
(2001) opined that the success of educational innovations depends
largely on the skills and knowledge of teachers. He submitted that
teachers' lack of knowledge and skills was an impediment to the
use of computers in schools. Furthermore, inadequate knowledge
can result to the lack of confidence in the use of ICT. This can in
tum lead to anxiety and fear of failure while using ICT tools
amidst the people who know more about their operation, and
consequently pose a big challenge to the use of these tools
(Mathipa and Mukhari 2014 ).
In addition, lack of knowledge of JCT use by students may be
attributed to the reluctaoce of learning institutions to introduce it in
the learning environment. This lack of knowledge may be as a
result of insufficient resources or even that students have other
priorities other than improving their computer literacy skills
(Kessy, Kaembaand Gachoka 2006).

• Advantages and Disadvantages of the Use of ICT in the

Social Sciences
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) ha~
revolutionised the world thus making it a global village (Bhatti
201.3), F_ung (2013) argued that JCT affects the three pha~es of
social science research namely pre-data analysis, data analysts and
pos~-data analysis. To be successful in these three phases, the
social scientists needs to be skilful in the use of ICT. The use .0 r
1 ~ .has many advant~ges especially as it affects the social
sciences.
352 A.S.Jegede

Advantages
In Research
Fung (2013) holds that the effect of I.CT on social science research
is in facets which is divided into three categories, namely, pre-data
analysis, data analysis and post-data analysis
There is availability of articles via the internet which was not
readily available before. Articles were sourced for by borrowing
books from the library, or buying books. Literature review used to
be cumbersome due to the need to search for key words and
phrases in hard copies of journals and books. This required reading
through whole books and doing a line by line search for key words.
Now articles are uploaded and available either through dedicated
search engines or through subscription. As a result, literature
review is much easier; it is no longer confined within the four
walls of a library. There are now on-line libraries that have
millions of digitised journals books, articles, bibliographies and
encyclopaedias which are made available in the public domain.
There are also complete theses uploaded in public domains which
are beneficial to students. Resources needed for literature review
can be sought at any time of the day. It is a valuable option for the
storage of documents as it cannot be destroyed or stolen or shelved
in the wrong place like printed copies.
Also JCT enables the exchange of ideas, and materials among
social scientists. It serves as a hub for research and academic
activities among those in the academic, research and student
community. The JCT enables social scientists to come together
irrespective of location thus forming a global village. This has
created access to a wide range of heterogeneous groups from
different disciplines sharing ideas.
Furthermore, Literature can be tracked using a software called
Mendeley. With this software a researcher can manage large
numbers of articles, books read in the course of the research work.
This was otherwise cu1nbersome and time consuming before this
software was created.
JCT has also been found to be useful in the course of managing
qualitative data. There arc software used for transcription. One of
such is the Dragon Naturally Speaking. This software is capable of
carrying out the labo'rious work of manually transcribing recorded
interviews with accuracy. Other useful software used for
 111/ omratimr and Com1111micatio11s Teclrnology nnd Social Sciences.. . 3S3

qualitative data analysis include ~vivo, ATLAS.Ti. These greatly

reduce the stress of 1nanual analysts. r
Quantitative. data is. al.so not left out as it benefits from JCT.
With softwar~ ltke. Stat1st1cnl Package for Social Science (SPSS),
this software ts avm lab!e and affordable for researchers, it does not
require manually working out formulas but there is need to know
what is required to get the needed results.
Re~arding post:data analysis, IC.T has made it easy to spot
plagiansed work with the use of vanous software that can detect
such acts. Manuscripts can be submitted via the internet to
prospective publishers thus creating a platform for researchers to
communicate with peer reviewers, editors and publishers with ease
and no fear of losing transcripts in transit.

Teaching
The pattern of learning is changing with various developments that
occur. People now access information through JCT in order to keep
up with the latest developments. Leaming can no longer be limited
to time and place (Talebian, Mohammadi and Rezvanfar 2014).

Fig 14 6 s 1· 't ti ons in passing

•. · : . t.udents lc'1rni.ng. at. sea. There arc ~10 lo11ge 1: . mu a en taken care
information across, L1m1tat1011s created hy 1cmoteness have be
of by lCT. Image from Google.
 ..

354 A.S. Jegede

I .. . • ,. ••

ICT as it affects social sdence in the 21 Century open~ up a

51

lot Of opportunities for both students and those in the academICS by

creating avenues for collaboration. With content de.velopment of
students' curriculum and resources for specific courses, students
can be referred to on-line resources that can be useful for them.
One of the exemplary designs of learning is fl~xibility. !his
includes making provision for new forms of learning especially
through the use ICT thus facilitating student centeredness (Centre
for Educational and Research and Innovation 2008) This enables
students to learn by thinking and connecting with the real world
thu~ helping students to develop confidence. In the opinion of
Talebian et al. (2014), it helps to improve the quality of education.
With ICT, there is a wider reach and easy access to quality
education in the social sciences as it connects teachers and students
via chat rooms, video conferencing and the like. It gives lecturers
more time for their personal development as most combine
teaching, research and administrative responsibilities.

Disadvantages
Research
There is need to. continually increase and update the on-line
resources (especially of on-line libraries) as this increases demand
for patronage of online libraries.

Teaching
• On-line resources may sometimes not be useful for students
as it may not provide accurate information about course
~o~tent. It ma~ also not provide supportive information that
ts m tandem with the course.
• ,, It may b~ ?~ffi~ult to have practical sessions and also assess
studen~s . practical knowledge of a topic on line especially
where 1t 1s required.
• It limits face to face interaction between students and
lecturers.
• It may not be easy to measure the progression of students,
knowledge. ·
• !t may not be easy to authenticate that the registered student
1s actually the one participating on line.
 /nfomu1tio11 n11d Comn11micatio11s Tec/11w/ogy and Soc•IllIsClences
· ... 3SS

• Accessibility to internet facilities may not be readily

available to students and this may hinder full participation in
the course.

Acth1ity 1.1
In this chapter, you have learnt about the concept of science social
sciences, ICT, and its relevance to social sciences ha~ been
examined. Leaming about IC.T, lear.n~ng with ICT and learning
through ICT are the three maJor pos1t1ons of ICTs in educational
curriculum. The ICT literacy, understanding the basic issues in its
use, assisting in the role of teaching and learning, helping us to
acquire the skill of information literacy, giving support to students
independent learning and providing with alternative theories for
learning are all the relevance of ICTs to social science disciplines
in the 21st century. ICT has the capacity to significantly contribute
to the capacity development of both lecturers and students in the
universities.
-· .,.. ~ ........ - - - ...., - .....,..
BOX 1.1 The so~ial' sciences exa1nine hulnan .relationship.
I ' • Y i t f • •

ICT help~ our upderst~nding ..of the social .sciences di~~tphne

1

bet~r tod~y. 1q- pas. rio~.,become' ~ ~earqh~g t~qh.a pl~~o;m·

of interaction between ·~oups; and. a form of commun~cat1oq
which ~s far becom!ng ~ruversai a l~ng~ag~.
_.__._.. ___......._..___
.
-~~~;,....__...,;_~-'

Summary of Chapter Fourteen

In Chapter fourteen, you have learnt that .
(l) There is a difference between naturalosciences and social
.
sciences.
(2) Jnformation and Co1nmunication Technology (ICT)
comprises of a wide range of application. .
(3) Infonnation and Communicution Technology (ICT) . •s
relevant to the social sciences and is relevant to the social
sciences. ·
(4) Information and Comtnunicntion Technology (ICT) play
a key role in teaching and learning of social science
disciplines

hr
I.
l
t
II ' I '

3S6 A.S. Jegede

I·
I. Self·Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Chapter Fourteen
Now that you have completed this chapter, you can as~ess how
I well you have achieved its Learning Outc?mes by answenng these
questions. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-
Assess1nent Questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 1.1 (tests learning outcome 1.1)

What is the difference between Natural Sciences and Social
Sciences?

Answer: The natural sciences are the intellectual and academic

disciplines that are designed to explain and predict the event in our
natural environment objectively while the social sciences examine
human relationship. Social sciences attempt to objectively
understand the social world

SAQ 1.2 (tests learning outcome 1.2)

What is ICT?

Ans~er: The term JCT covers a whole range of applications,

tec~ruques and systems Such as computers, communications
equipment and the services associated with them.

SAQ.1.3 (tests learning outcome 1.3)

Mention two relevance of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) to Social Sciences Discipline
Answer
( 1) l~T. ~elps our understanding of the ·
disciphne better social sciences
. (2) The knowledge of computer h I . .
production and distrib t' f e ps manpower in
services of a society u ion o the material goods and

SAQ.1.4 (tests learning outcome 1•4 )

Mention three roles of lnfi •.
Technology (JCT) · . ormation and Communication
. . . in teaching and 1 .
disciphnes. ' earning social science
 /nfom1ntio11 and Cmm111111icmio11.s Tecl1t10logy and So cia1 Sc1ences...
. 357 .

Answer
(l) Infornmtiot) Literacy Skill,s . .
(2) Students Independent ~urning
(3) In Social Scict\cc Reseatch

Revisions Question
( l) Identify factors favouring and hindering the use of JCT in
social sciences discipline.
(2) Identify five (5) importance of ICT to the social sci~nces
discipline.
(3) Itemise and di~cuss the. adva.ntages .an? disadvantages of
the use of ICT in the social science d1sc1plines.

References
Adesoki, S.A. and 0.R. Fatoki. 2013. The role of ICTs in teaching and
learning of history in the 21st century. Educational Research and
Review 8(21): 2155 - 2159.
Afshari, M., K.A. Bakar, W.S. Luan, B.A. Samah and F.S. Fooi. 2009.
Factors affecting teachers' use of infonnation and communication
technology. International Journal of Instruction 2(1): 77 - 104.
Almusalam, S.N. 2001. "Factors related to the Use of Computer
Technologies for Professional tasks by Business and Administration
Teachers at Saudi Technical Colleges." (Doctoral Dissertation, the
Ohio State University, 2001). ProQuest Digital Dissertations ~II
No. AAT 3011019).
Berner, J.E. 2003. "A Study of Factors That May Influence F.ac~l~y in
Selected Schools of Education in the Commonwealth of Virgtma to
Adopt Computers in the Classroom" (Abstract D~~oral ~isserta~on,
George Mason University, 2003). ProQuest Dzgual Dissertations
(UMI No. AAT 3090718)
Bingimlas, K.A. 2009. Darri~rs to the successful integration o.f ICT in
teaching and learning environments: A Review of the ~terature.
Eurasia Journal of Mathematics and Technology Education 5(3);
235 - 245.
Bha~ti, R. 20 J3. Impact of JCT 011 social sci~nce . f?cultr members
m.formation usage pattern at Dahauctdin Zakanya Umvers1ty, Multan,
library Philosophy and practice (c-jounwl) 928.
358 A.S. Jegede.

Centre for Educational Research and Innovatio~. 2~8. 21st century

learning: Research, Innovation and policy directaons from recent
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Clarke, A. 2006. Teaching adults JCT skills. Glasgow: Leammg Matters
Limited. pp. 12 - 23. . . . .
Duffy, T. and D. Cunningham. 1996. Constructivism: lmpl1cat1ons for
the design and delivery of instruction, handbook of research for
educational teleconm1unications .and technology, New York:
MacMillan. pp. 170 - 198.
Eze, R.I. and E. Olusola. 2013. The teachers and the use of JCT for
professional development. International Conference on ICT in
Africa, February 20-23, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Fung, H.P. 2013. Effect of infonnation and communication technology
(ICT) on social science research. Africa Development and Resources
Research Institute 1: 1 - 8.
Gillbahar, Y. 2005. Technology Planning: A Roadmap to Successful
Technology Integration in Schools. Journal of Computers and
Education 49 (2007): 943 - 956. ·
Haddad, W. and S. Jurich. 2002. "ICT for Education: Potential and
Potency" In Technologies for Education: Potential, Parameters, and
Prospects. Haddad, W. ' and D. Drexler (Eds.), Washington, DC:
Academy for Educational Development and Paris: UNESCO
pp. 34 - 37. .
Hennessy, S., D. Harrison and L. Wamakote. 2010. Teacher factors
influencing classroom use of ICT in Sub-Sahara Africa. /tupale
Online Journal of African Studies 2: 39 - 54.
Jonassen, D. and T. ~~eves. 1~;6. "Leaming with technology: Using
computers as cogmttve tools In Handbook of Research Educational
on Educational Comm~nications and Technology. Jonassen, D.
(Ed.), New York: Macm1llan. pp. 693 - 719.
Kamal, B.N. and A.T. Banu. 2010. ICT in Higher Education _ A Study.
Can. J. Data Inf Knowl. Eng. 1(1): 23- 33.

Abacha regime, 79
Abacha, Sani 44, 55, 335
Abiola, M.K.0., 70
Abiotic
• components, 275
_ resources, 294
Abubakar, Abdulsalam, 55
Actual resources, 294
Agency modelling, 72
Agricultural
and rural sectors, 219
Commodity Marketing
Boards, 220
- Credit Guarantee Scheme
(ACGS), 220
. Development Corporation,
220
• policy objectives in Nigeria,
219-220
Agriculture, 214, 219-220
Aguiyi Ironsi, General, 55
American
- model, 40
- warofindependence, l
Amin, Idi, 44
Analysis of covariance (ANCOV A),
173
Aquatic ecosystem, 282
Aristocracy, 44-45, 56
Arrest, 120
· without a warrant, 121-122
Assessing Normality, 170
Atmosphere, 275-278, 290
Audience Analysis, 181-182
Authority, 18, 20-21
Awolowo, Obafemi, 20
Babangida, Ibrahim Badnmosi, 55,
77, 81
Balewa, Tafawa, 55
Behavioural
• pattern, 4
• /organisational up11roach
285
,.
I
l
.,
Index
Hehnviouralism revolution, 13
Behaviourism, 246
Bicameral legislature, 40-41
Bill ofRights, 106
Biodiversity, 298-299, 302
Biological Determinants of
Behaviour
- casual influence of, 254-257
Biosphere, 281-282, 290
Biotic
- components, 275
- resources, 294
Bivariate Analysis, 168
Boro, Isaac Adaka, 335
Brain Cells, 259-262
Branches of Economics, 199
British rule, 101
Buhari, Muhamadu, 55, 77, 79
Cabinet or parliamentary
government, 39
Capacity building, 330, 335
Capitalism, 50-51 .
Capitalist as Economic System, 200
Case Study Techniqu~, 26~
Casual influence of B1olog1cal
Determinants of Human
Behaviour, 254-257
Central
• Nervous System, 257 • 259
• Pince Theory, 286
Chnrncteristics of Resources, 300
Chnrismntic Authority, 20
Checking for Outliers, 170
Chi-squnre, 178
Choice, 197-198
Citizenship educntlon. 73-75, 80
Civic
• responsibilities, 63
tn1inlng, 61, 68
Civil
lnw, 92-93
' Wl\1', 29, 214·215
 ..

360 Index

Classification of
Resources, 293-295
· -:- Systems of Government,
42-44
Clifford's Constitution of 1922, 99,
101
Climate change, 2, 192
Clinical psychology, 239, 247
Closed or Fixed-choice Question,
150-151
Coding, 179, 183-184
Collective Action, 34, 55
Colonial
government, 22
power, 36
Colonialism, 55-56
Common Characteristics of
Developing Countries, 204-206
Communal conflicts , 2
1 - - Co mmunication medium, 61
l Communism, 52-53
Communist Economic System,
-./ 200-201
Comparative Politics, 16 . Committee, 97
Co~lex Political Emergencies
(CPE), 322-323
Compromise, 330
Compulsory acquisition of property,
114
Computer
- Programmes for Qualitative
Data Analysis, 185-186
- software programmes,
153-154
Concept of
- Conflict, 318-319
- Development, 201-204
- Government, 21
Peace, 323-324
- scarcity, 189
Sociology, 145-147
Sustainability, 304-305
Concept!> of Resource and
Resistance, 295
Conciliation, 330-331
Conciliator, 331
Confederalism, 46-47
Confederation, 100
Conflict
_ Mitigation/Management,
327
Prevention, 327
Related concepts, 321-323
resolution, 315, 326·3~7
common terms m,
326
_ studies, 315-317
Consciousness Formation, 12
Constituent Assembly, 102
Constitution .
_ Drafting Committee,
101-102, 104-105
Classification of, 96-98
definition of, 95-96
1979, 101 -103, 106-107
1999,85,97-98, 107, 114,
11 9
Constitutional
Debate Coordi nating
law, 95-96, 98, 101
Consumption, 190-191
Content Analysis, 179-182
Contestation, 13
Continental lithosphere, 278-279
Contract Enforcement, 33-34, 55
Correlational Method, 267-268
Corruption, 126
Cortex, 258
Counselling psychology, 239, 248
Crime definition of, 117
Criminal law, 91, 93,116-117
Criminologists, 161
Cross-cultural Psychology, 249
Culture and Resources, 295
Customary law, 93-95
Cybercri me, 4
Data
Analysis, 163-164
Clearing, 165
 Index 361

• coding, 164 Duress, J18

Collection, 147-148 Dutch disease syndrome, 215
- Entry, 165
in Sociology, typologic$ of,
148 Emly Waming. 327-328
_ wh:tt is il'l 147 Ecology, 281
Defen cc of mistakes, 119 Economic
Defences to crimes, 117-118 Agents, 195-196
Definite or Defined Territory, 28 anc..1 Social Research
Definition of Economics, 193-194 Council, 3
Deforestation, 300, 302 Development, 202-203, 213,
Democracy, 123-125 312
Democratic Growth. 201-202, 213, 216
- citizenship, 75 - and development
- elections, 35 - trend and
- legitimisation, 68 structure of,
- Method, 35 214
- principles, 35-36 - and Recovery Plan
- process, 75 (EGRP), 232-235
Dependent Variables (DV), 263 sustainability, 305
Depletion of Resources, 300-304 theory, 189, 191
Descriptive Economics definition of, 193-201
- Statistical Technique, 271 Ecosystem
- Statistics, 165- 166, 170 components of, 282
- tools, 166-168 definition of, 282
Desertification, 2 ECOWAS, 148, 161
Destructive Impact of Human Educational Psychology, 248
Activities, 287- 289 Election Rigging, 37
Developing Countries common Elections, 64
characteristics, 204-206 Electoral
Developmental psychology, 239, process, 64
248 systems, 65
Diplomatic relations 16 violence, 29
Directorate ' Electricity, 221-223
• for Social Mobili sation, Corporntion of Nigeria
Self-Reliance, Econmic (ECN). 221
Recovery and Social Justice Blements of democracy, 125
(MAMSER), 77, 79 81-82 Elite Behaviour nntl the Structure of
• of Foods, Roads nnd Rurnl Society, 43. 53
. . lnfrustruc.:ture (DFRRI), 220 £!mail, 151. 153
D~v~c..lends of democracy, 127 Endocrine System, 254·256
Divme Origin Theory, 26 Energy resources, 296-297
Dokubo, Asuri, 335 Environmcntol
Dual Executive or Mixed determinism, 287
Government, 49-50 Psychology, 249
 362 lndl'x

resources, 294 Foreign affairs, 16

Forensic Psychology, 249
Science, 275 Forest Resources, 297 .
System, 275-276 Formal Content Anal ysas, 180- l 81
Environmentalists, 276 Fonns of Government, 42-44
Erosion, 30 l Fourth National Development Plan
Ethnic (1981-85), 225-226 . .
- cleansing, 29 Free Will versus Determm1sm,
conflicts, 317 243-244
groups, 94 French
Evolutionary, 253 - Political Revolution of 1789,
Executive 129
- and the Judiciary, 106-114 revolution, 1
- Branch, 38-39 Functional, 253
Exosphere, 277-278 education, 4
Experimental Method, 268-269 Government, 12, 28, 31
Functionalism, 245
Fundamental rights, 106-107
Face-to-face approach, 151-152
Factor analysis, 172 .
Family Gandhi , Indira, 20
- background, 189 Genetic Theory, 27
- communication patterns, 60 Genocide, 29
- Economic Advancement Gestalt School of Thought, 245-246
Programmes (FEAP), 220 Ghadafi, Mommar, 44
Farm settlement schemes, 220 Glial Cells, 261-262
Fascism, 53 , 56 Global warming, 192
Federal Globalisation, 4, 285
- Constitution of 1954, 101 Globally Competitive Economy,
- Electoral Commission 234-235 .
(FEDECO), 103 Good governance, 125-127
Super-Phosphate Fertiliser definition of, 125
Company (FSFC), 222 Government
- /Unitary Constitution, 100 and State
Federalism, 47-48 distinction between,
fertili ser Plant, 222-223 24
Feudalism, 54, 56 basic components of, 32
First National Development Pinn institutions, 62
( 1962-1968) meanings of, 21-23
Focus organisation and
\ Group Discussion (FGD), clnssification, 31-56
I 156· 157 • origin of, 23-24
I · of Sociology, 136-139
Force Theory, 26-27
Governmental institutions, 11
Gowon, Ynkubu, 55, 335
I Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindhraln, Green Revolution programmes,
257-258 1980,220
 lnde.~ 363

Greenhouse gases, 304 · Imperialistic Mode 36

Gross Independence Con~titution 1960
- Development Product 99, 101 I I

(GDP), 202, 214-215,

218-219 Independent Variables (IV) 263
- National Income (GNI), 214 ln-~epth Interview (IOI), 156-157
- National Product (GNP), Indispensability of Government
32-33 '
202 GNP, 214 Industrial
- /organisational psychology
239,248 ,
Hafez al-Assad, 54
Heterosphere, 277 • Revolution, I, 129
Highly Indebted Poor Country - sector of the economy
(HIPC) initiatives, 218 220-223 I

Hitler, Adolf, 20 Inferential Statistics, 168

Homosphere, 277 - Technique, 272
Households, 196 Influence, 18-20
Human Information and Communications
- behaviour, 13, 253 Technology {ICT), 233, 235,
- · psychological 339-357
explanations of, 254 - and Alternative
•
Learnina0
- Brain, 253, 257-262 Theones, 347-348
- Development Index (HDI), - and Information Literacy
203 Skills, 345
- Environment, 283 - and Students Independent
- Immunodeficiency Learning, 345-346
Syndrome (HIV), 4 - and the Social Sciences, 141
- impact on the environment, factor hindering use of,
287 349-351
- institutions, 3 factors supporting the use of,
- interactions, 146 348-349
- needs and wants, 196 Literacy, 343-344
Population, 12, 28 Institutional
- right abuses, 29 structure and relationship
- rights violations 29 among major organs, 43-45,
Humanistic, 246-247 ' 48-50
- . (qualitative method), 146 - Struggle, 13
Hussem, Saddam, 54 Interactive Conflict Resolution, 328
Hydrological cycle, 281
Interest
Hydrosphere, 275, 280-281, 290 - and Pressure Groups, 66
- Groups, 63
Ibadan School of Social S . lnternnl
(IBSSS) 5 c1ences - conflicts, 317. 320
Ibrahim Bab'angi·da regime
. Scnle, 265
Immature Age, I 70 81 rnternnt ionnl
18 ' '
- agencies, 148, 161
(

364 ltrde:c

• conununity, 29, 317 Legitimacy, 18, 21

Life Document, 162- 163
Monetary Fund (IMF), Limitations to Fundamental Rights,
318
organisations, 318 114-115
Lithasphere, 275, 278-280, 290
politics, 18
Local Government Empowerment
Relations (IR), 16
and Development Strategy
Internationalism, 4
Internet, 151, 153 (LEEDS), 229
Internet/world wide web, 63 Lord Lugard's Constitution, 1914,
Inter-state 101
conflict, 319-320 Loss of biodiversity, 300, 303
· politics, 18
Interview, 155-159
Intractability, 337 Macpherson' s Constitution of 1951,
Intra-state level- politics, 17-18 99, 101
Macroeconomics, 199
Mandela, Nelson, 20
Jaj i declaration, 1977, 77, 79 Man-environment interactions, 287
Jonathan, Goodluck, 79 Man-made ecosystem, 282
Judicial Branch, 38 Manipulation of Data, 170-171
Judiciary, 41-42 Manufacturing, 214, 220-22 l
Mass
communication, 60
Karman line, 277 education, 77
Key informant interview (Kll), - med ia, 60, 62, 67, 148, 163
156-157 Means, 196- 197
Khomeini, Ayatollah, 54 Measurement
Kim 11 Sung, 54 meaning of, 262
- Theory, 264-265, 273
Measuring Sustainability 306-309
Law Mediation, 329 '
and Customary Law, 93-95 Memoing, 185
- definition of, 85-90 Mesosphere, 277
functions of, 88-90 Microecnomics, 199
classification of, Militarism, 55
90-93 Military
making, 31
constituency, 66
- of command, 191
Learning and socialisation, 4 Coups or Coup D 'etat, 36-37
Leastcostapproach,285 . - government, 22
Left and Right Hemisphere 259 Millennium Development Goals
Legal Authority, 21 ' . (MDGs), 206
Legislative ~!ml-body/mind-brain question, 243
Branch, 38 -40 ~nernl resources, 295-296
representation, 65-66 Mmnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI), 271
 . ,.
Index 365

Missing Data, 169-170 or Organic Theory, 26

Mixed Economic System, 20 l
Modem State, major elements of,
28-29
Modes of Establishing Government,
35-3 7
1 267
Mohammed, Murtala Ramat, 55
Monarchical and Republican
Constitutions, 99
Monarchy, 44-45
Moral philosophy, 189
Movement for the Emancipation of
the Niger Delta (MEND), 336
Multiple regression, 172
Multivariate analysis, 168
of variance (MANOV A),
173
National
- acculturation, 61, 72
- Agricultural Land
Development Authority, 220
- Anthem, 87
- Assembly, 20, 98-99,
103-104, 106, 116, 124
- Directorate of Employment
(NDE), 220
- Economic Empowerment
and Development Strategy
(NEEDS), 78-79
- Electric Power Authority,
221
- Ethical Revolution, 77, 79
- Fertiliser Company of
Nigeria (NAFCON), 222
- flag, 87
- Orientation Agency 77-79
81 ' •
• Orientation Movement
(NOM), 77-78
· Planning Commission
(NPC), 227
- Pledge, 87
Natural1
and Social Sciences
4
Resources, 294
• types of, 295
Sciences, 341
Naturalistic Observation Technique
'
Nature-nurture issue/question,
. 243-244
NEEDS-National Economic
Empowerment and
Development Strategy, 223,
228-229
Nervous system, 254-257
Neurons (also called nerve cells),
259-261
Niger Delta
Basin Development
Authority (NDBDA), 333
- Development Board
(NDDB), 333
- Development Commission
(NDDC), 334
Peoples' Volunteers Force
(NDPVF), 335
Volunteers (NDV), 335
Volunteers Force (NDVF),
335
Militancy and Federal
response, 331-337 .
Agricultural Co-operatl ve
Bank (NACB), 1973, 220
Bureau of Statistics (NBS),
161
Constitutional Law
historical
development of.
101-106
Health Insurance Scheme
(NHJS), 161
Liquefied naturnl gas, 22 1
Population Census ~PC),
161
Nkrumah, Kwame, 20
Nominal
Scale, 265
/Category Mcn~urc1ttents,

340-342 .' 263-265

366 /11de.\
Non-
Democratic Methods, 36-37
governmental institutions, J1
Governmental Organisation
(NGOs), 318
parametric statistics, 169,
178
participatory Observation,
159
renewable resources, 276,
293-294
renewable sources of energy,
296
Normative Economics, 195
Nyerere, Julius, 20
Obasanjo, Olusegun, 55, 77-79, 335
Objectives of Development, 203-204
Observational Method, 265-267
Observations, 159-161
Ocean biodiversity, 303
Oceanic lithosphere, 278-279
Official
crime statistics, 161
Statistics, 161
advantages and
disadvantages of,
162
Oil
and mining, 214, 221
Mineral Producing Areas
Development Commission
(OMPADEC), 333
- Quarrying and Mining, 221
Oligarchy, 45, 56
Oliver Lyttelton Constitution, 1OI
One-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA), 169, 173
Ontogenetic, 253
Open
ended question, 149-150
unemployment, 206
Operation Peed the Nation
programme, 1976, 220
Oppo11unity cost, 189, J92, J98
Ordinal Scale, 265
Organisation
- for Security and Co-
operation in Europe (OSCE),
318
of African Unity (OAU),
318
of Modem Government,
37-42
of Petroleum Export
Countries (OPEC), 221
Organs of government, 31
Origin of State
philosophical and historical
accounts of, 25-27
Parametric Statistics, 169, 171-177
Parents/Family, 62
Parliamentary system of
government, 39, 65, 100
Partial correlation, 172
Participant Observation, 159-160
Participatory skills, 75
Patterns of power distribution, 43,
46-48 , 56
Peace
and Conflict Impact
Assessment System
(PCIAS), 327
and conflict studies, 3 15-337
origins and
development of, 3 15
bui lding, 3 15, 325
enforcement, 325-326
operations, 326
research, 315-316
Studies
common terms in,
325~326
Peacekeeping operations, 326
Pearson correlation, 171-172
Pedosphere. 279
Peer Group, 62
Peripheral
') Nervous System, 257 ,
_59
 Index 367

Philosophical Issues in Psychology, Polity, 44-45

243 Population
Philosophy of History, 2 definition of, 287
Physiological, 253 - growth, 287-288
Planning for Development, 223-228 Positive Economics 194
Political Positivism in sociol~gy 135
• activities, 11, 15, 81, 103 Possibilism, 287 '
apathy, 72, 75 Postal service, 151-152
in Nigeria Post-conflict peace building 327
factors 334 ' t

responsible for, Potential resources, 294

70-72 Poverty
behaviour, 9, 13-14, 61 and Human Development,
Bureau, 81 236-237
controversy, 105 measurement, 236-237
crises, 214 Power, 18-19
culture, 60 Holding Company of
education, 61-62, 81-82 Nigeria (PHCN), 222
equality, 123 mediation, 329
fraud, 72 struggles, 317
independence, 213 Pre-emptive deterrence, 332-333
leadership, 78 Presidential
learning, 61 Enabling Business
life, 13 Environment Council
organisations, 64 (PEBEC), 235
participation, 59-83 . Government, 22, 48-49
- avenues and channels /Parliamentary Constitution.
for, 64-68 99-100
panies, 11 , 15-16, 63-65, 73 s'ystem, 39
power, 37 Pressure groups, 11, 16-17
process, 63, 74-75 Preventive
relationship, 9-1O Diplomacy, 327- 328,
Science, 9 335-336
Socialisation, 59-83 Peace building, 333
- and political or Pre-conflict Peace
participation "-· building. 326
voting as an Strategies, 328-329
indicator of, Primary
68-70 activities, 283-284
stability, 61, 72 data/secondary data. 148
structures, 63 Sources of Data, 148-149
system, 22, 31, 39-64 66-67 Private law, 91-92
284 I t
Procedural
-. Theory, 16-17 democratic theory. 123
transition programme, 69 law, 90-91
values, 60 Production activities, 189
368 Index
Professional associations, 63
Profit maximisation, 196, 285
Protracted Social Conflict (PSC),
321 -322
Psychoanalysis, 246
Psychological
Basis of Behaviour, 254
- explanations of Human
Behaviour, 254
Measurements, 269-27 I
Psychology
- areas of contribution of,
249-250
branches of, 239
subfields of, 247-249
- definition, of, 240-241
- early approaches to, 244-246
- origin of, 241-243
use of data, 271-272
Public
- Administration, 16
bureaucracy, 67-68
institutions, 16
law, 91, 95
- · opinion and public protests,
67
- Private Partnership (PPP),
234
Pulp and paper plants, 222-223
Pure Mediation, 329
Qualitative
- Analysis, 178-179
- finding patterns in,
182-183
- Data Analysis
- process of, 183 ·
Quantitative
Analysis, 164
- data/qualitative data, 148
- methods (numerical
statistical method)s, 146
Quartenary activiti~s. 286
Questionnaire, 149, 153-155
advantages of; 153-154
- disadvantages of, 154-155
Quinnry activities, 286-287
Ratio Scale, 265
Recent Development
Initiatives/Programmes,
228-231
Reconciliation, 330
Reconstruction, 330
Refineries, 222
Relevance of Sociology, 139-142
Reliability of a Scale, 169
Renewable
resources, 276, 293-296
sources of energy, 296
Republican Constitution, l 963, 101
Resource use and sustainable
development, 309-31 l
Richard' s Constitution of 1946, 99,
101
Right to
acquire and own immovable
property anywhere in
Nigeria, 107, 114
dignity of human persons,
107-109
fair hearing, 107, 110-112
freedom
from discrimination,
107, 114
of expression and the
p~ess, 107, I 13
of movement, 107,
113-114
of thought,
conscience and
religion, 107.
112-113
Life, 107-108
peaceful assembly and
association, I 07, 113
personal libeny, 107,
109-110
private and family life, 107,
112 .
..........-· .

Index 369

. 'd .d Flexible Constitutions. Size of the ruling·class and degree of

R1g1 an public involvement, 43-45 .
98-99 .. Social
. r Basin Authonues, 220 .
Ravle f '1cr in te3ching and l~mmg and personality psychology,
Ro co · · rmes,
of Social Science d1sc1p 239,248
and Psychological matters:
344-345 Agency, 320-321
Rolling Plans. 227-228 - change, 139
Rorschach Inkblot Test, 271 - Contract Theory, 27
Rule control, 139
_ adjudication, 31 groups, 139
application. 31, 56 interaction, 136-137
• maldng, 31 media, 63
_ of Law, 36, 42 mobilisation, 13, 73, 80-83
organisation and social
order, 139
Scale of preference, 198-199 problems, 139
scarcity, 189. 197 processes, 139
School - Psychology, 248
_ Psychology, 248 Social Science, 195, 341-342
_ System, 62 definition and meaning of, 1
Science evolution of, 1
_ definition of, 194 Research Council, 3
_ Technology and Innovation why the study? 4
(STI), 232 - objectives of, 4-5
Scientific Social Well- being or Welfar~ 35.
- Behavioural Approach 55
(SBA), 13 Socialisation,
- method, 135-136 meaning of, 59
- elements of, 136 process, 76
- nature of Social Science, 2-3 Socialism, 51-52
Scope of Social Science, 3-4 Socialist Economic System, 200
Secessionist movements, 317 Societal values, 3
Second National Development Plan Sociological imagination, 13..\-135'
(1970-1974), 224-225 140
Secondary Sociology .
- activities. 285 _ basic methods an·data
- sources, 161-163 collection and analysis.
Sectoral Analysis, 219-223 145-186
Self Defence, 119 definition of, 145-147
Separation of powers, 10, 31, 35, 99 definition. focus and
Services, 214 relevance of, 129-142
Sese Seko, Mobutu, 44 meaning of, 129-130
Seven Point Agenda, 223, 229-231 relevance· of. 139
Shagari, Shehu, 77
Soil
Significance of Studying Politics, degradation. 300-30 1
14-15 Resources. 299-300

I
 370 Index
Solar energy, 281, 29 3
Score/Numerical measurement,
263-264
Sovereignty, 12, 29
Spirit of the Laws, 2
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, 271
State
as territorial organisation, 11
characteristics of, 12
Economic Empowerment
and Developmental Strategy
SEEDS), 229
formation conflict, 320
Government and Other
Societies/Associations
relationship between,
25
Ideological Thrust, 43, 50-53
Statistical
- data from questionnaire, 154
Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS), 154, 164, 166, 170,
353
Steel Plants, 222-223
Stratosphere, 277 ·
Stress-absorber, 61
Structural
Adjustment Programme·
(SAP), 213-214, 218,
226-227
and political economy,
321
Structuralism, 244-245
Structure of the Economy, 214-219
Structured Interview, 155-156
Study of
Politics
basic concepts in,
18-21
historical
development of,
13-14
Psychology
- conremporary
approaches ro,
246-249
!roposphere, 277
..~·test, 166, 172
SubfieJds of Psychology, 247-249
Substantive
_ democratic theory, 124
- law, 90
Supreme Military Council, 102
Survey Te~hnique, 266-267
Sustainable Development, 309-312
- Goals (SDGs), 206- 210,
232
broad objectives of, 232-
237
System
- definition of, 276
Systems
- analysis, 276
of Forms of Government, 31
Techniques of economics, 192
Telephone, 151-152
Terrestrial ecosystem, 282
Territory or geographical boundary,
12
Terrorism, 29
Tertiary activities, 286
Textual Analysis, 181
Thematic Analysis, 181
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT),
271
Theocracy, 54, 56
Thedretical perspectives on the
causes of conflict, 320-321
Thermosphere, 277
Third National Development Plan
(1975-1980), 225
Tiers of government, i oo
Totalitarianism, 54 .
Trade associations 66
Traditional Author.ity, 20
Transcendence, 13
Transformation Agenda
and Economic Growth and
Recovery Plan (EGRP), 229
~ • .. frameworks, 223, 231-232
fransnion programme, 102
I wo-way an· a Iys1s
. of variance, I 73

Types of
- Conflict, 319-320
Economics Systems, 200
measuren\ents, 263-264
Natural Resources, 295-300
variables, 263
Typologies of Data in Sociology,
148
Underemployment, 205
Unicameral legislature, 40-41
Unitary, 46
system, 100
United Nations
- Development Programme
(UNDP), 203
Organisation (UNO), 18
Univariate Analysis, 165
Unstructured Interview, 156 _
Unwritten constitution, 96, 98
Utilities of political socialisation,
61-62
Value
- orientation programme, 78
re-orientation, 73, 75-80
system, 76
Index 371
v arm
' hles and Measurements 262
Voluntary Associations 62-63
Voters' '
apathy, 71-73 , 75_7 6
. participation, 69-70
Voting
age .population, 68-70' 73
. .
part1c1pat1on in elections, 6S
Wor Against Indiscipline (W Al)
77-79 ,
Warrant of Arrest, 120-121
Water Resources, 297-298
Wealth of Nations, 2
Westminster model (British model),
40
World Bank's
Doing Business Index, 235
Purchasing Power Parity
(PPP), 236
Written constitution, 96-97
Yar' Adua, Umar Musa, 332, 336
Zedong, Mao (Mao Tse-Tung), 5~