KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION AND

MATHEMATICAL PROOF

This Programme leads to the award of Degree in Education Primary of

Kyambogo University

ii
Kyambogo University

© All rights reserved.

Authors:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Kyambogo University is grateful to the authors, reviewers and publishers for the
reference materials consulted in the production of this self-study module.
Above all, the Centre for Distance Education is also grateful to the writers, editors, and
graphic designer and design team for the good work done to produce this module.
We appreciate your support to this programme and encourage you to continue doing so.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION:
Dear student,
You are most welcome to this module which exposes you to the knowledge of mathematical proof,
true and false statements, negation and conditional statements, converse of a conditional statement.
Note:
Throughout the units, you will have plenty of self-check exercises activities to do. Attempting all
the activities will give you plenty of practice and help with constructing your own arguments.
AIMS
The aim of the unit is to introduce learners to mathematical symbols and language
Learning outcomes
Upon completion of the module, the student should be able to;
• Develop methods for analysis of mathematical statements
• Present logical arguments that establish mathematical statements in the form of clear
proofs
Topics to be covered
The module covers different aspects of mathematical proof like,
A. Mathematics statements
a) True and false statements
b) Negation of a proposition
c) Logical connectives
B. Proving Conditional Statements
1) Direct proof
1.1 Theorems
1.2 Definitions
1.3 Direct proof
2) Proof by Contradiction
3) Contrapositive proof
C) Proving Non- conditional statements
4.1 If-and-only-If Proof
4.2 Equivalent statements
 4.3 Existence Proofs
D) Disproof
6.1 Counter examples
6.2 Disproving existence statement
E) Mathematical induction
 SYMBOLS USED
Throughout each unit, a number of symbols are used. Some indicate that you should do something. Others
indicate things like the learning outcomes of the unit. These symbols are guides that will show you where
you are and what to do.
The symbols and their meanings are these:

Outcomes: This symbol indicates the learning objectives and expected

outcomes of the Unit, including benefits to you, if you do what is learnt.

Activity: This symbol indicates that you should complete the activity indicated before you proceed
with the reading.

Note this important point: This tells you to take note or to remember an
important point.

A question: This indicates that there is a question that you should answer or think about.

Further reading: This indicates additional reading from another source or module that is
suggested.

Checking: This symbol is used to indicate that you are required to check through something, either
a piece of work you have just written or a list of points to be considered in the text.

Summary: This indicates that a summary is given of what has been covered in the Unit.

Discuss: This indicates activities in which you are asked to discuss ideas with others.

Hand in: This shows something that should be handed in to a facilitator.

Congratulations: This shows that you have really achieved something! When you see this you
will know that you have achieved an important point in the learning programmed.
TOPIC 1: FORMAL MATHEMATICS; TRUE AND FALSE STATEMENTS
STATEMENTS
A statement (or verbal assertions) is any collection of symbols ( or sounds) which is either
true or false, but not b o t h . Statements will usually be denoted by t h e letters
P, q, r, …
Example 1: Consider the following expressions
i. Paris is in England
ii. 2+2 =4
iii. Where are you going
iv. Write the homework in your books
The expressions i) and ii) are statements, the first is false and the second is true. The
expressions iii) and iv) are not statements since neither is either true or false.
Other examples include.
a) Today is Thursday (T)
b) Kyambogo is a privately owned institution (F)
c) 6 + 4 = 20 (F)
d) A square is a rectangle (T)
e) Tomorrow is Wednesday (F)
f) Fish is semi aquatic (F)

Formal definitions
Proposition – a statement which is either true or false. Its t r u t h or f als i ty is called its truth
value. The truth value of a proposition can be represented in a truth table.

NEGATION OF A PROPOSITION

Negation means the use of “NOT”

Examples
Proposition (P) Negation (NOT P)
Today is Thursday (T) Today is NOT Thursday (F)
Kyambogo is a privately owned institution Kyambogo is NOT a privately owned institution
(F) (T)
6 + 4 = 20 (F) 6 + 4 ≠20 (T)
A square is a rectangle (T) A square is NOT a rectangle (F)

NB. If a proposition is true, its negation is false and vice versa.

Diagrammatically, it can be represented as;
 P NOT P
T F
F T
Questions
A. State whether the following propositions are True or False.
1. There exists integers X and Y such that X + Y = -1
Soln:
True, because there are some integers that satisfy the equation e.g., x, y (-3,2) = -3+2 = -1

2. For each natural n, either n = 1 or n2 ≥ 4

Soln:
True, because n = 1 or its square can be greater than 4.

Negations
B. Find the negations and say whether it is true or false
1. There are exactly 5 prime numbers (p) such that 2 < p < 20
Soln:
P = {3,5,7,11,13,17,19}
n(p) =7 not 5 as in the statement making it false.
The negation, i.e. There are not exactly 5 prime numbers such that 2 < p < 20 is True.

2. The only real numbers for which sin x = 0 are 0, 𝜋, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜋

Negation: The only real numbers for which sin x = 0 are not 0, 𝜋, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜋
Sin 5400 = 0, sin -1800 = 0
Therefore, negation is true

3. There exists a rational number 𝑥 such that 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0

Negation: There exists no rational number 𝑥 such that 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
By solving the equation, we show that the negation is false.

COMPOUND STATEMENTS (LOGICAL CONNECTIVES)

Some s t a t e m e n t s are composite, that is, composed of sub-statements and
various logical connectives which we discuss subsequently. Such composite
statements are called compound statements.

E.g. 2.1 "Roses are red and violets are blue" is a compound statement
with sub-statements
 "Roses are red" and "Violets are blue".

E.g. 2.2: "He is intelligent or studies every night" is, implicitly, a

compound statement with sub-statements “He is intelligent,"
and "He studies every night".
The fundamental property of a compound statement is that its tr u th value is
completely determined by the truth values of its s u b -statements together with
the way in w h i c h they are c o n n e c t e d to f or m the compound statement.
We begin with a s tudy of s o m e of t h e s e connectives.

CONJUNCTION, 𝒑 𝜦 𝒒
Any two statements can be combined by the word "and" to form a
compound statement called t h e c o n j u n c t i o n of the o r i g i n a l statements.
Symbolically, 𝑝 𝛬 𝑞

denotes the conjunction of the statements p and q , read "p and q"

E.g. 3 . 1 : Let p b e “It is raining" and let q be "The sun is shining".

Then 𝑝 𝛬 𝑞 denotes the statement "It i s raining, and t h e
s u n is shining".
The truth value of the compound statement 𝑝𝛬 𝑞 satisfies the
following property: [𝑇] If p is true and q is true, then 𝑝 𝛬 𝑞 is true;
otherwise,
1 𝑝 𝛬 𝑞 is false.
In o th er words, the c o n j u n c t i o n of two s t a t e m e n t s is true only i n th e
c a s e w h e n each s u b - statement is true.

E.g. 3.2: Consider th e following f o u r statements:

(i) Paris is in France and 2 + 2 = 4.
(ii) Paris is in France and 2 + 2 = 5.
(iii) Paris is in England a n d 2 + 2 = 4.
(iv) Paris is in England a n d 2 + 2 = 5.

By property [𝑇], only the first statement is true.

Exercise
Represent in truth table, the propositions p, q, ~𝑝, ~𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, ~(p 𝛬 𝑞), p ∧ ~𝑞, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞,
~(~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞), and ~( p ∧ ~𝑞)
Disjunction, p 𝒗 𝒒
Two statements p, q can be combined by the word "or" to form a compound
statement, p 𝑣 𝑞 which can be true or false. It is a compound statement which is false when p is
false e.g.
p q p𝒗𝒒
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Complete the table below

p q ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 ~(p 𝜦 𝒒) p𝒗𝒒 ~(p 𝒗 𝒒) ~𝒑 ∧ ~ 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒗 ~𝒒
T T F F T F T F F F
T F F T F T T F F T
F T T F F T T F F T
F F T T F T F T T T

Summary
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 TT = T p 𝑣 𝑞 TT = T
FT = F FT = T
TF = F TF = T
FF = F FF = F

From the table,

~(p 𝛬 𝑞) = ~𝑝 𝑣 ~𝑞 and ~(p 𝑣 𝑞) = ~𝑝 ∧ ~ 𝑞
We can therefore conclude that ~(p 𝛬 𝑞) and ~𝑝 𝑣 ~𝑞 are logically equivalent and so is
~(p 𝑣 𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧ ~ 𝑞.
NB. In relation to sets,
(𝑃 ∩ 𝑄)1 = 𝑃′ ∪ 𝑄1 and (P U Q)1 = P1 ∩ Q1

The Logical Implication (the conditional)

We can combine propositions p and q as if p, then q with a notation p ⇒ q and has the
following truth table.
Definition.
 p ⇒ q is a compound statement which is FALSE when p is true (T) and q is false (F), otherwise
it is true.
p q p⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Examples
p: it rains
q: you get wet
p ⇒ q: if it rains, then you get wet.
Consider the following truth table
p q p⇒ q q⇒ p ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ⇒ ~𝒒 ~𝒒 ⇒ ~𝒑 ~( 𝐩 ⇒ 𝐪)
T T T T F F T T F
T F F T F T T F T
F T T F T F F T F
F F T T T T T T F

p⇒ q Implication
q⇒ p Converse
~p ⇒ ~q Inverse
~q ⇒ ~p Contrapositive
NB. The implication is logically equivalent to its contrapositive.
Exercise
Use a truth table to show that p ⇒ q , ~p 𝐯 𝐪 and ~(𝐩 ∧ ~ 𝐪) are equivalent.
p q p⇒ q ~p 𝐯 𝐪 ~(𝐩 ∧ ~ 𝐪)
T T T T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

From the table, the negation of p ⇒ q is ~(𝐩 ⇒ 𝐪) and not ~𝐩 ⇒ ~q

e.g.
1. p ⇒ q If I go to Kyu, then I will get a degree. (T)
~(𝐩 ⇒ 𝐪) It is not true that if I go to Kyu then I get a degree (F)
2. p ⇒ q If 𝑥 2 = 16, then 𝑥 = 4; (F) because 𝑥 can be -4
~(𝐩 ⇒ 𝐪) It is not true that if 𝑥 2 = 16, then 𝑥 = 4 (T)

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. State whether the following sentences are;
a) True for all real values of x
b) True for at least one real value of x, but not all x
c) True for no real value of x

i. x +1 = 3
ii. (x +1)2 = x2 +2x+1
iii. x2 + x + 1 = 0
iv. (x - 1) (x-2) ≥ 0
v. (x -1)2 ≥ 0
TOPIC 2: MATHEMATICAL PROOF
The truth of given statements can be established using logical processes starting with the truth of
statements. A proof is a convincing argument that some mathematical statement is true. It must
use correct logical reasoning and be based on previously established results. A proof is also a
sequence of logical statements, one implying another, which explains why a given statement is
true. Previously established theorems may be used to deduce the new ones; one may also refer to
axioms, which are the starting points, “rules” accepted by everyone. Mathematical proof is
absolute, which means that once a theorem is proved, it is proved forever. Until proven though,
the statement is never accepted as a true one.

We shall look at.

1. Direct proof
2. Indirect proof
3. Use of counter examples
4. Proof by contradiction
5. Proof by mathematical induction
Direct proof

Direct proof is probably the easiest approach to establish the theorems, as it does not require
knowledge of any special techniques. The argument is constructed using a series of simple
statements, where each one should follow directly from the previous one. It is important not to
miss out any steps as this may lead to a gap in reasoning. To prove the hypothesis, one may use
axioms, as well as the previously established statements of different theorems. Propositions of the
form
A⇒B

are shown to be valid by starting at A and writing down what the hypothesis means and
consequently approaching B using correct implications. Direct proof is therefore used to prove
statements of the form “if p then q” or “p implies q” which we can write as p ⇒ q. The method of
the proof is to take an original statement p, which we assume to be true, and use all that we know
about p and other necessary facts to deduce that another statement q is true, that is show, p ⇒ q is
true. It is tempting to skip simple steps, but in mathematics nothing is “obvious” - all steps of
reasoning must be included. Also, the reader must know what you mean to be able to follow your
argument.

Below you will find the theorems from various areas of mathematics. Some of them will be new
and techniques used not previously seen by the reader. To help you understand, the proofs are
preceded by the “rough notes” which should give a little introduction to the reasoning and show
the thought process.

Theorem 1.1
Let n and m be integers. Then,

a. if n and m are both even, then n + m is even,

b. if n and m are both odd, then n + m is even,
c. if one of n and m is even and the other is odd, then n + m is odd.

Rough notes. This is a warm-up theorem to make us comfortable with writing mathematical
arguments. Start with the hypothesis, which tells you that both n and m are integers (for part a).
Use your knowledge about the even and odd numbers, writing
them in forms 2k or 2k + 1 for some integer k.

Examples

1). If n and m are even, then there exist integers k and j such that n = 2k and m = 2j. Then
n + m = 2k + 2j = 2(k + j)

And since k, j ∈ ℤ, (k + j) ∈ ℤ .

2). Let n 𝜖 ℕ, n > 1. Suppose that n is not prime ⇒ 2𝑛 - 1 is not prime.

Rough notes. Notice that this statement gives us a starting point; we know what it means to be a
prime, so it is reasonable to begin by writing n as a product of two natural
numbers n = a x b.

To find the next step, we have to “play” with the numbers, so we receive the expression of the
required form.

We are looking at 2𝑎𝑏 -1 and we want to factorize this. We know the identity

Apply this identity with t = 2𝑏 and m = a to obtain

Always keep in mind where you are trying to get to.

Proof. Since n is not a prime, ∃ a, b 𝜖 ℕ such that n = a x b, 1 < 𝑎, 𝑏 < 𝑛. Let x = 2𝑏 -1 and
Now notice that since 1 < b < n, we have that 1 < 2𝑏 -1 < 2𝑛 -1, so 1 < x < 2𝑛 − 1: Therefore,
x is a positive factor, hence 2𝑛 -1 is not prime number.

Note: It is not true that: n 𝜖 ℕ, if n is prime ⇒ 2𝑛 -1 is prime.

3). Let x, y, z ∈ ℤ. If x + y = x +z, then y = z.

Rough notes. The proof of this proposition is an example of an axiomatic proof, i.e. the proof
that refers explicitly to the axioms. To prove the statements of the simplest form like the one
above, we need to find a starting point. Referring to axioms is often a good idea.

Proof.

4). Directly prove that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is also an odd integer.

Solution

Let p be the statement that n is an odd integer and q be the statement that n2 is an odd integer.

Assume that n is an odd integer, then, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. (by definition)

We will now use this to show that n2 is also an odd integer.

n2 = (2k + 1)2
n2 = (2k + 1) (2k + 1)
= 4k2 + 2k + 2k + 1 by expanding the brackets
= 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1 since 2 is a common factor.

Hence, we have shown that n2 has the form of an odd integer since 2k2+2k is an integer. Therefore,
we have shown that p ⇒ q and so we have completed our proof.

5). Let a, b and c be integers, directly prove that if a divides b and a divides c then a also divides
b + c.

Solution
Let a, b and c be integers and assume that a divides b and a divides c.

Then as a divides b, by definition, there is some integer k such that b = ak.

Also, as a divides c, by definition, there is some integer l such that c = al.

N.B

We use different letters k and l to stand for the integers because we do not know if b and c are
equal or not.

We will now use these two facts to get our conclusion.

So, b + c = (ak) + (al) by our definitions of b

and c = a (k + l) since a is a common factor.

Hence a divides b + c since k + l is an integer.

6. Directly prove that if m and n are odd integers then mn is also an odd integer.

Solution

Assume that m and n are odd integers. Then by definition m = 2k + 1 for some integer k and n =
2l + 1 for some integer l.

N.B
We have used different integers k and l in the definitions of m and n.
We will now use this to show that mn is also an odd integer.

mn = (2k + 1)(2l + 1) by our definitions of m and n = 4kl + 2k + 2l + 1 by expanding the brackets

= 2(2kl + k + l) + 1 since 2 is a common factor.

Hence, we have shown that mn has the form of an odd integer since 2kl + k + l is an integer.
7). Let m and n be integers. Directly prove that if m and n are perfect squares, then mn is also a
perfect square.
Solution
From the definition of an integer m being a perfect square,
m = k2 for some integer k. Now assume that m and n are integers and are perfect squares.
m = k2 for some integer k and n = l2 for some integer l.
We will now use these facts to show that mn is also a perfect square.
mn = k2 l2 = (kl)2 and kl is an integer, therefore mn is a perfect square.

8). Prove that if y2 + 2y – 3 = 0, then y = -3 or y =1

Solution
P = (y2 + 2y – 3 = 0) then q = (y = -3 or y =1)
If y2 + 2y – 3 = 0
Using
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑦= 2𝑎

This yield,
y =-3 or y =1

8). Use direct proof to show that the sum of any three consecutive even numbers is always a
multiple of 6
Solution
{0,2,4,6, 8,…}
6 =2*3
8=2*4
10=2*5
Peven = 2k
In general, any even number can be written as 2k
= 2k
= 2k+2
=2k+4
Where k is any number
For the above numbers, their sum is computed as,
= (2k) +(2k +2) +(2k +4)
= 6k +6
= 6(k +1)
Which is a multiple of 6.
Exercise
Directly prove that
1. If n is an even integer, then 7n + 4 is an even integer.
2. If m is an even integer and n is an odd integer then m + n is an odd integer.
3. If m is an even integer and n is an odd integer then mn is an even integer.
4. If a, b and c are integers such that a divides b and b divides c then a divide c

Proof by contradiction

It is sometimes difficult (or impossible) to prove that a conjecture is true using direct methods. For
example, to show that the square root of two is irrational, we cannot directly test and reject the
infinite number of rational numbers whose square might be two. Instead, we show that the
assumption that root two. In a proof by contradiction (sometimes called an indirect proof), we
prove our conclusion by showing that the opposite is impossible. To do this, we assume that the
thing we are trying to prove is not true, and then show how that assumption leads to logical
contradiction.

Steps:

1. Assume the statement you are trying to prove is false.

2. Try to prove the opposite statement (i.e., as with direct proof).
3. Come across a contradiction somewhere in your proof.
4. State that since the contradiction disproves the negation, the original statement must be
true (i.e., because of the contradiction, it cannot be the case that the statement is false, so
it must be true).

Proof by contradiction depends on the logic that truth and falsity are opposites, and both cannot
exist.
 No Two Ways

1. A statement cannot be true and false at the same time.

2. If the statement can be proven true, then it cannot be false.
3. If the statement can be proven false, then it cannot be true.
4. If the statement cannot be proven true, then it is false.
5. If the statement cannot be proven false, then it is true.

Examples

1) Prove that there is an infinite number of prime numbers.

a). Assume the opposite of your conclusion.

For “the primes are infinite in number,” assume that the primes are a finite set of size n.
(1)

That we write as

𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3, …, 𝑝𝑛

And we define a new number as

𝑚 = 𝑝1 × 𝑝2 × 𝑝3 × … × 𝑝𝑛 + 1
As we are saying that there are no other prime numbers than the list defined in (1), then m should
not be a prime number and therefore divisible by 𝑝𝑛.

However, if we do this we are left with a remainder, 1, and as there are no integers that divide 1,
then m must also be a prime number. This is the contradiction. Hence there are infinitely many
prime numbers.

2) For all real numbers if x3 rational, then 𝐱 is also rational. True or false?

This is a true statement.

Let x be a rational number, defined as
𝑝
𝑥=𝑞

an irreducible fraction, where 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ.

Cubing both sides of equation give

𝑝3
𝑥 3 = 𝑞3
We note that are integers because p and q are integers then so are their cubes. This means that
𝑥 3 is defined as the ratio of two integers, thus making it rational.

3) Prove that √2 is irrational.

Proof by contradiction

Assume that is rational and can be defined as

𝑎
√2 = 𝑏

an irreducible fraction, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.

Squaring both sides gives
𝑎2
2= 2
𝑏

2𝑏2 = 𝑎2

The LHS is an even number, this means that the RHS must also be an even number. Thus, both a
and b are even.
𝑎
Contradiction. We originally stated that 𝑏 was irreducible, however if the integers were both even
it would be reducible, by dividing by 2

4) If 𝐚, 𝐛 ∈ ℤ, then 𝑎2 − 4𝑏 − 3 ≠ 0

Proof by contradiction.

Assume the quadratic does equal zero.

𝑎2 − 4𝑏 − 3 = 0 (1)
⇒ 𝑎2 = 4𝑏 + 3 (2)

The RHS here is odd, therefore, the LHS 𝑎2 and ultimately 𝑎 is odd. We can define 𝑎 as
𝑎 = 2𝑛 + 1

Substituting (2) back into (1) gives

(2𝑛 + 1)2 = 4𝑏 + 3

4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1 = 4𝑏 + 3

4(𝑛2 + 𝑛 − 𝑏) = 2

(𝑛2 + 𝑛 − 𝑏) = 2/4
Contradiction, on the LHS we have integers and on the RHS we have a fraction. Therefore, the
assumption that the quadratic equals zero is incorrect.

5) Using proof by contradiction show that there are no positive integer solutions to the equation
x2 - y2 = 10

Assume positive integer solutions

Spot solution is difference of two squares. (1)

(𝑥 + 𝑦) (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 1 (2)
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1, 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1, 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −1

Solving (1), by adding, gives: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0

This is a contradiction as x and y should be positive.

Solving (2), by adding, gives:

𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 0
Again, this is a contradiction as x and y should be positive.

6) If a is a rational number and b is an irrational number, then a + b is an irrational number.

Demonstrate, using proof, why the above statement is correct.

Proof by contradiction.

Assume, a is a rational number, b is an irrational number a + b is a rational number. Therefore, a

can be represented as the ratio of two integers,
𝑚
𝑛
b can be left the same and a + b can also be represented as the ratio of two integers,

𝑗
𝐾

Writing our assumptions out gives

𝑚 𝑗
+𝑏=
𝑛 𝑘

𝑗 𝑚
⇒𝑏=𝑘− 𝑛

𝑘𝑚−𝑛𝑗
⇒𝑏= 𝑘𝑛

Contradiction. This last statement says b equals the product of two integers (km) minus the product
of two other integers (nj), all divided by another integer product (kn). This means b is rational.
However, we know b is irrational so the assumption that rational + irrational = rational is incorrect.
7) Prove that triangle ABC can have no more than one right angle.
Proof by contradiction.
∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 + ∠𝐶 = 180𝑜
If
If ∠𝐴 = 90o a𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵 = 90o
Then
90o + 90o + ∠𝐶 = 180o

∠𝐶 = 0o

Contradiction. Triangles must have three angles; one cannot equal 0.

8) Prove that the product of sum of three consecutive integers is divisible by 3.

Let the first integer be n, the second n+1 and the third n+2.
Their sum, therefore, is

𝑛 + (𝑛 + 1) + (𝑛 + 2)
3𝑛 + 3
3(𝑛 + 1)

And three is divisible by three.

9) The number of even integers is limitless. Prove or disprove this statement.

Proof by contradiction
Assume the number of even integers is limited and this largest number is called 𝐿.
𝐿 = 2𝑛
as it is even.

Consider, L+2

𝐿 + 2 = 2𝑛 + 2
𝐿 + 2 = 2(𝑛 + 1)
which is also even and larger than L.
This is a contradiction to our original assumption.

10) Suppose 𝐚 ∈ ℤ If 𝑎2 is even, then 𝒂 is even.

Proof by contradiction.

Suppose 𝑎2 is not even, then we can define it as

𝑎2 = (2𝑛 + 1)2
 𝑎2 = 4𝑛 2 + 4𝑛 + 1
𝑎2 = 2(2𝑛 2 + 2) + 1

which is an odd number.

This means 𝑎2 is an odd number, if 𝑎 is an even number, this makes 𝑎2 an even number too.

How can 𝑎2 be both even and odd. It cannot.

Proof by Contrapositive

This is another method of indirect proof. Suppose that we are asked to prove a conditional
statement, or a statement of the form
“If A, then B.”

We know that we can try to prove it directly, which is always the more enlightening and
preferred method. If a direct proof fails (or is too hard), we can try a contradiction proof, where
we assume ¬B and A, and we arrive at some sort of fallacy. It’s also possible to try a proof by
contrapositive, which rests on the fact that a statement of the form.

“If A, then B.” (A ⇒ B)

is logically equivalent to

“If ¬B, then ¬A.” (¬B ⇒ ¬A)

The second statement is called the contrapositive of the first. Instead of proving that A implies B,
you prove directly that ¬B implies ¬A.

Proof by contrapositive takes advantage of the logical equivalence between "P implies Q" and
"Not Q implies Not P". For example, the assertion "If it is my car, then it is red" is equivalent to
"If that car is not red, then it is not mine". So, to prove "If P, Then Q" by the method of
contrapositive means to prove "If Not Q, Then Not P".

Steps of proof by contrapositive:

1. Form the contrapositive. Negate A and B.

2. Prove directly that ¬B implies ¬A.

There is one small caveat here. Since proof by contrapositive involves negating certain logical
statements, one must be careful. If the statements are at all complicated, negation can be quite
delicate. However, sometimes the given proposition already contains certain negative statements,
and contrapositive is the natural choice.

Example
1). Prove by contrapositive: Let x ∈ ℤ. If 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 is even, then 𝑥 is odd.
Proof. Suppose that 𝑥 is even. Then we want to show that 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 is odd. Write 𝑥= 2a for
some a ∈ ℤ, and plug in:
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = (2𝑎)2 − 6(2a) + 5

= 4𝑎2 − 12a + 5

= 2(2𝑎2 − 6a + 2) + 1.

Thus 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5

A test for perfect squares

In this example, we will need two notions. An integer n is called a perfect square if there is
another integer k such that n = k2. For example, 13689 is a perfect square since 13689 = 1172.

The second idea is the remainder and modular arithmetic. For two integers m and n, n mod(m) =
r will be the remainder resulting when we divide m into n. This means that there is an integer q
such that n = mq + r. For example, 127 mod (29) = 11 since 29 will go into 127, 4 times with a
remainder of 11 (or, in other words, 127 = (4)(29) + 11).

Determining whether a positive integer is a perfect square might be difficult. For example, is
82,642,834,671 a perfect square? First, we compute 82,642,834,671 mod (4) = 3. Then use this
theorem:

Theorem. If n is a positive integer such that n mod (4) is 2 or 3, then n is not a perfect square.

Proof. We will prove the contrapositive version: "If n is a perfect square then n mod (4) must be
0 or 1." (Do you understand why this is the contrapositive version?) Suppose n = k2. There are four
cases to consider.

1. If k mod (4) = 0, then k = 4q, for some integer q. Then, n = k2 = 16 q2 = 4(4 q2), i.e., n mod
(4) = 0.
2. If k mod (4) = 1, then k = 4q + 1, for some integer q. Then, n = k 2 = 16 q2 + 8 q + 1= 4(4
q2 + 2 q) + 1, i.e., n mod (4) = 1.
3. If k mod (4) = 2, then k = 4q + 2, for some integer q. Then, n = k2 = 16 q2 + 16 q + 4 = 4(4
q2 + 4 q + 1), i.e., n mod (4) = 0.
4. If k mod (4) = 3, then k = 4q + 3, for some integer q. Then, n = k2 = 16 q2 + 24 q + 9 = 4(4
q2 + 6 q + 2) + 1, i.e., n mod (4) = 1.

Exercises

Prove each of the following by the contrapositive method.

1. If x and y are two integers whose product is even, then at least one of the two must be even.
2. If x and y are two integers whose product is odd, then both must be odd.
 3. If n is a positive integer such that n mod (3) = 2, then n is not a perfect square.
4. If a and b are real numbers such that the product ab is an irrational number, then either a
or b must be an irrational number.

Notice that we are not trying to show that ~P infers ~Q as that would be the same as to say Q infers
P. We are showing that if Q is false then P must be false as well.

Example

1). Proposition: if x > 1 then x > 0

Here we have that P is the conditional statement that if x > 1 then Q follows, and Q is the statement
that x > 0.

A direct proof assumes that P is true and then shows that Q follows, in this example it would go:

Proof: Assume that x > 1

then x > 0.

A contrapositive proof goes the other way if ~ Q and then it follows that ~P. In this example it
goes

Proof: Assume that x < 0, then x < 1.

Which in this case is obviously true.

A contrapositive proof should not be confused for a converse proof where we want to show that Q
implies P which in the above example is false.

Proposition: If x > 0 then x > 1

Assume that x > 0

then x > 1, Which is not true.

But why turn it all upside down? Couldn’t we just use direct proof? In many cases yes, we could
use a direct proof, but the contrapositive version is easier to read.

2). Proposition: If x and y are two integers for which x+y is even then x and y have same parity
(either both are even or both are odd).

Contrapositive proof: Assume that x and y have different parity (~ Q). I will assume that x is
odd, and y is even without loss of generality, since x and y are commutative.
Then from the definitions of even and odd, we have that there exists two number m and n such
that x = 2m + 1 and y = 2n.

This means we have x + y = 2m + 1 + 2n = 2(m+n) +1. This is the definition of an odd number
and thus x+y is odd (~P).

This is a proof by a contrapositive statement by assuming that we have the opposite result, what is
the starting condition. We could very well have done this as a direct proof as well and we would
end up with two cases.

Let us try.

Direct proof: We have two cases of same parity either x and y are even, or x and y is odd

Odd: if x and y are odd there exists two integers m, n such that x = 2m+1 and y = 2n+1.

This means we have x + y = 2m+1 + 2n+1 = 2(m+n+1). This is the definition of an even number.

Even: if x and y are even there exists two integers m, n such that x = 2m and y = 2n.

This means awe have x + y = 2m + 2n = 2(m+n). This is the definition of an even number.

So, in both cases x+y is even if x and y have the same parity.

As you can see, we can easily show it through direct proof, but it flows better as a contrapositive
proof since we do not have to go through two different cases.

Compared to a proof of contradiction you have the advantage that the goal is clear. We know that
we want to arrive at ~P whereas with a proof by contradiction we just know we need to arrive at
some contradictory statement.

Example 2

Proposition: If is even then x is even

Proof: Assume that x is odd then we have an integer k such that x = 2k+1.

Then which is an odd number. This means

that if is even then x is even.

Proving this with a direct proof would us to show that can be transformed
into for some value of m, something which I would not really enjoy all that much.

A contrapositive proof is therefore used when it is easier to prove than the original statement.

Proving Non-Conditional Statements

If-Then Proof

We have seen proofs of conditional statements of the form.

if P, then Q.

We have also seen proofs that use each of the following approaches:

i. 1 Direct proof; assume P is true and show Q must be true,

ii. 2 Contrapositive proof (also called an indirect proof); assume Q is false and show P must
be false.
iii. 3 Proof by contradiction; assume P∧ ~Q and show that a contradiction arises.

If-and-Only-If Proof

Sometimes we want to prove a bi-conditional statement in the form,

P if and only if Q

which is equivalent to the statement

(P ⇒Q) ∧ (Q⇒ P).

Bi-conditional statements are strong in the sense that both a conditional statement and its converse
are true.

Often, we will need to work a little harder to prove a bi-conditional statement than we would need
to for a conditional statement. This is because we will need to prove two conditional statements:
(P ⇒Q) and (Q⇒ P). that is If P, then Q and If Q, then P.

Examples

1). Preposition: An integer 𝑎 is odd if and only if 𝑎3 is odd.

M
Proof.
We begin by showing that if 𝑎 is odd then 𝑎3 is odd. Suppose 𝑎 is odd so it can be written as 𝑎 =
2k + 1 for some integer k. Then

MMMM
𝑎3 = (2𝑘 + 1)3 = 8𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 6k + 1 = 2(4𝑘 3 + 6𝑘 2 + 3k) + 10771AT231

which is odd since 4𝑘 3 + 6𝑘 2 + 3k is an integer by the closure properties for integers.

Conversely, we need to show that if 𝑎3 is odd then a is odd. We will do this using a contrapositive
proof. Suppose a is not odd, i.e., a is even, so a = 2k for some integer k. Then

𝑎3 = (2𝑘)3 = 8𝑘 3 = 2(4𝑘 3 ).

Since 𝑎3 is an integer multiple of 2, we see that it is even by definition and therefore not odd. Thus,
𝑎3 being odd implies 𝑎 is odd. This completes the proof.

Equivalent Statements

Equivalent Statements are statements that are written differently but hold the same logical
equivalence.

Case 1: “If p then q” has three equivalent statements.

RULE
Statement Equivalent Statement
If p then q not p or q
If p then q q or not p
If p then q If not q then not p

Examples
Statement Equivalent Statement
If it is blue, then it is the sky It is not blue, or it is the sky
If it is blue, then it is the sky It is the sky, or it is not blue
If it is blue, then it is the sky If it is not the sky, then it is not blue

Case 2: Statements beginning with “It is not true that…”

RULE
Statement Equivalent Statement
~ (p and q) not p or not q
~ (p or q) not p and not q
~ (if p then q) p and not q
~ (All p are q) Some p are not q
~ (No p are q) Some p are q
~ (Some p are q) No p are q
~ (Some p are not q) All p are q

Examples
Statement Equivalent Statement
 It is not true if Peter has an A, then Mary Peter has an A and Mary does not have
has a C. aC
It is not true that all apples are red. Some apples are not red.
It is not true that no banana is yellow Some bananas are yellow.
It is not true that some grapes are not green. All grapes are green.
It is not true that the car is red, or the pole is The car is not red, and the pole is blue
not blue.

Practice questions
Answer “yes” if the statements are equivalent. Answer “no” if the statements are not equivalent.

1. If it is heavy, then I am strong.

If I am not strong, then it is not heavy.

2. If it is winter, then Tom is cold.

It is winter and Tom is cold.

3. If Jack wins, then Mary loses.

Jack does not win, or Mary loses.

4. If cats like fish, the dogs like beef.

Dogs like beef or cats do not like fish.

For Questions 5 – 9, write an equivalent statement.

5. It is not true that Ben plays the flute or Jan plays the piano.

6. It is not true that chocolate is white, and milk is green.

7. It is not true that all puppies are playful.

8. It is not true that some elephants are grey.

9. It is not true that no berries are red.

Existence Proof

Example

Prove that there exists an integer n for which 8n + 5 = 61.

Soln
To prove this, we need to show that there is an integer n for which 8n + 5 = 61 is a true
statement. Although it is not necessary to find the value of n, if we can find a value for n that
works then we've completed the proof.
In this case n = 7 works since 8. 7 + 5 = 56 + 5 = 61.

This is an example of an existence proof. In some cases, the easiest way to prove the statement is
to find a value that makes it true. Sometimes this is not possible.

Existence and Uniqueness Proof

Now consider the proposition

Proposition
There exists a unique integer n for which 8n + 5 = 61.
Now we need to show two things:

1. 1 an integer n that satisfies 8n + 5 = 61 exists, and

2. 2 it is the only integer that satisfies 8n + 5 = 61.

How can we show n = 7 is the only such integer? Suppose that there is another integer, say m,
that satisfies the equation. Then

8m + 5 = 61
8m = 56
56
m = 8 = 7:

Since m = 7, we conclude that the only number that satisfies 8n + 5 = 61 is 7.

Proof by use of a counter example.

A proposition is proved to be generally not true because a particular example is found, for which
it is not true. Given any statement, we pick an example to show that it is false (i.e. counter to).

Examples

1). For all real numbers x and y, show that if x2 = y2, then x = y

Solution

Picking any real numbers, we show that if x2 = y2, then x = y, is false.

x2 = y2 but x ≠ y
e.g.
x = 3, x2 = 9
y = -3, y2 = 9

Thus,

x2 = y2 but x≠y
2). If ax2 +bx +c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers, then the roots (solutions) of the
equation are real numbers.

Solution

(proof to have no real roots)

e.g.
x2 – 6x +13 = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
using 𝑦= 2𝑎

The solution has no real roots, hence shown.

Proof by mathematical induction

Mathematical induction is one of the techniques which can be used to prove a variety of
mathematical statements which are formulated in terms of n, where n is a positive integer. The
most common problems that induction can be applied to include general series, divisibility, and
implication.
Principle of mathematical induction
Let P(n) be a given statement involving the natural number n such that
i) The statement is true for n = 1 i.e.., P (1) is true (or true for any fixed natural number) and
ii) If the statement is true for n = k (where k is a particular but arbitrary natural number), then the
statement is also true for n = k +1, i.e., truth of P(k) implies the truth of P(k + 1). Then P(n) is
true for all-natural numbers n.
Example

1). Prove by induction that

Example 2: General series

2). Prove by mathematical induction that for all integers 𝑛≥1

𝑆(𝑛)∶ 1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑛−1) = 𝑛 2
Solution

a). We need to show that the conjecture is true for a small value of n, e.g. n = 1. Substituting this
value into the series we have:

1 = 12
which is clearly true
∴ we have shown that S (1) is true

b). Inductive step: Here we assume the statement (inductive hypothesis)

𝑆(𝑘)∶ 1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑘−1) = 𝑘 2 (1)

is true for a fixed but arbitrary value of 𝑘≥1 and verify that the statement

𝑆(𝑘+1)∶ 1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑘−1) +[2(𝑘+1)−1]= (𝑘 + 1)2 (2)

Looking back at (1), we can see that the series 1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑘−1) exists in (2).
We therefore substitute 𝑘 2 into (2) for 1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑘−1), and algebraically rewrite the Left-
Hand Side (LHS) until it equals the Right-Hand Side (RHS).

LHS =1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑘−1) +[2(𝑘+1) −1]

=1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑘−1) +(2𝑘+1)
=𝑘 2 +(2𝑘+1)
=(𝐾 + 1)2 = RHS

Conclusion: Because we have verified the initial and inductive steps, we can conclude by
induction that the statement

S(n)∶ 1+3+5+⋯+(2𝑛−1) = 𝑛 2

is true for all integers 𝑛≥1.

Example 3: Divisibility

Prove by mathematical induction that for all integers 𝑛≥1

𝑆(𝑛)∶ 32𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 8.

a). We need to show that S (1) is true.

Substituting n = 1 in the expression gives

32(1) -1= 32−1 = 9−1 = 8

which is clearly divisible by 8.
Therefore, S (1) is true.

b). Inductive step: We assume that the statement (inductive hypothesis)

32k−1 is divisible by 8 (1)

is true for a fixed and arbitrary value of 𝑘 ≥ 1. We must verify that the statement

𝑆(𝑘+1) ∶ 32(k+1) −1 is divisible by 8

is true.

c). Now, we manipulate the expression 32(k+1) −1 using algebraic rules until it becomes
divisible by 8.

32(k+1) −1 =32k+2 −1

= 32k × 32 −1

= 32k (9) −1

= 32k (8+1) −1

= 8×32k+32k −1 (2)
Now because from (1) we have assumed that 32k −1 is divisible by 8, there are two terms which
are divisible by 8: one proven through clear algebra, and the other via an assumption from the
inductive step. As such, both terms of (2) are divisible by 8 and therefore so is their sum. In other
words, S(k+1) is true.

Example 4: Inequalities

Using mathematical induction, prove that for all integers 𝑛≥3.

𝑆(𝑛)∶ 2n >2𝑛+1

Solution

a). Initial step: We need to show that the statement S (3) is true. Substituting n=3 into this
expression gives:

23 >2(3) +1

8>7
which is clearly true
Therefore, S (3) is true.

b). Inductive step: We assume that the statement (inductive hypothesis)

𝑆(𝑘)∶ 2k >2𝑘+1 (1)

is true for a fixed and arbitrary value of k≥3. We must verify the statement

𝑆(𝑘+1) ∶ 2k+1 >2(𝑘+1) +1 (2)

We now manipulate both sides of (1) to transform it into (2). In other words, the inductive
statement will be manipulated algebraically so the values of n = k have been transformed into n =
k + 1. Once we have done this, by implication we will have shown that the statement will remain
true for all values of k and the very next value after k. Ideally, the ‘finished product’ will look
like:

2k+1 > 2(𝑘+1) +1

2k×2> 2(2𝑘+1) Multiply both sides by 2

2k+1> 4𝑘 + 2 Simplify
2k+1> 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 + 2 Re-express the RHS terms
2k+1> 2𝑘 + 2 + 2k Rearrange the RHS terms
2k+1> 2(𝑘+1) + 2k Factorize the first two terms
Now, as the original problem stated, 𝑛 ≥ 3 which implies that the LHS of the original statement
2n + 1 > 1. If we substitute n = 3 into the LHS we obtain a value of 7, which is clearly greater
than 1. As such we can create a concatenated inequality statement:

2k+1>2(𝑘+1) + 2k > 2(𝑘+1) + 1

∴ 2k+1 > 2(𝑘+1) + 1

In this way, the inductive step S(k) has implied S(k+1) is true.

Exercise

Use mathematical induction to prove that for all positive integers n:

⋂(⋂+1)
1. 1+2+3+⋯+𝑛 = 2
⋂(⋂+1)(2𝑛+1)
2. 12+22+32+⋯+𝑛 2 = 6
𝑛(⋂+1) 2
3. 13+23+33+⋯+𝑛3 =( 2 )
Use mathematical induction to prove that for all positive integers n:

4. 5n+3 is divisible by 4
5. 34n−1 is divisible by 80
6. 4n−1 is divisible by 3

Use mathematical induction to prove the following statements for all-natural numbers 𝑛 ≥ 5:

7. 2n > 𝑛2
8. 4𝑛 < 2n
9. 1×2×3×…×(𝑛−1) > 2n