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Contents
Preface xvii
PA RT O N E Introduction: Basic Issues in Group Work 3
1 Introduction to Group Work: A Multicultural Perspective 5

Introduction 6
An Overview of Various Types of Groups 6
Task Groups 7
Psychoeducational Groups 7
Counseling Groups 9
Psychotherapy Groups 10
Brief Groups 11
A Multicultural Perspective on Group Work 12
Becoming a Culturally Skilled Group Counselor 15
A Starting Place: Understanding Your Own Culture 16
A Personal Perspective on Understanding Differences 17
Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies 18
Inviting Conversations About Culture With Group Members 21
Points to Remember 24
Introduction to Group Work: A Multicultural Perspective 24
Exercises 25
Questions for Discussion 25
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook 25
2 The Group Counselor 27

Introduction 28
The Group Counselor as a Person 28
Problems and Issues Facing Beginning Group Leaders 29
Personal Characteristics of the Effective Group Leader 30
The Group Counselor as a Professional 38
Overview of Group Leadership Skills 38
An Integrated View of Leadership Skills 45
The Coleadership Model 47
The Basis of Coleadership 47
Advantages of the Coleadership Model 49
Disadvantages of the Coleadership Model 50
vii
Developing a Research Orientation to Practice 51
Research on Common Factors 52
How Research Can Enhance Your Group Practice 53
The Challenge of Combining Research and Practice 54
The Group Counselor 55
Concepts and Guidelines for Group Practitioners 55
Exercises 55
Attitude Questionnaire on Group Leadership 55
3 Ethical and Legal Issues in Group Counseling 59

Introduction 60
Ethical Issues in Group Membership 62
Informed Consent 62
Involuntary Membership 63
Freedom to Withdraw From a Group 64
Psychological Risks for Members 65
Confidentiality 68
Educating Members About Confidentiality 69
Ethical and Legal Dimensions of Confidentiality 69
Multicultural Dimensions of Confidentiality 71
Confidentiality of Minors in Groups 72
Summary Guidelines Regarding Confidentiality 74
The Role of the Leader’s Values in the Group 74
Ethical Aspects of Working With Values 75
Dealing With Conflicts of Values 75
The Ethical Imperative of Addressing Diversity in Group Counseling 76
Values and Working With Diversity 77
Ethics and Standards of Preparation and Practice 78
Social Justice Approach to Group Counseling 79
Special Issues Pertaining to Sexual Orientation 81
Ethical Concerns in Using Group Techniques 83
Competence and Training of Group Counselors 84
Competence as an Ongoing Developmental Process 84
Professional Training Standards for Group Counselors 85
Adjuncts to a Training Program 86
Ethical Issues in Training Group Counselors 87
Guidelines for Ethical and Legal Practice 92
Legal Liability and Malpractice 92
Legal Safeguards for Group Practitioners 93
Ethical and Legal Issues in Group Counseling 95
Exercises 96
In-Class Activities 96
viii / CONTENTS
4 Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling 99
Introduction 100
Theory as a Roadmap 101
Our Theoretical Orientation 101
Developing Your Own Theory of Group Practice 106
Using Group Techniques Effectively 107
Rationale for Use of Techniques 108
Viewing a Group Through a Multicultural Lens 109
Relationship of Theories to Techniques 111
Psychodynamic Approaches 111
Psychoanalytic Approach 112
The Adlerian Approach 114
Experiential and Relationship-Oriented Approaches 117
The Existential Approach 118
The Person-Centered Approach 120
Gestalt Therapy 122
Psychodrama 124
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches 126
Behavior Therapy 127
Cognitive Therapy 129
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 132
Choice Theory/Reality Therapy 133
Postmodern Approaches 135
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy 136
Narrative Therapy 139
Motivational Interviewing 141
Feminist Therapy 142
An Integrative Approach 145
Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling 146
Exercises 147
PA RT T WO Group Process: Stages of Development 149
5 Forming a Group 151

Introduction 152
Developing a Proposal for a Group 153
Working Within the System 154
Attracting and Screening Members 155
Guidelines for Announcing a Group and Recruiting Group Members 155
Screening and Selection Procedures 156
CONTENTS / ix
Practical Considerations in Forming a Group 159
Group Composition 159
Group Size 160
Frequency and Duration of Meetings 160
Length of a Group 161
Place for Group Meetings 161
Open Versus Closed Groups 161
The Uses of a Pregroup Meeting 163
Research on the Value of Pregroup Preparation 163
Orientation and Preparation of Members
at a Pregroup Meeting 163
Clarifying Leader and Member Expectations 164
Goals of Pregroup Preparation 165
Establishing Basic Ground Rules 165
Building Evaluation Into Group Work 167
Coleader Issues on Forming a Group 168
Forming a Group 170
Member Functions 170
Leader Functions 170
Exercises 171
Group Planning 171
Discussion Questions 171
Interviewing 171
Group Class 172
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD
and Workbook 172
6 Initial Stage of a Group 175

Introduction 176
Group Characteristics at the Initial Stage 176
Some Early Concerns 176
Initial Hesitation and Cultural Considerations 177
Identifying and Exploring Common Fears
of Group Members 179
Hidden Agendas 180
Address Conflict Early 182
Self-Focus Versus Focus on Others 183
Here-and-Now Focus Versus There-and-Then Focus 184
Trust Versus Mistrust 185
Creating Trust: Leader and Member Roles 186
The Importance of Modeling 186
Attitudes and Actions Leading to Trust 189
Identifying and Clarifying Goals 193
General Goals for Group Members 194
Helping Members Define Personal Goals 195
x / CONTENTS
Group Process Concepts at the Initial Stage 196
Group Norms 196
Group Cohesion 199
Effective Therapeutic Relationships: Research Findings 202
Support Versus Confrontation 202
Guidelines for Creating Therapeutic Relationships With Members 203
Helping Members Get the Most From a Group Experience 204
Leader Guidelines for Members 205
Avoid Too Much Structuring and Teaching 209
Journal Writing as an Adjunct to Group Sessions 210
Homework During the Initial Stage 212
Leader Issues at the Initial Stage 212
Division of Responsibility 213
Degree of Structuring 214
Opening and Closing Group Sessions 215
Initial Stages of a Group 219
Initial Stage Characteristics 219
Exercises 220
Facilitation of Initial Stage of a Group 220
and Workbook 221
7 Transition Stage of a Group 223

Introduction 224
Characteristics of the Transition Stage 225
Establishing Trust 225
Defensiveness and Reluctant Behavior 227
A Critique of the Notion of Resistance 229
Common Fears and Anxieties Experienced by Members 231
Struggles With Control 235
Conflict 235
Confrontation 237
Challenges to the Group Leader 239
The Leader’s Reactions to Defensive Behaviors 240
Group Members Who Pose a Challenge for Leaders 241
Silence and Lack of Participation 243
Monopolistic Behavior 245
Storytelling 247
Questioning 248
Giving Advice 249
Dependency 250
Offering Pseudosupport 251
Hostile Behavior 251
Acting Superior 252
CONTENTS / xi
Socializing 253
Intellectualizing 254
Members Becoming Assistant Leaders 255
Dealing With Defensive Behavior Therapeutically 255
Dealing With Avoidance by the Whole Group 258
Dealing With Transference and Countertransference 261
Coleader Issues at the Transition Stage 267
Transition Stage of a Group 268
Transition Stage Characteristics 268
Exercises 269
Self-Assessment Scale for Group Members 269
Scenarios for Exploration 270
and Workbook 272
Evolution of a Group 272
Challenges Facing Group Leaders 272
8 Working Stage of a Group 275

Introduction 276
Progressing to the Working Stage 277
Leader Interventions in Working With
a Member’s Fear 279
Interventions at the Initial Stage 279
Interventions at the Transition Stage 280
Interventions at the Working Stage 281
Interventions in the Final Stage 282
Tasks of the Working Stage 282
Group Norms and Behavior 282
Contrasts Between a Working Group and
a Nonworking Group 283
Deepening Trust During the Working Stage 285
Choices to Be Made During the Working Stage 288
Homework During the Working Stage 291
Therapeutic Factors That Operate in a Group 291
Self-Disclosure and the Group Member 292
Self-Disclosure and the Group Leader 294
Feedback 297
Confrontation 299
Cohesion and Universality 300
Hope 302
Willingness to Risk and to Trust 302
Caring and Acceptance 303
xii / CONTENTS
Power 304
Catharsis 304
The Cognitive Component 305
Commitment to Change 306
Freedom to Experiment 307
Humor 307
Coleader Issues During the Working Stage 308
Topics for Coleader Meetings 309
Working Stage of a Group 310
Working Stage Characteristics 310
Member Tasks and Functions 311
Exercises 312
Assessment of the Working Stage 312
Member’s Weekly Evaluation of a Group 312
and Workbook 313
9 Final Stage of a Group 315

Introduction 316
Tasks of the Final Stage of a Group: Consolidation
of Learning 317
Termination of the Group Experience 318
Group Proposals Illustrate Ending of a Group 320
Dealing With Feelings of Separation 321
Comparing Early and Later Perceptions
in the Group 322
Dealing With Unfinished Business 323
Personal Gestures in Expressing the Meaning of a Group Experience 323
Reviewing the Group Experience 324
Practice for Behavioral Change 325
Carrying Learning Further 325
Giving and Receiving Feedback 326
Use of a Contract and Homework 327
Dealing With Setbacks 328
Guidelines for Applying Group Learning to Life 329
Reminding Members About Confidentiality 330
Evaluation of the Group Experience 330
Coleader Issues as the Group Ends 331
Follow-Up 332
Postgroup Sessions 332
Final Stage of a Group 334
Final Stage Characteristics 334
CONTENTS / xiii
Exercises 335
Final Stage of a Group 335
PA RT T H R E E Application of Group Process to Schools

and Community Agency Settings 339
10 Groups in School Settings 341

Introduction 342
Group Counseling in the School Setting 342
Guidelines for Group Work With Children and Adolescents 344
Developing a Sound Proposal 344
Legal Considerations 344
Practical Considerations 345
Strategies in the Group 346
Personal and Professional Qualifications 349
Getting Support for School Counseling Groups 350
Play Therapy in Group Work With Children and Adolescents 350
Group Proposals: A School Counseling Group for 6- to 11-Year-Olds 352
Group Proposals: A Group for Elementary School Children of Divorce
and Changing Families 356
Group Proposals: A Group for Children Who Have Been Abused 361
Developmental Themes of Adolescence 367
Sources of Stress During Adolescence 368
Developmental Group Counseling With Adolescents 368
Issues and Challenges in Leading Adolescent Groups 369
Establishing Trust 369
Know Your Comfort Zone With Self-Disclosure 370
Group Proposal: Teens Making a Change (T-MAC): A Group for Preventing
Teen Delinquency 371
Helping Adolescents Deal With Anger and Conflict 375
Group Proposal: A High School Anger Management Group 376
Groups in College Counseling Centers 378
Common Topics in College Groups 378
Some Groups for College Students 379
Groups in School Settings 380
Groups Designed for School Settings 380
Exercises 381
xiv / CONTENTS
11 Groups in Community Settings 383
Introduction 384
Group Work With Women 384
Group Proposal: A Women’s Support Group for Survivors of Incest 385
Group Work With Men 389
Group Proposal: A Men’s Group in a Community Agency 390
Group Treatment of Domestic Violence Offenders 393
Group Proposal: An Involuntary Domestic Violence Group 394
Group Treatment for People With Substance Use Disorders 396
Group Proposal: A Substance Use Disorder Treatment Group Using the Payoff
Matrix 398
Group Work With Older Adults 400
Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills of Leaders 400
Preparing Yourself to Work With Older Adults 401
Practical and Professional Considerations for Group Work
With Older Adults 402
Guidelines for the Group Process 402
Working With Healthy Aging People in Groups 404
Group Proposal: A Successful Aging Group 404
The Therapeutic Value of Grief Work in Groups 409
Group Proposal: An Older Adult Bereavement Group 411
Group Proposal: A Group Treatment Program for Institutionalized
Older Adults 417
Groups in Community Settings 421
Groups Designed for Community Settings 421
Exercises 421
References and Suggested Readings 423

Name Index 435
Subject Index 438
CONTENTS / xv
Critical Incidents
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 8
On the Outside, Looking In 166 Conflict with a Cultural Twist
T 287
CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 9
Should He Stay or Should An Uneventful Termination
T
He Go? 201 Session 319
CHAPTER 7
Overcorrecting for Fear
of Overidentifying 265
xvi / CONTENTS
Preface
This book outlines the basic issues and key concepts of group process and shows
how group leaders can apply these concepts in working with a variety of groups.
In many ways this is a “how-to” book, but it is also a book about the “why” of
group leadership.
When a new edition of one of our books appears, professors often ask, “What
is new about this edition?” The philosophy of group work in this book has been
consistent since our first edition in 1977. However, this tenth edition of Groups:
Process and Practice contains many subtle changes in our discussion of the topics
within each chapter, and many chapters have undergone considerable revision
with new material added. Our thinking has been refined through our group work
practice and teaching over the past 40 years (since the original edition), and we
have attempted to bring each new edition in line with current practices in the field.
Beginning with the eighth edition we added the contributions of coauthor
Cindy Corey, who brings her expertise in multicultural counseling to the prac-
tice of group work and to this book. Cindy has integrated current applications of
diversity to the practice of group work and has expanded on the topics presented
in earlier editions. Many reviewers, and the results survey by users of this book,
indicated that they value the practical aspect of Groups, and they suggested that
we add even more clinical examples to bring the topics of discussion to life. This
tenth edition contains many new and expanded examples with a focus on diver-
sity in group work.
What’s New in the Tenth Edition

of Groups: Process and Practice
For the tenth edition, each chapter has been carefully revised and updated to
present the current thinking and trends in practice. The following description of
the various parts of the book highlights material that has been added, updated,
expanded, or revised for the tenth edition.
In Part One we deal with the basic issues in group work; these themes are
addressed in the first four chapters:
• Chapter 1 (Introduction to Group Work: A Multicultural Perspective) presents
an overview of various types of groups, including an updated discussion of brief
groups, as well as our perspective on multicultural group work and becoming a
culturally skilled group practitioner, which contains some new material.
xvii
• Chapter 2 (The Group Counselor) addresses the group counselor as a person
and as a professional, and topics are illustrated with many examples. This
chapter addresses the skills of group leadership and the coleadership model.
There is new material on research trends in group work and ways that research
can enhance one’s group practice, with particular emphasis on common fac-
tors such as the therapeutic relationship.
• Chapter 3 (Ethical and Legal Issues in Group Counseling) has been revised to
conform to the 2014 ACA Ethics Code as applied to group work. The chapter
covers updated material on the ethical and legal aspects of group counseling,
as well as ethical issues in training group workers with the use of experiential
groups, assessing competence, and managing multiple roles and relationships
in teaching group counseling courses. Featured in this chapter are social justice
issues in group work and ethical concerns when using group techniques.
• Chapter 4 (Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling) highlights the
relationship between theory and technique and addresses topics such as
theory as a roadmap, using techniques effectively, and developing an inte-
grative approach to group practice. This chapter is organized by four general
theories: psychodynamic approaches, experiential and relationship-oriented
approaches, cognitive behavioral approaches, and postmodern approaches
to group counseling. Specific theoretical perspectives on the practice of
group work include psychoanalytic therapy, Adlerian therapy, existential
therapy, person-centered approach, Gestalt therapy, psychodrama, behav-
ior therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, rational emotive
behavior therapy, reality therapy, solution-focused brief therapy, narrative
therapy, motivational interviewing, feminist therapy, and multicultural per-
spectives. The motivational interviewing section is new to this edition. Also
included is a brief discussion of how to develop an integrative approach to
group counseling.
In Part Two separate chapters deal with group process issues for each phase in
the evolution of a group. These issues include designing a group and getting one
started, working effectively with a coleader at each stage of a group, member roles
and leader functions, problems that can occur at different times in a group, and
techniques and procedures for facilitating group process. In Chapters 5 through 9
we have included a consideration of how diversity influences both the process
and outcomes of groups, and new examples from a diversity perspective illustrate
key challenges for each of the stages in a group’s development. Special features in
Chapters 5 through 9 that are new to this edition include the following:
Critical Incidents illustrates a situation associated with a stage in the group.
The situation is briefly described, questions are raised, clinical reflections are
given, and possible interventions to address the incident are suggested. The
aim is to stimulate discussion in class on how to critically analyze the critical
incident. The primary goal of this activity is to provide a clinical context for
the material covered throughout the chapter.
Learning in Action presents activities integrated within the chapters that can
be used with the entire class, in small groups, or at home. These activities are
intended to have multiple uses in academic settings, and many are appropri-
ate to use in clinical settings with group members as well.
xviii / PREFACE
Journal Prompts are a way to further the professional and personal devel-
opment of the reader and may also be used with group members in a clinical
setting throughout various stages of a group.
• Chapter 5 (Forming a Group) demonstrates how important careful thought
and planning are in laying a solid foundation for any group. The factors we
emphasize include designing a proposal for a group, attracting members,
screening and selecting members, and the orientation process.
• Chapter 6 (Initial Stage of a Group) addresses specific group process concepts
during the early phase of a group’s development. There is a discussion of cul-
tural considerations, dealing with a hidden agenda, the role of leader self-dis-
closure, and ways to create trust early in a group.
• Chapter 7 (Transition Stage of a Group) offers a reframing and reconceptual-
ization of resistance and provides ideas related to understanding and work-
ing with difficult group behaviors therapeutically. There is more emphasis on
understanding and honoring clients’ resistance and new material on motiva-
tional interviewing as a way to address ambivalence and increase motivation
to change. We highlight the necessity of understanding how cultural factors
can account for behavioral manifestations that may appear to be problematic
behavior and consider conflict and confrontation from a cultural perspec-
tive. There are more examples of both leader behavior and member behav-
ior pertaining to dealing with mistrust in a group and how to increase trust.
An expanded discussion of the role of transference and countertransference
includes guidelines for dealing effectively with countertransference.
• Chapter 8 (Working Stage of a Group) includes an expanded discussion of
the therapeutic factors operating in a group. Factors given special attention
include member self-disclosure, guidelines for leader self-disclosure, feed-
back, confrontation, and group cohesion.
• Chapter 9 (Final Stage of a Group) entails a discussion on the tasks of ter-
minating a group experience. Increased emphasis is given to dealing with
emotional reactions pertaining to termination and to addressing unfinished
business in a group.
Part Two includes numerous examples that illustrate a variety of leader inter-
ventions in response to the problems often encountered in facilitating a group. We
tie in the theoretical approaches covered in Chapter 4 to the various topics in the
stages of a group. We also have linked the group proposals described in Chapters 10
and 11 to selected topics so readers can see practical examples of the concepts being
discussed. Each chapter in this section contains a summary of the characteristics
of the particular stage along with member functions and leader functions at each
stage of group development. The chapters conclude with several exercises that can
be done either at home or in the classroom. We have integrated citations to relevant
research when it was available, and we draw on our own experience in group work
for personal examples and share our perspectives on the topics we explore. We have
attempted to keep the reader-friendly writing style that students say they appreciate.
In Part Three we show how the basic concepts examined in Part Two can
be applied to specific types of groups in the schools and in community agency
settings. We offer guidelines for group leaders who want to design groups spe-
cifically for children, adolescents, adults, and older adults in different settings.
PREFACE / xix
The 12 group proposals focus on the unique needs of each kind of group and how
to meet those needs.
• Chapter 10 (Groups in School Settings) includes five group proposals for
children and adolescents. This chapter consolidates material from two
chapters in earlier editions and gives increased attention to the guidelines
for group work with children and adolescents.
• Chapter 11 (Groups in Community Settings) features seven group propos-
als for adult groups at various developmental stages and with particular life
issues. A new group proposal on treating people with substance use disorders
has been added.
This edition of Groups is aligned with the CACREP 2016 Standards for Group
Counseling and Group Work; all of the chapters address specific standards. We
have added learning objectives for all of the chapters, with specific attention given
to the CACREP standards identified for each chapter.
Groups: Process and Practice is intended for graduate and undergraduate stu-
dents majoring in psychology, sociology, counseling, clinical mental health counsel-
ing, social work, marriage and family therapy, education, and human services who
are taking courses in group counseling or group leadership. Others who may find
this book useful in their work are social workers, rehabilitation counselors, teach-
ers, pastoral counselors, correctional workers, and marriage and family therapists.
Ancillaries
We have developed a self-study DVD program and workbook combination titled
Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges that can be used as an integrated learn-
ing package with Groups: Process and Practice. This self-study program consists of
three parts. The first program, Evolution of a Group (2 hours) depicts central fea-
tures that illustrate the development of the group process and how the coleaders
facilitated that process as the group moved through the various stages: initial,
transition, working, and ending. The second program, Challenges for Group Leaders
(90 minutes) demonstrates ways to work therapeutically with a variety of diffi-
cult behaviors in groups and approaches to addressing diversity issues in group
counseling. The third program contains Lecturettes on Theories and Techniques of
Group Counseling (1 hour) by Jerry Corey. An overview of the various theories and
their application to techniques in group work are discussed here. The Workbook
that accompanies this video program includes key points and questions for
reflection on the lecturettes on theories and techniques of group counseling. The
videos and the workbook are designed to be an integrated package. This program
utilizes an interactive format and requires students to become active learners as
they study the group process in action.
Groups: Process and Practice comes with MindTap, an online learning solution
created to harness the power of technology to drive student success. This cloud-
based platform integrates a number of learning applications (“apps”) into an easy-
to-use and easy-to-access tool that supports a personalized learning experience.
MindTap combines student learning tools—readings, multimedia, activities, and
xx / PREFACE
assessments—into a singular Learning Path that guides students through the
course. This MindTap includes:
• Original videos modeling specific group counseling skills in simulated group
scenarios
• Self-assessments, reflection questions, discussion activities, and case studies
• Interactive Helper Studio video exercises
• Discussion questions and activities that allow students to collaborate with
their peers to develop solutions and responses in an online environment
• Chapter quizzes at the end of each chapter
• A glossary and flashcards of key terms and concepts
An Instructor’s Resource Manual for this tenth edition of Groups: Process and Prac-
tice is also available. It contains multiple-choice test items, essay exam questions,
questions for reflection and discussion, additional exercises and activities, guide-
lines for using the Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges program with this book,
reading suggestions for instructors in preparing classes, a survey of current practices
in teaching group counseling courses, power point lecture slides, and examples of
course outlines. We also describe our approach to workshops in training and super-
vising group leaders, which can be incorporated in many group courses.
Acknowledgments
The reviewers for this tenth edition have been instrumental in our decisions
regarding retaining or adding key elements. Approximately 16 professors com-
pleted a prerevision survey, providing useful feedback that we took into consid-
eration in doing this revision. Jude Austin (Old Dominion University) and Julius
Austin (Nicolls State University) served as expert reviewers for this edition. They
provided their clinical and multicultural expertise to the ideas and features in this
edition, class tested many of the new features of the book, and gave us feedback
that was incorporated into the final manuscript. In addition, they contributed sig-
nificantly to the video programs for the MindTap online program for this book.
Other faculty members who teach group counseling reviewed the revised
manuscript and provided many helpful suggestions for revision and gave us spe-
cific reactions to the new material in the various chapters, especially the critical
incidents, class activities, and journal prompts sections. Those who graciously vol-
unteered their time are:
Michelle Muratori, Johns Hopkins University
Julia Whisenhunt, University of West Georgia
Elizabeth Keller-Dupree, Northeastern State University, Oklahoma
Leigh DeLorenzi, Stetson University, Florida
Kristen Dickens, Georgia Southern University
Kristin Vincenzes, Lock Haven University, Pennsylvania
Paul Blisard, University of Arkansas
Mark E. Young, of the University of Central Florida, reviewed selected chapters
and invited his doctoral students to send us critical incidents they have encoun-
tered in their work as group facilitators. We appreciate the contributions of the
following doctoral students from University of Central Florida: Kristina Nelson,
PREFACE / xxi
Elizabeth Crunk, Naomi Wheeler, Coralis Solomon, Sam Bierbrauer, Shaywanna
Harris, and Christopher Belser.
The following reviewers provided us with feedback that improved this
revision:
Gwen Hellon, Sinclair Community College
Petrina Fowler, Kennesaw State University
Brandie Fitch, Ivey Tech Community College
Lesley Casarez, Angelo State University
Brian Bagwell, Metropolitan State University of Denver
Paula Heller Garland, The University of North Texas
Mary Mayorga, Texas A&M University, San Antonio
Stephen Kahoe, El Paso Community College
Thomas McElfresh, Sinclair Community College
Elizabeth Andrews, Thomas Nelson Community College
Debra Giaramita, CUNY: The College of Staten Island
John Kennedy, Trevecca Nazarene University
Song Lee, California State University, Fresno
Ray Hardee, Gardner-Webb University
Ben Beitin, Seton Hall University
Guest contributors provided us with group proposals in Part Three, describ-
ing groups they had designed. Our appreciation goes to the following people for
sharing a description of their groups: Lupe and Randy Alle-Corliss, Jamie Blud-
worth, Teresa Christensen, Kathy Elson, Alan Forrest, Paul Jacobson, Karen Kram
Laudenslager, Sheila Morris, and Jason Sonnier. It is our hope that their creative
group proposals inspire you to think of ways to design your own groups.
Finally, as is true of all our books, Groups: Process and Practice continues to
develop as a result of a team effort, which includes the combined efforts of sev-
eral people at Cengage Learning: Jon Goodspeed, Product Director; Julie Marti-
nez, Product Manager, Counseling, Social Work, & Human Services; Alexander
Hancock, Associate Content Developer, Sociology, Counseling, and Social Work;
Vernon Boes, Art Director; Jeanne Calabrese for her work on the interior design
and cover of this book; and Rita Jaramillo, Content Project Manager. Thanks to
Ben Kolstad of Cenveo Publisher Services, who coordinated the production of this
book. Special recognition goes to Kay Mikel, the manuscript editor of this edi-
tion, whose exceptional editorial talents continue to keep this book reader friendly.
Susan Cunningham updated the Instructor’s Resource Manual and other supple-
ments, created and revised test items to accompany this text, and prepared the
index. The efforts and dedication of all of these people have contributed to the
high quality of this edition.
Marianne Schneider Corey

Gerald Corey
Cindy Corey
xxii / PREFACE
Groups
process and practice
10e
PART ONE
Introduction: Basic Issues

in Group Work
The effort involved in setting up and leading groups is considerable, yet we believe this com-
mitment is essential in facilitating successful groups. Well-run groups provide members with
a place to give and receive feedback, to gain insight into their interpersonal dynamics, and to
address aspects of their lives they want to change. A colleague of ours once said, “Individuals
are wounded in relationships and can heal in relationships.” Oftentimes, however, the people
who have wounded us are not the people with whom we heal. Group counseling provides
a powerful place for healing. Participants can rewrite old scripts that no longer serve them
and practice new ways of being in relationship with others. A group can be either a force
for healing or a force for harm. Effective group leaders provide a safe place that encourages
members to participate fully and to take risks. Groups have much to offer, but designing and
facilitating groups in a variety of settings is a complex undertaking. In this book we offer
some blueprints for forming and conducting groups in a manner that will release the strivings
for health within individuals.
Part One addresses the fundamentals of group work and provides guidelines for begin-
ning your own work as a group leader. These chapters emphasize the importance of develop-
ing a personal style of group leadership and conceptualizing an approach to the practice of
group work. In our work as group leaders we actively facilitate the group, especially during
the beginning and ending phases. Most groups are time limited, and our interventions and
structuring are aimed at assisting members to fully use the group process to attain their
personal goals. During the initial stage we devote time to teaching members how to get the
most from a group experience. Toward the end of a group we assist members in conceptu-
alizing what they have learned so they can maximize their gains and apply new behaviors to
everyday life.
1
C H A P T E R
Introduction to Group
Work: A Multicultural
Perspective
Introduction
An Overview of Various Types of Groups
A Multicultural Perspective on Group Work
Becoming a Culturally Skilled Group Counselor
Points to Remember
Exercises
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook
C HA P T ER LE AR NI NG O B JE C T IV ES
1 Briefly introduce the major topics of group work
2 Describe the types of groups and other considerations that affect conducting
groups in varied settings (CACREP, 2016, Standard F)
3 Identify the key aspects of brief group therapy
4 Introduce some basic ideas of multicultural perspectives on group work
5 Discuss what is involved in becoming a culturally skilled group worker
6 Identify ethical and culturally relevant strategies for designing and facilitating
groups (CACREP, 2016, Standard G)
Y
ou are a college counselor working in the Educational Opportunity Program with
students on academic probation. Several themes are emerging as reasons students
tend to have difficulties with their academic performance. You have decided to form
a group that will meet each week to help these students succeed academically. What
kind of group will you provide—open group, closed group, short-term or long-term group,
support group, psychoeducational group, collaborative leadership, structured, unstructured—
how will you decide? Think about the problems a first-generation student might be facing
from a sociocultural perspective and outline the methods you think would be most effective in
addressing these issues in a group setting:
• What issues are these students facing, both internally and externally, at home and within
the educational institution?
• Which types of groups would have the greatest impact for these students?
• What strengths do you have as a counselor in working with this population?
• What areas of growth or training might you need to pursue?
LO1
Introduction
Groups are an excellent treatment choice for numerous intrapersonal and interper-
sonal issues and for helping people change. Counseling groups are being offered
in all kinds of settings today and for many different client groups. Most are short-
term groups designed for specific client populations rather than unstructured per-
sonal-growth groups. These groups are designed to remediate specific problems
or to prevent problems. Many of the problems that bring people to counseling
involve difficulties in forming or maintaining intimate relationships. People often
believe their problems are unique and that they have few options for making sig-
nificant life changes. They may be at a loss in knowing how to live well with the
ones they love. Groups provide a natural laboratory and a sense of community
that demonstrates to people that they are not alone and that there is hope for cre-
ating a different life. As you will see in the chapters that follow, part of the reason
groups are so powerful is because participants have the opportunity to try out
different strategies for resolving their long-term problems.
LO2
An Overview of Various Types of Groups

The broad purposes of a therapeutic group are to increase members’ knowledge
of themselves and others, to help members clarify the changes they most want to
make in their lives, to provide members with the tools they need to make these
changes, and to support their changes. By interacting with others in a trusting and
accepting environment, participants are given the opportunity to experiment with
novel behavior and to receive honest feedback from others concerning the effects
of their behavior. As a result, individuals learn how they affect others.
Different types of groups require different levels of leader competence and
training, but all group leaders must have some common basic competencies. It is
6 / PA
P RT ONE INTRODUCTION: BASIC ISSUES IN GROUP WORK
important to distinguish among group types and purposes, and to deliver those
services that the group leader lists in marketing the group, so that potential group
members know what kind of group they are considering joining. We identify
some different types of groups in the following sections, but there is consider-
able overlap among these groups. The Association for Specialists in Group Work
(ASGW, 2000) has identified a set of core competencies in general group work.
These standards make it clear that mastery of the basic knowledge and skills all
leaders need to possess does not qualify a group worker to independently practice
in any group work specialty. In addition to core competencies, group practitioners
must possess advanced competencies relevant to their specialty. The Association
for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW, 2000) has identified four areas of advanced
practice, referred to as specializations, which we consider next: (a) task groups, (b)
psychoeducational groups, (c) counseling groups, and (d) psychotherapy groups.
Task Groups
Task groups (or task facilitation groups) are common in many organizations and
agencies, and they include task forces, committees, planning groups, staff devel-
opment groups, treatment conferences, community organizations, social action
groups, discussion groups, study circles, learning groups, school groups, and other
similar groups. Task groups are common in community, business, and educational
settings. The task group specialist might develop skills in organizational assess-
ment, training, program development, consultation, and program evaluation. The
focus of these groups is on the application of group dynamics principles and pro-
cesses to improve practice and to foster accomplishment of identified work goals.
Both leaders and participants of task groups tend to want to get down to
business quickly, but focusing exclusively on the task at hand (content) can create
problems for the group. A leader’s failure to attend to here-and-now factors is
likely to result in a group that becomes riveted on content concerns and has little
appreciation for the role played by process issues in the success of a group. If
interpersonal issues within the group are ignored, cooperation and collaboration
will not develop, interpersonal issues may intensify, and it is unlikely that group
goals will be met. It is essential that group leaders recognize that process and rela-
tionships are central to meeting the goals in this type of group. One of the leader’s
tasks is to assist participants in understanding how attention to this interpersonal
climate directly relates to achieving the purpose and goals of the group. Learning
interpersonal skills for working on a team is enhanced when participants can prac-
tice these skills in a group setting (Falco & Bauman, 2014).
Psychoeducational Groups
The psychoeducational group specialist works with relatively well-functioning
group members who may have an information deficit in a certain area, such as
parenting or anger management skills. Psychoeducational groups focus on devel-
oping members’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral skills through a structured
set of procedures within and across group meetings. The goal is to provide mem-
bers with targeted education on a variety of psychological issues or informational
deficits. This group work specialization deals with imparting, discussing, and
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO GROUP WORK: A MULT

L ICULTURA
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LTURA L PERSPECTIVE / 7
integrating factual information. New information is incorporated through the use
of planned skill-building exercises. An example of a psychoeducational group is
a substance abuse prevention group. Intervention strategies based on psychoedu-
cational formats are increasingly being applied in health care settings (see Drum,
Becker, & Hess, 2011; McCarthy & Hart, 2011) and in relationship education with
couples (Carlson, Barden, Daire, & Greene, 2014).
Although the topics vary, psychoeducational groups share the goals of increas-
ing members’ awareness of a life problem and providing skills training to help
members cope with situations. These groups can be useful in enhancing or build-
ing on members’ existing skills. Generally, sessions are 2 hours each week for 4
to 15 weeks. However, some group sessions may be as short as 30 to 45 minutes,
especially with children, or for clients who have a shorter attention span or who
have only basic cognitive functioning.
Psychoeducational groups fit well into today’s managed health care scene
because they can be designed to be brief, cost-effective treatments. For similar
reasons, schools often use groups as the treatment of choice. These groups are
typically time limited and have narrow goals. They often focus on symptomatic
relief, teaching participants problem-solving strategies, and developing interper-
sonal skills that can accelerate personal changes.
Integrating counseling with psychoeducational interventions has been suc-
cessful in both social and academic development groups in school settings (Steen,
Henfield, & Booker, 2014). This combination of group counseling methods pro-
vides the opportunity to facilitate self-awareness and to present skills information.
Examples include communication and social skills groups, friendship groups, bul-
lying prevention groups, and groups for making decisions about careers. Psycho-
educational groups provide opportunities for students to learn new information
and skills, and group leaders frequently link members so they can see that others
share their concerns (Falco & Bauman, 2014).
At the beginning of a psychoeducational group, members often are asked to
complete a questionnaire on how well they are coping with the area of concern.
The work of these groups may include structured exercises, readings, homework
assignments, and contracts. When the group comes to an end, another question-
naire is completed to assess members’ progress. Psychoeducational groups are
useful for a broad range of problems, including stress management, substance
abuse and sobriety issues, interpersonal violence, anger management, and behav-
ioral problems. In a college setting, resident assistants (RAs) may benefit from
psychoeducational groups to help them gain the knowledge and skills needed to
problem solve with college students.
The emphasis on learning in psychoeducational groups provides members
with opportunities to acquire and refine social skills through behavioral rehearsal,
skills training, and cognitive exploration. The intervention strategies used in psy-
choeducational groups are largely based on the transmission of information basic
to making changes and teaching a process for bringing about these changes. The
leader’s main tasks are to provide instruction and to create a positive and safe cli-
mate that fosters learning (Drum et al., 2011). Chapter 10 and Chapter 11 illustrate
proposals for psychoeducational groups appropriate for schools and community
agencies.
8 / PA
Counseling Groups
The group worker who specializes in counseling groups helps participants resolve
the usual, yet often difficult, problems of living. Career, education, personal,
social, and developmental concerns are frequently addressed. This type of group
differs from a psychotherapy group in that it deals with conscious problems, is
not aimed at major personality changes, is generally oriented toward the reso-
lution of specific short-term issues, and is not concerned with treatment of the
more severe psychological and behavioral disorders. These groups are often found
in schools, college and university counseling centers, churches, and community
mental health clinics and agencies.
Counseling groups focus on interpersonal process and problem-solving strat-
egies that stress conscious thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Although the emphasis
is on conscious material, it is not uncommon for unconscious material to emerge.
The group leader needs to be prepared to deal with what emerges in a way that
is congruent with the purpose and goals of the group. Counseling groups may be
designed for prevention, development, or remediation purposes. They emphasize
interactive group process for those who may be experiencing transitional life prob-
lems, are at risk for developing personal or interpersonal problems, or who want
to enhance their relationships. A counseling group may help participants resolve
problems in living or dealing with developmental concerns. This kind of group
also uses interactive feedback and support methods in a here-and-now time frame.
The focus of the group often is determined by the members, who are basically
well-functioning individuals, and the group is characterized by a growth orien-
tation. Members of a counseling group are guided in understanding the interper-
sonal nature of their problems. With an emphasis on discovering inner resources
of personal strength and constructively dealing with barriers that are preventing
optimal development, members expand their interpersonal skills to better cope
with both current difficulties and future problems. These groups provide the sup-
port and the challenge necessary for honest self-exploration. Participants can ben-
efit from the feedback they receive from others by comparing the perceptions they
have of themselves with the perceptions others have of them, but ultimately mem-
bers must decide for themselves what they will do with this information.
Counseling groups range from those with an open structure, in which partici-
pants shape the direction of the group, to those characterized by a specific theme.
But they all share these goals:
• Helping people develop more positive attitudes and better interpersonal

skills
• Using the group process to facilitate behavior change
• Helping members transfer newly acquired skills and behavior learned in the
group to everyday life
The counselor’s job is to structure the activities of the group, to see that a
climate favorable to productive work is maintained, to facilitate members’ inter-
actions, to provide information that will help members see alternatives to their
modes of behavior, and to encourage members to translate their insights into con-
crete action plans. To a large extent, counseling group leaders carry out this role by

L ICULTURA
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teaching members about the group process and how they can involve themselves
in this process. This instruction includes understanding the norms that govern a
group, the level of cohesion in the group, how trust is generated, how reluctance is
manifested, how conflict emerges and can be dealt with, what forces bring about
healing, how to give and receive feedback, and the various stages in a group’s
development. Group leaders model appropriate group behavior and help mem-
bers establish personal goals that will provide direction for the group.
The counseling group becomes a microcosm of society, with a membership
that is diverse but that shares common problems. The group process provides a
sample of reality, with the struggles that people experience in the group resem-
bling conflicts in their daily life. Participants learn to respect differences in cultures
and values and discover that, on a deep level, they are more alike than different.
Although participants’ individual circumstances may differ, their pain and strug-
gles are universal.
Counseling groups can be designed for children, adolescents, adults, and
older people and are conducted in both school and community agency settings.
Chapter 10 illustrates counseling groups for children who have been abused, anger
management groups for high school students, and a variety of groups typically
offered in college and university counseling centers. Counseling groups offered
in community settings for specific client groups are organized to assist members
in developing coping skills for dealing with a specific problem area. Counseling
groups in school or college settings help students explore interpersonal problems,
promote positive behavior, improve social skills, obtain support from others, and
increase understanding of both self and others. In the college setting, these groups
are particularly beneficial for first-year students who may discuss transition or
identity issues. Bereavement groups assist people in expressing their grief and
making connections with others who are experiencing similar grief reactions.
Goals for bereavement groups in schools include normalizing the grief process,
helping students to better understand their feelings about their loss, and develop-
ing positive ways of coping with loss (Falco & Bauman, 2014).
Chapter 11 includes group proposals for a women’s support group for sur-
vivors of incest, a men’s group in a community agency, a group for interpersonal
violence offenders, a substance abuse group, a group for healthy older people,
a bereavement group, and a group for institutional older people. Some groups
blend features from both psychoeducational and counseling groups, such as a
men’s group. These groups are often structured around topics or themes designed
to assist members in exploring their personal concerns, yet the group also has an
educational purpose in that members learn information and can practice skills in
dealing with their concerns.
Psychotherapy Groups
The group worker who specializes in psychotherapy groups helps individual
group members remediate psychological problems and interpersonal problems of
living. Group members often have acute or chronic mental or emotional problems
that evidence marked distress, impairment in functioning, or both. Because the
depth and extent of the psychological disturbance is significant, the goal is to aid
10 / PA
each individual in reconstructing major personality dimensions. Exchanges among
members of a therapy group are viewed as instrumental in bringing about change.
This interaction provides a level of support, caring, confrontation, and other qual-
ities not found in individual therapy. Within the group context, members are able
to practice new social skills and to apply some of their new knowledge. A variety
of therapy groups can be found in community mental health agencies, including
groups for interpersonal violence offenders.
People generally participate in group psychotherapy in an attempt to alle-
viate specific symptoms or psychological problems such as depression, sexual
difficulties, eating disorders, anxiety, or psychosomatic disorders. A variety of
methods are employed in the conduct of therapy groups, including techniques
designed to symbolically reexperience earlier experiences and methods to work
with unconscious dynamics. The therapist is typically interested in creating a cli-
mate that fosters understanding and exploration of a problem area. The process of
working through psychological blocks rooted in past experiences often involves
exploring dreams, interpreting resistance, dealing with transference that emerges,
and helping members develop a new perspective on “unfinished business” with
significant others.
Brief Groups LO3

Brief group therapy (BGT) generally refers to groups that are time limited, have
a preset time for termination, have a process orientation, and are professionally
led. In a time-limited group, clear ground rules are critical, and leaders provide
structure for the group process (Shapiro, 2010). Many psychoeducational groups
and counseling groups incorporate the characteristics of brief treatment in their
groups.
The current increased interest in the various applications of BGT is largely due
to the economic benefits of this approach to group work (Shapiro, 2010) and to
research evidence pointing to the effectiveness and applicability of brief groups to
a wide range of client problems and diverse settings (Piper & Ogrodniczuk, 2004).
Brief group counseling is popular in both community agencies and school settings
because of the realistic time constraints and the ability of a brief format to be incor-
porated into both educational and therapeutic programs. Brief groups require the
group practitioner to set clear and realistic treatment goals with the members, to
establish a clear focus within the group structure, to maintain an active leadership
role, and to work within a limited time frame.
Most of the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of group counseling has
been based on studies of time-limited, closed groups; evidence from meta-analytic
studies strongly supports the value of these groups. In general, the evidence for
the efficacy of brief group therapy is quite positive (Shapiro, 2010). In their review
of the group literature, Fuhriman and Burlingame (1994) conclude that group ther-
apy (including BGT) consistently results in positive outcomes with a wide range of
client problems. Other reviews of the group literature lend a strong endorsement
to the efficacy and applicability of BGT as well (see Burlingame, MacKenzie, &
Strauss, 2004; Piper & Ogrodniczuk, 2004). BGT is often the treatment of choice
for specific problems such as clients with existential concerns, complicated grief

L ICULTURA
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reactions, medical illnesses, personality disorders, trauma reactions, or adjustment
problems (Piper & Ogrodniczuk, 2004).
Although the clinical benefits of brief group therapy are clear, this approach
does have some limitations. This approach should not be thought of as a panacea
or as a means of producing lasting personality change. To be effective, BGT leaders
must have training in both group process and brief therapy. BGT makes unique
demands on group practitioners and requires specialized skills (Piper & Ogrod-
niczuk, 2004).
LO4
A Multicultural Perspective on Group Work

Culture encompasses the values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of peo-
ple. But culture does not just delineate an ethnic or racial heritage; it also can refer
to groups identified by age, gender, sexual identity, religion, or socioeconomic sta-
tus. Culture is learned in groups such as families, and when individuals in a group
interact, they bring their cultural learning with them. You belong to a particular
cultural group (or groups), and so do your clients. Culture will influ-
ence the behavior of both you and your clients—with or without
Culture will influence your awareness.
the behavior of Each person approaches participation in a group from his or
both you and her own unique perspective. DeLucia-Waack (2010) emphasizes
the necessity of developing a set of tools and a way of being
your clients—with
with others that adequately respects, addresses, and explores
or without your these differences in a therapeutic setting. Increasing your knowl-
awareness. edge of your own cultural values and personal assumptions will
help you to work effectively with culturally diverse clients. This
kind of self-awareness is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
developing competence in multicultural group work. According to DeLu-
cia-Waack, culturally skilled group counselors need to (1) be aware of their own
personal values, attitudes, biases, assumptions, and prejudices; (2) have a general
knowledge about the ways the diverse backgrounds of members may affect the
group process; and (3) be able to implement interventions that are appropriate for
the life experiences of the members of the group.
It is important to discuss with group members how your worldview influences
your beliefs and practices about groups and group process. A culturally skilled
group leader engages in an ongoing process of self-reflection. Striving for compe-
tence involves examining your beliefs about how people learn and change from
both a cultural and a theoretical perspective. It is necessary to think about how
people from other cultures might view the group process differently. For example,
a goal of the counselor may be to have members offer challenging feedback to one
another. However, group members from a culture that perceives challenging feed-
back as a form of aggression or shaming may not be comfortable with this. The
leader does not have to discourage assertive communication, but any hesitation on
the part of members to use assertive communication should be examined to see if
this reluctance can be explained within a cultural context.
12 / PA
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Groups: Process and Practice 10th

Edition, (Ebook PDF)

PA RT O N E Introduction: Basic Issues in Group Work 3

1 Introduction to Group Work: A Multicultural Perspective 5

2 The Group Counselor 27

3 Ethical and Legal Issues in Group Counseling 59

PA RT T WO Group Process: Stages of Development 149

5 Forming a Group 151

6 Initial Stage of a Group 175

7 Transition Stage of a Group 223

8 Working Stage of a Group 275

9 Final Stage of a Group 315

PA RT T H R E E Application of Group Process to Schools

10 Groups in School Settings 341

References and Suggested Readings 423

What’s New in the Tenth Edition

Marianne Schneider Corey

Introduction: Basic Issues

An Overview of Various Types of Groups

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO GROUP WORK: A MULT

• Helping people develop more positive attitudes and better interpersonal

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO GROUP WORK: A MULT

Brief Groups LO3

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO GROUP WORK: A MULT

A Multicultural Perspective on Group Work

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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